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Improved Assessment Methods For Static and Fatigue Resistance of Old Metallic Railway Bridges
Improved Assessment Methods For Static and Fatigue Resistance of Old Metallic Railway Bridges
Improved Assessment Methods For Static and Fatigue Resistance of Old Metallic Railway Bridges
Full Title: IMPROVED ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR STATIC AND FATIGUE RESISTANCE
OF OLD METALLIC RAILWAY BRIDGES
Manuscript Classifications: 7.03120: (sub 7.031) Bridges; 7.03128: (sub 7.0312) Evaluation (Rating), Overloads
(Permits); 7.03129: (sub 7.0312) Inspection and Maintenance; 8.04010: (sub 8.04)
Structural Behavior; 3.01016: (sub 3.0101) Metals; 3.01050: (sub 3.01) Material
Properties; 4.03010: (sub 4.03) Elasticity; 4.03020: (sub 4.03) Fracture Mechanics;
4.03030: (sub 4.03) Inelastic Behavior; 4.05040: (sub 4.05) Failure Analysis; 8.02021:
(sub 8.0202) Steel Structures; 8.04011: (sub 8.0401) Elasticity & Inelasticity;
8.04012: (sub 8.0401) Plastic Analysis; 8.04060: (sub 8.04) Structure Failure; 8.05010:
(sub 8.05) Structural Computation; 8.05020: (sub 8.05) Structural Deformation Analysis
Keywords: Metallic bridges, Railways bridges, assessment, inspection, static analysis, fatigue
Abstract: A large number of the bridges in the European railway networks are metallic bridges.
The increasing volume of traffic and axle weight of trains mean that for many structures
the loads today are much higher than those envisaged when they were designed. This
paper presents a summary of the different recommendations and advices proposed in
"Guidelines for Load and Resistance Assessment of Existing European Railway
Bridges" of the European Union founded project "Sustainable bridges" for assessing
old metal railway bridges. The knowledge of the material properties of existing metal
bridges is essential for the resistance assessment and the determination of the
remaining lifetime of old metallic bridges. Furthermore, old bridges require more exact
and efficient assessment methods that call for a precise description of the material.
Among the problems met in metal bridges and material properties estimation, fatigue is
the most common cause of failure. To be able to make accurate assessments of
existing bridges, it is important to know the behaviour of bridges exposed to fatigue,
and how the old materials behave due to cyclic exposure. The main question answered
herein is how to make a safe estimation concerning the remaining life in service. The
possible traffic load on steel rail bridges is usually limited by the fatigue resistance, but
for certain situations the static resistance has also to be checked. Most design rules for
steel structures, for instance those in Eurocode 3, are applicable also to riveted
structures. However, some information is missing on how to deal with the special case
that elements are intermittently connected in contrast welded structures that are
connected continuously. As the traditional methods for assessing the resistance of
steel bridges are based on elastic analysis, a method for utilizing a limited redistribution
of bending moments based on beam theory is proposed.
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Affaire suivie par : Christian Cremona
Christian.Cremona@developpement-durable.gouv.fr
Tél. +33 (0)1 60 52 32 56 – Fax : +33 (0)1 60 52 83 56
Dear Editor
According to the editor's decision, the paper has been modified to fit the length of 10000 words.
The paper has been reduced to 10352 words and the authors hope that the 319 extra words would
be accepted as a tolerance.
In old truss bridges with rails on wooden sleepers which lie on rail bearers and cross girders (open
decks), fatigue problems will probably start in these elements, before having problems in the main
girders. The reason is that the short elements have to endure a greater number of stress cycles
than the elements with greater spans. For the small elements each axle load or boogie represents
a cycle of stress range but for the main girder it is only each train which gives a cycle of stress
range.
The knowledge of the material properties of existing metal bridges is essential for the resistance
assessment and the determination of the remaining lifetime of old metallic bridges. Built between
1870 and 1940, the material parameters are in many cases not available. Yet, especially the old
bridges require more exact and efficient assessment methods that call for a precise description of
the material. This is why a major part of this paper is focused on the material properties of old
metal bridges.
Among the problems met in metal bridges and material properties estimation, fatigue is the most
common cause of failure. To be able to make accurate assessments of existing bridges, it is
important to understand the structural behaviour of bridges exposed to fatigue, and how the old
materials behave due to cyclic exposure. The technique of riveting is no longer used in bridges due
to more developed methods of assembling plates as welding. Modern standards for design of steel
structures cover riveted structures but they do not give complete information. Old design standards
on the other hand are quite incomplete concerning instability phenomena and they are covering
elastic design only.
www.setra.developpement-durable.gouv.fr 110, rue de Paris – BP 214, 77487 Provins cedex – Tél : 33 (0)1 60 52 31 31 – Fax : 33 (0)1 60 52 31 69
For old metal bridges there is consequently missing information in codes how to deal with and
assess riveted structures. The “Guideline for Load and Resistance Assessment of European
Railway Bridges” of the EU founded project “Sustainable bridges” dedicates one chapter to the
assessment of these structures. The main question answered herein is how to make a safe
estimation concerning the remaining life in service. Influencing factors are also investigated, such
as corrosion, clamping force and material properties, etc. This paper synthesizes the principal
recommendations given in these guidelines.
