Field Theory

Answer for 1st Set of Problems

GREEN FUNCTIONS
1. By ~y we denote the vector from the center of the sphere to the position of the charge q, and by ~r the point of
observation. The boundary condition are

Φ(a) = Φ(|~r| = ∞) = 0.

We determine the Green function obeying the boundary condition by using the method of electric images, i.e.,
we try to achieve the boundary condition by placing a second charge of magnitude q 0 at an appropriate position
at ~y 0 such that by superposition with the first charge q the boundary condition is satisfied. As will be shown by
the calculation, it is sufficient to use one image charge q 0 possessing, for symmetry reason, a position vector ~y 0
parallel to ~y . To determine the magnitude and position, we set up the common potential of both charges and
try to fulfil the boundary conditions. The potential of the two charges is

q q0
Φ(~r, ~y ) = + .
|~r − ~y | |~r − ~y 0 |

If ~n = ~r/|~r| and ~n0 = ~y /~y are unit vectors in ~r and ~y direction, respectively, then

q q0
Φ(~r, ~y ) = + .
|r~n − y~n | |r~n − y 0~n0 |
0

From this expression, by factoring out r or y 0 at the point r = a, we obtain the following relation:

q q0
Φ(|~r| = a, ~y ) = +
a ~n − ay ~n0  y 0 ~n0 −
   
a 
y0 ~
n
q q0
= q + q
y2 2y a2 2a
a 1+ a2 − a cos γ y0 1+ y 02 − y0 cos γ
= 0, (1)

according to the assumption. This equation is correct for all ~n · ~n0 = cos γ only if

q q0 y a
=− 0 and = + 0.
a y a y
Thus, the charge and the dimension of the image are

a a2
q0 = − q and y0 = .
y y

We can see that q 0 and y 0 approach zero if y becomes large, that is, the charge vanishes at infinity. Furthermore,
q and q 0 become opposite and equal when |y 0 − y| tends to zero. With these values for q 0 and y 0 , the potential
of the charge q of a grounded sphere is
 
1 a
Φ(~r, ~y ) = q  −   .
|~r − ~y | y  a22 ~y − ~r
y

This holds for the region external to the sphere, i.e., r ≥ a. Namely, this region is the charged volume V of
equation
r0 ) r, ~r0 )
Z I  
0 0 3 0 1 0 ∂Φ(~ 0 ∂G(~
Φ(~r) = ρ(~r )G(~r, ~r )d x + G(~r, ~r ) − Φ(~r ) da0 .
V 4π S ∂n0 ∂n0

1
 The surface of the sphere is the bounding surface S. Since according to our general considerations the solution
of the boundary value problem is unique, the solution found for the problem is the only one. The Green function
for this potential distribution is
1 a
G(~r, ~y ) = −  2 
|~r − ~y | y  a2 ~y − ~r
y
1 1
= p −q . (2)
r2 + y2 − 2ry cos γ a2 + r2 y2
− 2yr cos γ
a2

It may be checked easily that G(~a, ~y ) as well as G(~r, ~a) vanish as required. Furthermore, we have G(~r, ~y ) = G(~y , ~r)
as always.
2. Using the solution on the application of the Green’s theorem,

ρ(~x0 ) 3 0
Z I   
1 1 1 ∂Φ ∂ 1
Φ(~x) = d x + − Φ da0 ,
4π0 V R 4π S R ∂n0 ∂n0 R

where R is the radius of the sphere. For charge-free space, i.e., ρ(~x) = 0, the first term of the above equation
vanishes. Then
I  
1 1~ Φ
Φ(~x) = ∇x Φ · n̂ + 2 da0
0
0
4π S R R
I  
1 1 ~ 0 Φ
= − E · n̂ + 2 da0 ,
4π S R R

where n̂ is an outward pointing normal unit vector on the sphere, and we use the fact that
∂Φ ~ · n̂,
= ∇Φ
 ∂n
∂ 1 1
= − .
∂n R R2

Now by using the divergence theorem,

I   Z
1 1 ~ 0 1 ~ x0 · Ed
~ 3 x0
− E · n̂ da0 = − ∇
4π S R 4πR V
ρ(~x0 ) 3 0
Z
1
= − d x
4πR V 0
= 0.

