An Introduction to Polynomial Integration, 

the Natural Logarithm, and Arctangent

By

J. Wyldmann
Polynomial Integration

We will begin with a novice approach to smooth, polynomial integration. First we will 

define a conceptual perfect anti­derivative. We will then point out how to mechanically 

define the procedure, and explain some important facts. A reference will be provided for the

approach taken by mathematicians. Consider the algebraic notation of a perfect anti­

derivative:

∫ ( ∂ f∂(x)x ) ∂ x = (∫ ∂)f (x)( ∂∂ xx ) = 1⋅f (x )⋅1 = f (x) (1)

The opening symbol is a representation of the capital 'S', and stands for 'summation'. 

The partial differential we are using (tail­less cursive d) represents a conceptual 

'differential'. The analytic summation of a differential returns one to unity. The same 

applies for a ratio of like differentials. They cancel as unity. We are returned to the host 

function. Analytically, we now need this to be expressed as the appropriate finite/infinite 

series. We can then compute the answer to the limit of the machine.

Figure 1: The taking of an Integral.

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 It's curious that the analytic answer can be described as the 'measuring of an area 

under a curve'. Refer to Figure 1 for a detailed schematic of our area approximation. We 

then take the resolution of an infinite limit two different ways, and this process is 

presented below.

[ ]
N −1

N−1
x x
∑ f (n Nx )
lim N →∞ ∑ f (n
n=0
) = lim N →∞ x = f̄ x
n=0 N N N

N−1 x
x x
lim N →∞ ∑ f (n ) = ∫ f (x)∂ x (2)
n=0 N N 0

∫ f (x )∂ x = f̄ x
0

The first line expresses the average of the given function multiplied by the width of the domain.

Notice we have added a couple of symbols to our cursive figure in the last line. These represent the upper

and lower boundaries between which the area has been measured. They can also be referred to as the

domain limits. For an infinite integral, we take the limit where the domain begins and ends at negative

and positive infinity. Some functions provide utility under these conditions. For the analytic perfect anti-

derivative, we use the lower limit of 0 and the upper limit of 'variable of interest'. The following shows

the construction of the upper limit x.

N −1
x x
lim N →∞ ∑ f (n )
n=0 N N

x
lim N →∞ = ∂x
N (3)

x
(
lim N →∞ f (N−1)
N ) = lim f ((1− N1 ) x) = f (x )
N →∞

Now we will provide an exact definition for the evaluation of area. This will be verified by the

successful integrations that follow.

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 ∫ f (x )∂ x = g(x )

b (4)
b
∫ f (x) ∂ x = g (x)∣ = g (b)−g (a)
a
a

We will compute some simple areas on two, very basic geometric figures. The results will correlate with

the already computed derivatives of a polynomial, and a table will be used to infer some curious rules.

Refer to Figure 2 for the basic integrations.

Figure 2: Geometric analysis of a Constant and Linear Integral.

Table 1 has been provided below in cascading format. We notice that the integration of the value 0

will always produce a constant C (listed as a), not technically defined to be zero. In equations of physical

systems this 'integration constant' will often be required to set your analysis to the correct reference point.

For analytic math, this constant is often defined to be zero, and the perfect anti-derivative is used for all

computations.

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 ∫ f ( x)∂ x a ax ax 2 bx3 cx 4
2 3 4

f (x) 0 a ax bx 2 cx 3

∂f ( x) 0 0 a 2 bx 3 cx
2

∂x

Table 1: Derivatives and Integrals of single Polynomial Functions.

Our final comment on integration is that we have only defined the integration of a single function. It

can be shown that the integration of a summation of single functions is the summation of the integrations

of each term. However, products, quotients, and more advanced constructions do not have an obvious

means of resolution. We will not provide any here, and will refer the reader to any text covering

integrations for more information. Entire tables of integrations have been constructed over the centuries,

and the taking of advanced integrals is considered an advanced form of mathematics to the author of this

paper.