The paper's co-authors and myself are hoping that this article will receive a positive judgement
from the reviewers.
Christian Cremona
www.setra.developpement-durable.gouv.fr
*Manuscript
Click here to download Manuscript: JBE12-3(SB)_v1.doc
3 C. Cremona
5 B. Eichler
7 B. Johansson, T. Larsson
10 KEYWORDS:
12
13 ABSTRACT:
14 A large number of the bridges in the European railway networks are metallic bridges.
15 The increasing volume of traffic and axle weight of trains mean that for many
16 structures the loads today are much higher than those envisaged when they were
20 bridges” for assessing old metal railway bridges. The knowledge of the material
21 properties of existing metal bridges is essential for the resistance assessment and
22 the determination of the remaining lifetime of old metallic bridges. Furthermore, old
23 bridges require more exact and efficient assessment methods that call for a precise
24 description of the material. Among the problems met in metal bridges and material
27 of bridges exposed to fatigue, and how the old materials behave due to cyclic
28 exposure. The main question answered herein is how to make a safe estimation
29 concerning the remaining life in service. The possible traffic load on steel rail bridges
30 is usually limited by the fatigue resistance, but for certain situations the static
31 resistance has also to be checked. Most design rules for steel structures, for instance
33 information is missing on how to deal with the special case that elements are
35 continuously. As the traditional methods for assessing the resistance of steel bridges
36 are based on elastic analysis, a method for utilizing a limited redistribution of bending
38
39 1. INTRODUCTION
40 The knowledge of the material properties of existing metal bridges is essential for the
41 resistance assessment and the determination of the remaining lifetime of old metallic
42 bridges. Built between 1870 and 1940, the material parameters are in many cases
43 not available. Yet, especially the old bridges require more exact and efficient
44 assessment methods that call for a precise description of the material. Among the
45 problems met in metal bridges and material properties estimation, fatigue is the most
48 standards for design of steel structures like Eurocode 3 [9] cover riveted structures
49 but they do not give complete information. Old design standards on the other hand
50 are quite incomplete concerning instability phenomena and they are covering elastic
51 design only.
52 For old metal bridges there is consequently missing information in codes how to deal
53 with and assess riveted structures. The “Guideline for Load and Resistance
56 [1]. The main question answered herein is how to make a safe estimation concerning
57 the remaining life in service. Influencing factors are also investigated, such as
58 corrosion, clamping force and material properties, etc. This paper synthesizes the
61 The spectrum of metallic bridges is very broad since they represent the largest family
62 of structures. They cover the full history of railway industry; they start from its
63 development until today. Consequently, this family of bridges includes very different
64 bridge types, geometries, structural designs, construction processes and material
65 properties. In contrast to road steel bridges most of the metallic railway bridges are
66 composed of old structures, with the very recent construction of composite structures
68 Assessment of an existing railway bridge with the purpose of re-qualifying the bridge
69 for increased loading and/or for prolonging the service life may be seen as an
70 adaptive, step-level process of refining the state of knowledge regarding the present
71 and the future state of the bridge and its behaviour [2-5]. An assessment may involve
75 based on the existing information (prior information) and the expected reduction of
76 the life cycle cost obtained on the basis of the additional information [4]. Depending
77 on the actually achieved knowledge (posterior information) it may or may not turn out
78 to be feasible to refine further the state of knowledge. Also, in the same manner, the
84 project [1] for the assessment of existing railway bridges. The proposed procedure is
85 divided into three levels: initial, intermediate and enhanced assessment. Generally,
86 an assessment can be carried out within the framework of these three phases.
87 However, the levels of detail within each phase may vary. In this way it is possible to
88 tailor a reassessment for different purposes. The level of detail of the assessment
89 has to be chosen for the particular bridge in cause considering its specifics.
92 assessment calculations, inspection records, etc.). On this basis, the extent to which
94 In the intermediate level of assessment, the capacity of the bridge (which fails the
95 initial assessment) is evaluated using more advanced analysis (e.g. elastic but giving
96 better idealisation, plastic, etc.) and more accurate data (obtained due to inspection
97 an simple tests) on the material properties, the loads, the current state and the
98 behaviour of the bridge (e.g. material properties obtained from simple measurement,
100 Finally, in the enhanced level of assessment, the capacity of the bridge (which fails
101 the intermediate assessment and which repair or strengthening costs are significant)
102 can be evaluated using most advanced assessment methods (e.g. reliability-based
103 assessment methods) and tools available (e.g. nonlinear analysis, probabilistic
105 The sensitivity analysis, performed during the assessment, may help to identify
106 where the refinement of the knowledge about the bridge may be the most beneficial
107 for the assessment of the bridge. The application of the above procedure to riveted
110 The assessment of old metal bridge performance must include an overall
111 conventional safety evaluation for all the joints and all the structural components
112 versus the actual operating conditions. The evaluation has the purpose to identify the
113 risks to predict in terms of stability, strength and fatigue, and to localize the hot spots
114 for which failure due to damages and undetected cracks could lead to bridge
115 collapse.