Then we can get the relation as I

1
Φ(~x) = Φ(~x0 )da0 .
4πR2 S

Since 4πR2 is just the area of the sphere, this equation shows that the value of Φ(~x) is equal to the average of
Φ(~x0 ) over any sphere centered on ~x.
3. From the Green’s theorem for the potentials Φ and Φ0 ,

∂Φ0
Z I  
∂Φ
Φ∇2 Φ0 − Φ0 ∇2 Φ d3 x = − Φ0


Φ da.
V S ∂n ∂n

Using the relations such as

ρ ρ0
∇2 Φ = − and ∇2 Φ0 = − ,
0 0

2
 ∂Φ0
Z I  
0 0 3 0 ∂Φ
(ρΦ − ρ Φ) d x = 0 Φ −Φ da
V ∂n ∂n
IS  
= 0 ~ · n̂ − ΦE
Φ0 E ~ 0 · n̂ da.
S

With the Gauss’s law at the conducting surface,

0
~ · n̂ = − σ and E
E ~ 0 · n̂ = − σ .
0 0
Thus
Z I
0 0
(ρΦ − ρ Φ) d x = 3
(σ 0 Φ − σΦ0 ) da
V S
Z I Z I
... ρΦ0 d3 x + σΦ0 da = ρ0 Φd3 x + σ 0 Φda.
V S V S

SPHERICAL HARMONICS
1. First we show the orthogonality of the Legendre polynomials form. Pl (x) satisfy the differential equation
 
d 2 dPl
(1 − x ) + l(l + 1)Pl = 0.
dx dx

Multiplying by Pl0 (x) and then integrating over the interval,

Z 1    
d 2 dPl
Pl0 (x) (1 − x ) + l(l + 1)Pl (x) dx = 0.
−1 dx dx
Integrating the first term by parts, we obtain
Z 1 
dPl dPl0
(x2 − 1) + l(l + 1)Pl0 (x)Pl (x) dx = 0.
−1 dx dx

If we now write down this equation with l and l0 interchanged and subtract it from the above equation, the
results is the orthogonality condition as
Z 1
0 0
[l(l + 1) − l (l + 1)] Pl0 (x)Pl (x)dx = 0.
−1

With Rodrigues’ formula,

1 1
dl 2 dl
Z Z
2 1
Nl ≡ [Pl (x)] dx = (x − 1)l l (x2 − 1)l dx.
−1 22l (l!)2 −1 dx l dx
Integration by parts l times yields the result as
1
(−1)l d2l 2
Z
Nl = (x2 − 1)l (x − 1)l dx.
22l (l!)2 −1 dx2l

The differentiation 2l times of (x2 − 1)l yields the constant (2l)!, so that
Z 1
(2l)!
Nl = 2l 2 (1 − x2 )l dx.
2 (l!) −1
The remaining integral can be done by brute force, but also by induction. We write the integrand as
x d
(1 − x2 )l = (1 − x2 )(1 − x2 )l−1 = (1 − x2 )l−1 + (1 − x2 )l .
2l dx

3
 Thus we have   1
2l − 1 (2l − 1)!
Z
xd (1 − x2 )l .
 
Nl = Nl−1 + 2l 2
2l 2 (l!) −1

Integration by parts in the last integral yields

 
2l − 1 1
Nl = Nl−1 − Nl
2l 2l
or
(2l + 1)Nl = (2l − 1)Nl−1 .
This shows that (2l + 1)Nl is independent of l. For l = 0, with P0 (x) = 1, we have N0 = 2. Thus Nl = 2/(2l + 1)
and the orthogonality condition can be written as
Z 1
2
Pl0 (x)Pl (x)dx = δl 0 l .
−1 2l + 1