The Natural Logarithm

The Natural Logarithm is a function that will perfectly invert the Natural Exponent. The notation for

this procedure is as follows:

ln(e x ) = eln (x) = x (5)

Now, we have rooted our definition in a mechanical principle. It mechanically inverts a function we have

already defined. So, what happens next? Let's go ahead and use derivative mechanics to work out a more

analytic expression.

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 ∂ ln (e x ) = ∂ x
∂x ∂x

∂ ln (e x ) ∂ e x = 1
x
∂e ∂x

∂ ln (e x )e x = 1
∂e x

∂ ln (e x ) = 1
(6)
∂e x ex

∂ ln ( x ) = 1
∂x x
x
1
ln (x) = ∫ x ∂x
0

We now run into a fundamental problem: the function we wish to integrate happens to be

problematic (read singular) at the initial boundary condition of x = 0. Since I do not actually know what

my function is at this position, I will not attempt to solve the integral. The problem will be left open for

the reader to pursue at their own interest. Mathematicians know a lot about the Natural Logarithm. We

will use the mechanics later to decompose a not-initially-solvable problem into one we can produce a

solution on.

Arctangent

The arctangent function is the function that will perfectly invert one cycle of the tangent function.

As the sin, cosine, and tangent functions all cycle through the domain [0,2pi), we will only consider the

root cycle in this paper. The mechanical definition of the arctangent function will be given in pieces

below. Discussions on important steps in the procedure will be given to provide clarity.

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 y = arctan (x )

tan (arctan ( x)) = arctan ( tan( x)) = x

tan( y) = x
(7)
∂ tan( y ) = ∂ x = 1
∂x ∂x

We have opened with the basic definition of inversion, then used this to isolate x on the right side.

We immediately play the derivative game, but we have a problem. On the left side, we are asking for the

slope with respect to the variable x, but are being handed a function that computes off of y. It will not

know what slope to take (and would legally be forced to hand us 0!). To fix this, we play a game with

unity on the left side, rearrange our function, and then set ourselves up for a necessary integral.

∂y ∂
tan( y) = 1
∂ y ∂x

∂ y ∂ sin( y)
(
∂ x ∂ y cos( y)
= 1)
∂ y cos2 y +sin2 y
= 1
∂x cos 2 y

∂y
( 1+tan2 y ) = 1 (8)
∂x

∂y
(1+ x 2) = 1
∂x

∂y 1
=
∂x 1+x 2

x
1
y = ∫ 1+x 2
∂x
0

To solve this integral, we first play a game of equivalence with the given function. Once we have

turned this into an infinite polynomial series, the integration is straightforward, and an analytic expression

is obtained.
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 ∞
1 1
1+ x
2
=
1−(ix)
2
= ∑ ( ix )2 n 2 4
= 1−x + x −...
n=0

y = ∫ ( 1− x2 + x 4 −... ) ∂ x
0

x x x (9)
y = ∫ 1 ∂ x −∫ x2 ∂ x +∫ x 4 ∂ x−...
0 0 0

x3 x5 x7
y = arctan (x) = x− + − +...
3 5 7

Since we have developed an expression for arctangent, we can now play a simple game of inversion

to compute the value of pi. This is an important piece of mathematics for any novice to comprehend.

π = arctan (1) = 1− 1 + 1 − 1 + ...

4 3 5 7
(10)
1 1 1
π = 4 (1− + − +...) = 3.14159...
3 5 7

Thinking Outside the Box

We close this document with a simple mathematical request. This request can only be answered by

making use of the Natural Logarithm as it has been defined previously. Consider the following:

x ln (x) x
x = (e ) = e x ln(x)

∂M ∂M ∂
M = x ln( x); ∂ = ∂ =
∂x ∂x ∂M ∂x ∂M

∂ x x = ∂ e xln (x) = ∂ e M = ∂ M ∂ e M = e M ∂ M
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂M ∂x (11)

∂ M =1⋅ln( x)+ x⋅1 = ln( x)+1

∂x x

∂ x x = e x ln(x) (ln (x)+1) = x x ( ln(x)+1)

∂x

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References

Proofs from THE BOOK, Fourth Edition, 2010, Martin Aigner, Gunter M. Ziegler, page 44.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Second Edition, 1960, C. R. Wylie, Jr., page {555}.