116 These investigations have to be based on a full set of drawings, highlighting all the
117 details of the structure, and all the parts which have been repaired or upgraded.
118 These elements must provide all the information necessary to handle at least a static
119 calculation. Experience shows that this basic knowledge is rarely available and
120 requires often a special investigation. Most of the documents do not exist, are
121 incomplete, or do not represent the actual structure! In parallel, it is very rare – if not,
122 never – to have a set of calculation reports or to have details regarding the material
123 properties. As a matter of fact, these old bridges oftentimes call for an enhanced
126 The hole drilling, the assembling techniques and the clamping force constitute
127 essential aspects of the construction process which can affect the strength and the
128 lifetime of old riveted structures. The assembling technique of riveting was to drive
129 a hot rivet through the parts that were to be connected. The magnitude of the
130 clamping force differs significantly between rivets. When replacing damage or
131 missing rivets in structures, high strength bolts can be used. A big advantage with
132 high strength bolts compared to rivets is that a defined clamping force can be
133 obtained due to pre-stressing of the bolts. However to use high strength bolts as a
134 replacement of rivets the fit of the bolts can be hard to achieve unless the holes are
135 reamed to fit the high strength bolts. In some cases, due to corrosion, plates can be
136 deformed and pre-stressing forces in the bolts can lead to a plate failure. Preloaded
137 bolts are useful as a substitute for rivets but this is not generally accepted. Some
138 managers prefer to use injected bolts with low pre-stressing force as alternative.
139 From the project investigations [6], it was found that the mean clamping stress was
140 100 MPa with a standard deviation of 40 MPa in the rivets. The amount of clamping
141 force obtained by rivets is much smaller than that of bolts but it seems still to be
142 enough to improve the fatigue endurance. Specimens with open holes generally
143 provide lower fatigue endurance than those with rivets or high strength bolts placed
144 in the holes. In the investigations, it was discovered a similar cracking pattern, cracks
145 originated from rivet holes and propagated through angles or plates (unless corroded
146 or damaged in other ways). This is explained by the fact that the hole acts as a stress
147 raiser.
149 The knowledge of the material properties of existing metal bridges is essential for the
150 resistance assessment and the determination of the remaining lifetime of the bridge.
151 For old metal bridges that were built between 1870 and 1940 in particular, the
152 material parameters are in many cases not available. For the resistance to static
153 loads, the yield strength ( f y ) and the ultimate strength ( fu ) are the significant
154 parameters. In order to ensure sufficient fatigue resistance, next to the classic fatigue
155 methods using damage accumulation further assessment models have been
156 established that are based on fracture mechanics. For fatigue assessment the fatigue
157 properties are needed. Fracture mechanical approaches, taking into account that
158 crack-like defects are very likely to be in the structure, use the fracture toughness as
160 ( K Ic ). Further crack growth parameters, e.g. threshold values for crack growth, may
163 are some made from wrought iron still in service. The knowledge concerning the
164 wrought iron bridges is not as extensive as for steel bridges. However, results
165 indicate that there is no obvious difference in the fatigue endurance between steel
168 The early metal bridges, until the end of the 19th century, were fabricated mostly of
169 wrought (puddle) iron, next to cast iron. Early mild steels succeeded cast and puddle
170 iron as structural material from approximately 1895. A more detailed identification
171 scheme taking into account typical characteristics concerning chemical compound,
173 Next to cast iron, which was implemented in compression elements as it showed
174 poor tensile strength properties, the highest attention to the mechanical properties
175 must be paid when dealing with wrought (puddle) iron. Due to the production process
176 these irons have a large amount of slags and inclusions, plus a great anisotropy.
177 Strength properties differ in all three directions of a plate and through-thickness
178 properties. Puddle iron does usually not fulfill the requirements of a steel S235
179 according EN 10025 [7]. Neither the yield strength is reached, nor is the strain
181 The later mild iron and mild steels were much improved in their strength properties.
182 Often the strength and also the deformation values, as the elongation can be
183 comparable to S235. Some care must be taken regarding the toughness values and
184 also the weldability due to the chemical content. Wrought iron was used between
185 1850 and about 1900, old steel from about 1890 to 1925, Thomas Steel till 1940.
186 Based on 667 specimens, the yield stress exhibits a large variation with a standard
187 deviation of 26 N/mm2. The mean value of the yield stress was 261 N/mm2.
188 220 N/mm2 can be taken for the characteristic value of the yield stress (probability of
191 The problem with fatigue attracted attention with the use of metal in structures. The
192 technique of riveting bridges is obsolete and not practiced today for steel structures.