Next we show the completeness of the Legendre polynomials form. Now we define Ul (x) as
r
2l + 1
Ul (x) = Pl (x),
2
then Ul (x) is the orthonormal functions. With a series of the orthonomal functions, an arbitrary function f (x)
can be expanded as
∞
X
f (x) = al Ul (x),
l=0

where the coefficients al are given by Z 1

al = Ul∗ (x)f (x)dx.
−1

The above expansion can be rewritten with the explicit form of the coefficients al as
Z 1 (X∞
)
f (x) = Ul∗ (x0 )Ul (x) f (x0 )dx0 .
−1 l=0

Since this represents any function f (x) on the interval (−1, 1), it is clear that the sum of bilinear terms
Ul∗ (x0 )Ul (x) must exist only in the neighborhood of x0 = x. In fact it must be true that
∞
X
Ul∗ (x0 )Ul (x) = δ(x0 − x).
l=0

Thus we can say the completeness for the Legendre polynomials form as
∞
X
(2l + 1)Pl (x0 )Pl (x) = 2δ(x0 − x).
l=0

2. Since the Legendre polynomials form a complete set of orthogonal functions, in general any function f (x) on the
interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 can be expanded in termes of them, such as
∞
X
f (x) = Al Pl (x),
l=0

where Z 1
2l + 1
Al = f (x)Pl (x)dx.
2 −1

4
 So with given function f (x),
Z 1 Z 0 
2l + 1
Al = Pl (x)dx − Pl (x)dx .
2 0 −1

Since Pl (x) is odd (even) about x = 0 if l is odd (even), only the odd l coefficients are different from zero. Thus,
for l odd, Z 1
Al = (2l + 1) Pl (x)dx.
0
Now by means of Rodrigues’ formula, the integral can be evaluated, such as
 (l−1)/2
1 (2l + 1)(l − 2)!!
Al = − .
2 l+1


2 2 !

Thus the series for f (x) can be described as

3 7 11
f (x) = P1 (x) − P3 (x) + P5 (x) − · · · .
2 8 16

3. To prove this theorem we consider the vector ~x0 as fixed in space. Then Pl (cos γ) is a function of the angles
(θ, φ) with the angles (θ0 , φ0 ) as parameters, where cos γ = cos θ cos θ0 + sin θ sin θ0 cos(φ − φ0 ). With spherical
hamonics, we can expand Pl (cos γ) as
0
∞
X l
X
Pl (cos γ) = Al0 m (θ0 , φ0 )Yl0 m (θ, φ).
l0 =0 m=−l0

Comparison with the addition theorem shows that only terms with l0 = l appear. To see why this is so, note
that if coordinate axes are chosen so that ~x0 is on the z axis, then γ becomes the usual polar angle and Pl (cos γ)
satisfies the equation
l(l + 1)
∇02 Pl (cos γ) + Pl (cos γ) = 0, (3)
r2
where ∇02 is the Laplacian referred to these new axes. If the axes are now rotated to the position of (θ0 , φ0 ),
∇02 = ∇2 and r is uncharged. Consequently Pl (cos γ) still satisfies an equation of the form (??), i.e., it is a
spherical harmonic of order l. This means that it is a linear combination of Ylm ’s of that order only:
l
X
Pl (cos γ) = Am (θ0 , φ0 )Ylm (θ, φ).
m=−l

The coefficients Am (θ0 , φ0 ) are given by

Z
Am (θ0 , φ0 ) = ∗
Ylm (θ, φ)Pl (cos γ)dΩ.

To evaluate
p this coefficient we note that it may be viewed as the m0 = 0 coefficient in an expansion of the
∗
function 4π/(2l + 1)Ylm (θ, φ) in a series of Ylm0 (γ, β) referred to the primed axis of (??). Since only one l
value is present, it is then found that coefficient Am (θ0 , φ0 ) is
4π
Am (θ0 , φ0 ) = {Y ∗ [θ(γ, β), φ(γ, β)]}γ=0 .
2l + 1 lm
In the limit γ → 0, the angle (θ, φ) as functions of (γ, β), go over into (θ0 , φ0 ). Thus the addition theorem is
proved.