193 Due to this, knowledge concerning riveted structures ability to withstand fatigue has
194 not been investigated to the same extent as for modern structures assembled by
195 welding. Clamping force, corrosion, hole preparation and material properties largely
196 influence fatigue performance. The information in this section is retrieved from [6].
197 Fatigue results on primary girders or stringers in bridges were investigated and
198 showed that the endurance for all tests (if severe corroded specimen are removed)
199 are over C = 71 N/mm2. For truss girders available tests show that the results are
201 Investigations concerning the constant amplitude limit (N > 5 106 cycles) and the
202 cut off limit (N > 1 108 cycles) are time consuming and expensive. Thus only a few
203 investigations have been conducted on low stress ranges at 40 to 60 MPa. In the
204 investigations with constant stress range no cracks were found for stresses below the
205 constant amplitude limit 52.3 MPa. From the evaluation of the full scale tests fatigue
206 endurance conducted with variable stress range, it appears that the level for no
207 fatigue accumulation (cut off limit) can be raised from 28.7 MPa to 40 MPa. A
208 constant stress range below 52.3 MPa does not provide cracking in components
209 according to the evaluated tests. This is only valid providing that there is no severe
210 corrosion or damage present on the structural components. The cut off limit of
211 40 MPa is reasonably verified for girders together with C=71. For trusses there is no
212 experimental evidence and as the detail category is C = 63 for trusses the cut off limit
213 cannot be extrapolated. On the basis of all known results, the S-N curve in Figure 2
214 is recommended:
216 Corrosion is a problem for metal structures. Unless treated with some kind of
217 protection, the resistance of structural details will decrease due to corrosion.
218 Concerning old metal bridges some degree of corrosion will always be present due to
219 the assembling technique with layered parts making corrosion protection hard to
221 The fatigue life will not be influenced in the same way if the corrosion damage is
222 located at the compressed flange rather at the tension flange. Especially corrosion
223 near rivets increases the local stress levels which lead to lower fatigue endurance.
224 The rough surfaces due to corrosion acts as a stress raiser which can cause the
225 growth of cracks, the amount of corrosion that can be allowed before it becomes a
226 larger stress raiser than the rivet holes can however not be established.
227 The loss of cross-sectional area can be measured either mechanically or with ultra
228 sound equipment. The reduced area is then used for a conventional verification of
230 The increased roughness may influence the fatigue resistance of the structure. Light,
231 general corrosion has no effect but severe corrosion with pitting may be negative if it
232 interacts with other stress risers. One such example is corroded plates with open
233 holes. The fatigue resistance may be reduced with one or two categories depending
234 on the severity of the corrosion. On the other hand there are several riveted girder
235 tests that do not show a negative response due to corrosion. The explanation is
236 probably that corrosion did not affect the material close to the rivet holes and hence
237 the effects of the corrosion and the hole did not interact.
239 On the basis of the different investigations and studies, when no specific data is
240 available, the following reference values can be chosen and used for preliminary
242 For wrought iron and old steels the following characteristic values may be adopted:
250 In transverse direction, the values for ultimate tensile strength, yield point and
251 ultimate elongation are decreasing strongly for wrought iron and only a little bit for old
253 - R = 1.20 for wrought iron (anisotropic material, lower ultimate elongation),
255 The following reference values for steel with Siemens-Martin process (since 1925)
263 These data is particularly important for initial assessment analysis. Since these old
264 bridges often call for an enhanced assessment, they require a precise description of
265 the material. For this reason, for intermediate assessment, it is often necessary to
266 identify the properties of the relevant material parameters by testing (in particular
269 crack to grow by the fatigue crack growth threshold. A crack can exist in a structural
270 member that is subjected to an alternating stress, and yet the crack will not exhibit
271 any measurable growth. If the stress intensity range K at the crack tip is below a
272 threshold value Kth , then the crack will likely remain dormant. Investigations and
273 studies tend to prove that this threshold level ranges from 3 to 11 MPa.m1/2.
274 Nevertheless, these values have to be considered with care because of the large
275 scatter.
277 Since the direct analysis of material properties is costly and implies a destruction of
278 parts of the structure it is only recommended where reference values or statistically
279 derived material models lead to a too conservative assessment. In many cases the
280 testing of the chemical analysis and the microstructure, information necessary for
281 identifying the material, may be sufficient. This section is related to intermediate
282 assessment.
283 It is recommended to limit any testing as far as possible and to material parameters
284 that may influence the assessment result in a great manner. Tests should only be
285 performed to gain the most important values, such as chemical analysis, mechanical
286 properties (yield strength and ultimate tensile strength), fracture toughness
287 ( Kmat (KIc ),Jmat (Jc ), Kth,T27J ). Testing of fatigue properties as well as fracture
288 mechanical threshold values ( Kth ) is expensive. In order to limit the amount of
291 extraction of cylindrical bore cores is suggested which allow the fabrication of several
292 small scale test specimens. The minimum diameter recommended is 60 mm, this
293 dimension is given mainly by the size of the tensile test specimens that need a
295 The circular core provides enough material to produce small scale test specimens for
296 a tensile test, a Charpy impact test, a fracture mechanical test and leaves material to
297 analyze the chemical components, hardness and microstructure. The Charpy test
298 and the fracture mechanical test should preferably be done on full thickness
299 specimens because the toughness properties may vary substantially over the
300 thickness. The material properties can be derived by small scale tests using a 60mm-
301 borehole as shown on Figure 3. For the extraction of samples cut-off-wheels or saws
302 are suitable. Welding torches are not recommended in order to avoid embrittling and
309 The analysis of the bridge condition provides an essential information regarding the
310 performance of the bridge. In particular, for metal bridges, reporting cracks and and
311 repairs provides valuable information. The number of rivets inspected overall in a
312 structure shall be at least of 5%, with a minimum of 5 [8]. Heads of driven rivets shall
313 be visually inspected and shall satisfy the following acceptance criteria (in some
315 a. The rivet heads shall be centred. The head eccentricity relative to the
316 shank axis shall not exceed 0.15 d0 where d0 is the hole diameter,
317 b. The rivet heads shall be well formed and shall not show cracks or pits,
318 c. The rivets shall be in satisfactory contact with the assembled parts both at
319 the outer surface of the plies and in the hole. No movement or vibration
320 shall be detected when the rivet head is lightly tapped with a hammer.
321 d. A small well-formed and centred lip may be accepted if only a small
323 e. Outer faces of plies free of indentation by the riveting machine may be
324 specified.
325 Inspection of satisfactory contact shall de done by lightly ringing the rivet head with a
326 hammer of 0.5 kg. The inspection is carried out in a sequential fashion according to
327 the sequential method for bolt tightening inspection described in [8] to a sufficient
328 number of rivets until either the acceptance or the refusal conditions for the relevant
329 sequential type are met for the relevant criteria. If it is necessary to replace a
330 defective rivet, it shall be done while the structure is not loaded. Cutting out shall be
333 during service life by corrosion. Rivets with defects that originate from fabrication
334 usually are not critical, because they have been in service since assembly without
335 any negative effects. Rivet defects induced by corrosion are of particular concern.
336 Typical fabrication defects of riveted connections are listed in [8]. The tolerable
337 deterioration of rivet heads is a main topic for condition assessment of old riveted
338 steel railway bridges. Possible results of rivet head corrosion are the loss of pre-
339 stress, the constitutional change of riveted connection, the loss of position
340 permanence and the gaping of plies followed by stress corrosion cracking. The visual
341 inspection of the rail bearers and cross girders is also very important. The bridge
342 inspector should be certified for this kind of inspections. Accessibility must eventually
345 A component of an old metal bridge can, due to previous damages or undetected
346 cracks, lead to brittle or ductile failures. These failure modes are affected by the
347 material properties, the temperature, the loading conditions and the shape of the
348 component. For metallic bridges, these two modes are pertinent, since the
349 assessment has to be done for low temperatures for which fracture toughness is
350 generally very low. This explains why the possible traffic load on metal railway
352 But, for certain situations the static resistance has to be checked. Most design rules
353 for steel structures, for instance those in Eurocode 3 [9], are applicable to riveted
354 structures. However, some information is missing on how to deal with the special
355 case that elements are intermittently connected in contrast to welded structures that
356 are connected continuously. One such issue is how to define the cross section class
357 of a riveted member. One question that is not covered is the distance between rivets
358 in the direction of stress. Another is to quantify the positive effect of restraint to local
360 The traditional method for assessing the resistance of steel bridges is based on
361 elastic analysis. In case the resistance in the ultimate limit state is insufficient it is
362 possible that allowing for plastic deformations gives a more favourable answer. Such
363 a situation may occur if one wants to allow one or a few exceptionally heavy trains
365 Fracture critical members represent the most sensitive parts in old metal bridges. It is
366 therefore essential to analysis the bridge behaviour in terms of failure consequences.
367 This helps to identify the most critical parts and to reduce the analysis to these hot
368 spots. This risk analysis will help to identify the failure consequences for the critical
369 bridge components for different calculation conditions and is required for
371 The critical components which are subjected to tensile stresses, must be checked,
372 except if they are subject to low stresses ( 0.20 fy ) or if they are sufficiently
373 redundant (Figure 4). The evaluation has to be done for different combinations of
375 Modern standards for design of steel structures like Eurocode 3 cover riveted
376 structures but they do not give complete information. Old design standards on the
377 other hand are quite incomplete concerning instability phenomena and they are
378 covering elastic design only. Eurocode 3-1-1 [9] can be taken as the starting point
379 and some additional information relevant for riveted structures will be developed. The
380 cross-section classes in Eurocode 3-1-1 [9] are essential in defining the resistance to
381 bending moment and axial compression. They are defined for rolled or welded
382 sections but those definitions are not sufficient for riveted girders. First the maximum
383 distance between rivets in the stress direction has to be defined. Further, there are
384 some beneficial effects of confinement of plates in certain cases. The traditional
385 method for assessing the resistance of steel bridges is based on elastic analysis.
386 This approach is appropriate for initial assessment analysis at ULS and for assessing
387 fatigue cycles. But for intermediate and enhanced assessment, if the resistance in
388 ULS is insufficient it is possible that allowing for plastic deformations gives a more
389 favourable answer. This is very obvious if the girders are stocky enough for using
390 plastic hinge analysis. This is rarely the case but also more slender girders have
391 some plastic deformation capacity, which can be utilised for a limited redistribution of
393 Cross-section classes are defined in Eurocode 3-1-1 [9] in order to describe the
394 behavior of a girder in bending or axial compression with respect to effects of local
395 buckling. The cross section class is governed by the slenderness of elements in
396 compression expressed as width over thickness. The thickness creates no problem
397 but the width is not defined in Eurocode 3 for typical riveted cross sections (Figure 5).
398 For an outstand flange of single angles as in the left part of Figure 5 it is reasonable
399 to apply the normal definition of width for an outstand flange in an I-girder, which is
400 from the free edge to the start of the fillet. The width of the web for the first and
401 second parts of Figure 5 is suggested to be taken as that clear width between the
402 angles, because the web is clamped between the angles. This is however not the
403 case for the truss chord in Figure 5 because it has an angle on one side only. For this
404 case it is suggested to use the center distance between the rivet rows as width. The
405 I-girder in the middle of Figure 5 has a flange plate which contains an outstand flange
406 and also an internal flange with the terminology from Eurocode 3. The definitions of
407 their width as taken from the center lines of rivet rows are slightly conservative. For
408 the condition that the plate only can buckle in one direction the rules for composite
409 plates from EC4-2 [12] are applicable. They are shown in Table 1 in which the
410 limitations for Class 2 and 3 are from EC4-1 [11] and the ones for Class 1 are
411 estimated values. t represents the thickness of the compression part while
412 235 / fy . As the rivets are discrete connections between the plates and angles
413 there is a need to check also the longitudinal distance between the rivets. A review of
414 old design rules has shown that the longitudinal distance is not likely to exceed 12
415 times the plate thickness. This will be sufficient for Class 1 sections. The definition of
417 In case the girder has all cross sections in class 1 normal plastic hinge analysis can
418 be used. In addition there is a requirement that the girder should remain elastic in
419 SLS. This check may be done considering residual moments after unloading from
420 ULS state. This checking is performed in initial assessment. If one or more cross
421 sections are in class 2, 3 or 4 the deformation capacity of the plastic hinges has to be
424 With this approach, it is assumed that a plastic hinge develops at the support and
425 that hinge retains a moment Mref for a rotation not exceeding an allowable value
426 ref .The choice of Mref can be any moment not exceeding MRd which is the design
428 applicable. Such a choice leads to a lower Mref and consequently to a higher rotation
429 capacity. Data is here given for Mref MRd by the formulae below as function of the
432 For Mref 0.9 MRd the formulas takes the following form:
10
433 0 3 2,6 f <63 mrad; f 3.8 5.9f ; 0 f 1.0 (2)
w
bf fy hw
434 where f and w . bf is the outstand of the flange as
18.6tf cr 28.4tw k
435 defined above, tf the thickness of the flange, hw the web depth, tw the web
436 thickness. f is the buckling coefficient for the web according to EC3-1-1 [9]. The
437 upper limit 0 of 63 mrad corresponds to the limit of Class 1. If that limit is reached
438 normal plastic hinge theory is applicable provided that the cross section in the span is
440 The rotation capacity given above is applicable if the girder is an I-girder, the rotation
441 takes place at an internal support, the girder has no significant fatigue cracks and
442 sufficient toughness not to suffer brittle fracture (some concern has been expressed
443 about wrought iron in this context), the shear force at the support is smaller than 80%
444 of the resistance, and the bottom flange is prevented from lateral torsional buckling.
445 The calculations can be done with a simple FE-program for elastic beam analysis
446 provided that it includes rotation springs with defined moment (hinge with friction).
447 The calculation is stopped if either 0 is reached at the support or the bending
448 resistance in the span is reached. If the computer program does not have this kind of
449 spring an alternative procedure can be used. Instead of inserting a spring a hinge
450 can be inserted close to the support under study and a fixed moment Mref is
451 introduced at each side of the hinge. The subsequent steps are the same as
452 previously but note that the rotation 0 is the sum of the rotations on both sides of
454 If the computer program can handle non-linear problem the analysis can be made in
455 one run. At the considered support a non-linear rotation spring with characteristics
456 according to Figure 6 is introduced. The unloading branch may be useful to include
457 especially if 0 is small. The slope of the unloading branch can be taken as
459 In this simple assessment approach, two load situations have to checked, one for
460 maximum hogging moment and one for maximum sagging moment. If the pier
461 section has undergone plastic rotation there will be residual moments after
462 unloading. These residual moments should be considered in the check for yielding at
463 SLS.
465 For initial assessment, fatigue life is evaluated by using Miner cumulative damage
466 law. Based on the Miner’s rule and Wöhler curves an equivalent stress range for
467 stress spectra can be derived. The equivalent stress spectra are obtained by:
m
n
n i
468 e max m i (3)
i 1 n max
469 for n ≤ 5x 106 with m = 3, taken from the set of reference values. Determination of the
470 remaining fatigue life of a structure exposed to a varied stress range can also be
471 obtained by calculating an equivalent stress range. The remaining life is then
472 determined by comparison of that stress to the valid Wöhler curve (detail category).
473 For intermediate assessment, enhanced methods beyond the conventional design
474 and assessment procedures as required in Eurocode 3 [9] for the resistance
475 assessment of old steel railway bridges must be introduced. As alternative methods
476 fracture mechanical models can be applied that allow a more detailed assessment
480 In both cases the fracture mechanics assessment can be performed in the same
481 way. It can be used for the determination of operating time intervals to prevent from
482 unforeseen fracture within the inspection interval, for a detected crack as well as in
484 If a visible initial crack length a0 is assumed or measured and if the critical crack
485 length acrit is determined, one can calculate the maximum permissible number of
486 load cycles for a steel member under a certain fatigue load. This maximum
487 permissible number of load cycles defines the period in which a crack growth under
488 fatigue loads starting with an initial crack length a0 to a critical length acrit . For that
489 the maximum permissible number of load cycles gives a hint on the residual service
490 life of the structure/member and on its resistance. One advantage of this procedure is
491 that the accumulated damage due to past traffic is satisfied by the assumption of the
493 After the calculation of maximum permissible number of load cycles two cases can
494 occur, depending if the maximum permissible number of load cycles is higher or
495 lower than the number of load cycles occurring between two inspections. In the first
496 case the structure / member has a proven sufficient resistance against crack initiation
497 and crack growth. However, in the second case the resistance is insufficient and
498 either the inspection interval must be decreased or the assessed structure/member
da
502 C K m (4)
dN
503 The material constants C and m for normal old steels can be taken from the
505 leads to a formula for the determination of the number of load cycles N in relation to
i crit
ai 1 ai
N
507
i 0 C
ai 1Y (ai 1,T ) ai Y (ai ,T )
(5)
508 The maximum permissible number of load cycles N can be determined by subtracting
509 the number of load cycles N0 related to the initial crack length a0 from the number of
510 load cycles Ncrit related to the critical crack length acrit. To simplify the fracture
511 mechanics calculation, tabulated values derived from Hensen's analysis [14], are
512 proposed. For the number of load cycles N based on crack growth calculations and
513 material properties, three different geometric models (plates under cyclic tension
514 loads with through cracks on each side, with a through crack only on one side and
515 with a through crack in the middle of the plate) are introduced. These models are
516 linked to a catalogue of typical riveted connections in old structures (for instance
517 Figure 7) for the assessment of angles. Similar catalogues also exist for web plates,
518 bottom flanges and U-profiles. Nine different cyclic stress level (10, 15, 20, 25,
519 30, 40, 50, 60, 80 N/mm²) are used and a modified geometrical correction function
520 Y (a,T ) derived from a function according to handbooks of stress intensity factors, is
521 considered. The initial crack size a0 underneath a rivet head is (if not measured
522 differently) assumed with a0 = radius of the rivet head + 5mm. The critical crack
523 length is the relevant result of both a fracture mechanical assessment, and of a
524 resistance assessment given by the residual cross section capacity of the damaged
525 component.
526 For the determination of the maximum permissible number of load cycles Nper on the
527 basis of tabulated values the following principally approach can be used:
530 2. Determination of the relevant cyclic stress level for the component.
531 3. Perform a crack growth calculation with equation (7) or chose of the relevant
533 4. Estimation of the plate width of the geometric model in relation to the
536 assumption.
537 6. Determination of the critical crack length acrit using by performing a fracture
538 mechanical assessment (criterion KI KIC , where KIC can be derived from
543 o the ratio of the maximum stress taken out of static calculation to
547 length a0 and the number of load cycles Ncrit related to the critical crack
548 length acrit using the relevant table, see also point 3.
549 8. The subtraction of the number of load cycles N0 from the number of load
550 cycles Ncrit leads to the maximum permissible number of load cycles Nper :
552 For advanced assessment analysis, a probabilistic analysis of fatigue damage can
554 statistical parameters for performing the reliability analysis, that is not always
556 lifetime according to the parameters variability. It is recalled that a fracture mechanics
557 model is required for this advanced assessment, the probabilistic calculations being
558 only introduced to handle parameters variability, but not model errors.
560 Stringer-to-floor beam connections (double angle connections) are designed to carry
561 shear forces alone. Nevertheless, they are subjected to secondary bending
562 moments, and the usual assumption is that they provide sufficient rotational flexibility
564 Ultimate Limit State, but moments have to be considered for fatigue assessment. It
565 requires Finite Element calculations in order to assess these secondary bending
566 moments [14]. Such an analysis is recommended for advanced assessment. This
567 improved assessment model can be also be pertinent when repairs have to be taken
568 into consideration. For advanced assessment, finite element calculations and
571 Load history analysis and load measurements can enhance the assessment
572 procedure. For intermediate analysis, load field measurements can be performed.
573 These measurements will help to identify precisely the traffic nature (freight,
574 passengers) and the loads. The provided data can be used for refining the structural
575 analysis and the fatigue assessment as far as they are representative of the
576 operating conditions over the bridge life (which is rarely the case, but it is the best
577 estimation of load spectra of the actual traffic). SB3.4 [8] provides further technical
579 If the remaining fatigue life from conventional calculations or insufficient strength
580 reserve have been obtained, field strain measurements should be performed.
581 Considerations include physical conditions of the critical members, reports from
582 previous inspections, and the cost of replacing or retrofitting the structure of the
583 critical members. The field measurement plan is developed if further evaluation is
584 considered to be beneficial and necessary for intermediate assessment. The plan
585 lists members selected to be instrumented, strain gages locations, sampling rates for
586 data collection and processing, and time length for measurement. The strain gages
587 must record the maximum cyclic loading effects at the concerned details, including
588 secondary stresses such as bending in axial members (for advanced assessment).
589 The test period should be sufficient for producing stress range histograms to
590 represent the loading effect for an extended time. A calibration test with vehicles of
591 known weight help to establish relationships between strain responses and vehicle
592 weight and location for all the gages. From the data, the effective stress range from a
593 truncated histogram (by eliminating truncation stress range) can be used for a
596 only provide information regarding the weak parts of the bridge. In particular,
597 dynamic testing will help to redefine support conditions and structural stiffness,
599 8. CONCLUSIONS
600 This paper is a result of the research and development project "Sustainable Bridges -
601 Assessment for Future Traffic Demands and Longer Lives" funded by the European
602 Commission (EC) within the Six Framework programme. It presents the general
603 recommendations and advices prescribed in the “Guidelines for Load and Resistance
604 Assessment of Existing European Railway Bridges” [1] of the “Sustainable bridges”
605 project, related to metallic bridges. More details can be downloaded from the project
606 website and can be found in the general guidelines and in SB3.4 [8] where
607 calculation procedures for necessary replacing rivets and strengthening measures
609 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
610 Authors would like to acknowledge the financial support received from the European
611 Commission during the four years of project duration. Furthermore, authors would
612 like to acknowledge all the partners involved in the project for the fruitful collaboration
613 and the engagement in making the step forward in the operation management of
615
616 REFERENCES
617 [1] SB-LRA, 2007. Guideline for Load and Resistance Assessment of European
620 www.sustainablebridges.net.
621 [2] BRIME, 2001: Guidelines for assessing load carrying capacity - Deliverable D10,
623 www.trl.co.uk/brime.
624 [3] COST345, 2004: Procedures required for assessing highway structures –
626 Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research – Action 345,
628 [4] JCSS, 2001: Probabilistic assessment of existing structures. Joint Committee of
630 [5] Schneider, J., 1997: Introduction to Safety and Reliability of Structures. IABSE,
631 Zurich.
632 [6] SB4.6, 2007: Improved Assessment Methods for Static and Fatigue Resistance of
633 Old Steel Railway Bridges. Background document D4.6. Prepared by Sustainable
635 [7] EN 10025, 2005, Hot rolled products of structural steels, European Commission,
637 [8] SB3.4, 2007. Condition assessment and inspection of steel railway bridges,
641 [9] EC3-1-1, 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part 1.1 General rules and
643 [10] EC3-1-5, 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part 1.5 Plated Structural
645 [11] EC 4-1, 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel concrete structures: Part 1
647 [12] EC 4-2, 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel concrete structures: Part 2
649 [13] Hensen W. (1992). Grundlagen für die Beurteilung der Weiterverwendung alter
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1000
net in N/mm²
100
m=3
c=71
52
m=5
29
10
6
1,0E+05 1,0E+06 2x10 5x106 1,0E+07 1,0E+08 1,0E+09
N [cycles]
Figure 2. Recommended S-N curve for wrought iron and old steel
1. Bore core 60mm
2. Fragmentation
in test specimens
Rest for
• chemical analysis
• microstructure
• hardness
3. Determination
Modified ½ CT- Charpy-V-notch Cylindrical tension
of material
test specimen test specimen specimen B 3x15
parameters
bf bf bi
bw
bw
bw
I-girder or
I-girder Truss chord
truss diagonal
0
Figure 6. Bending moment in a plastic hinge as function of plastic rotation of the
hinge
a T
a
T
Initial crack size a0 = (D+10)/2
Plate width T = C/2
D: diameter of rivet head
T
a
a
T
a T
Initial crack size a0 = (D+10)/2
Plate width T = (C+B)/2
D: diameter of rivet head
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