5
4. (a) We can write the potential as  
q 1 1
Φ(~x) = − ,
4π0 |~x − ~a| |~x + ~a|
where ~a = aẑ points from the origin to the positive charge. Using the spherical harmonic expansion
l
1 X 1 r<
= 4π Y ∗ (θ0 , φ0 )Ylm (θ, φ),
0
|~x − ~x | 2l + 1 r> lm
l+1
l,m
l
q X 1 r< ∗
Φ(~x) = l+1
[Ylm (0, φ0 ) − Ylm
∗
(π, φ0 )] Ylm (θ, φ).
0 2l + 1 r>
l,m
Since the potential is axisymmetric due to the positions of charge, we see that only terms with m = 0
contribute. Since r
∗ 0 l ∗ 0 2l + 1
Yl0 (0, φ ) = (−1) Yl0 (π, φ ) = ,
4π
r
l
q X 1 r< 2l + 1 
1 − (−1)l Yl0 (θ, φ)

Φ(~x) = l+1
0 2l + 1 r> 4π
l
∞ l 
r
q X r< l
 4π
= l+1
1 − (−1) Yl0 (θ, φ)
4π0 r> 2l + 1
l=0
l
q X r<
= Pl (cos θ).
2π0 rl+1
l=odd >

(b) Since we will take a → 0, we can set that r< = a and r> = r. This yields that
q X al
Φ(~x) = Pl (cos θ)
2π0 rl+1
l=odd
∞ 
qa X a 2k
= P2k+1 (cos θ).
2π0 r2 r
k=0

Setting qa = p/2 and taking a → 0, only the term with k = 0 survives in the sun. That is
p p cos θ
Φ(~x) = 2
P1 (cos θ) = .
4π0 r 4π0 r2
(c) Since the electric dipole is the particular solution, which is put as Φp , and Φ0 is the homogeneous solution,
which is solution to Laplace’s equation, the general inside solution can be written as
Φ(~x) = Φp + Φ 0
p cos θ X
= + Al rl Pl (cos θ).
4π0 r2
l

The boundary condition for this solution should be imposed that Φ = 0 at |~x| = b, which is
p cos θ X
+ Al bl Pl (cos θ) = 0.
4π0 b2
l

Thus the coefficients Al is determined as

Al = 0 for l 6= 1,
p
A1 = − .
4π0 b3
At last we can find the general inside solution as
 
p 1 r
Φ(~x) = 2
− 3 cos θ.
4π0 r b

6
MULTIPOLE EXPANSION
1. The quadrupole moment tensor is given by
Z
Qij = (3x0i x0j − r02 δij )ρ(~x0 )d3 x0 ,

where ρ is a charge density. Thus

X Z Z Z
Qii = (3x02 − r02 )ρ(~x0 )d3 x0 + (3y 02 − r02 )ρ(~x0 )d3 x0 + (3z 02 − r02 )ρ(~x0 )d3 x0
i
Z
 02
3(x + y 02 + z 02 ) − 3r02 ρ(~x0 )d3 x0

=
= 0.

2. The answer was shown in the lecture.

3. (a) The multipole moments are given by
Z
∗
qlm = ρ(~x)rl Ylm (θ, φ)d3 x
X
∗
= qi rl Ylm (θi , φi )
i
 π  π π π   
∗
l ∗ ∗ ∗ π 3π
= qa Ylm , 0 + Ylm , − Ylm , π − Ylm ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
s
2l + 1 (l − m)! m
= qal P (0) [1 + (−i)m − (−i)m − im ] .
4π (l + m)! l

Thus for even m qlm = 0 and for odd m, such as m = 2k + 1,

s
l 2l + 1 (l − m)! m 
Pl (0) 1 − i(−1)k

qlm = 2qa
4π (l + m)!
π  
= 2qal Yl,2k+1 , 0 1 − i(−1)k .

2
(b) Similarly the multipole moments are given by
Z
∗
qlm = ρ(~x)rl Ylm (θ, φ)d3 x
∗ ∗
= qal [Ylm (0, 0) + Ylm (π, 0)]
∗ ∗
Thus if m 6= 0, qlm = 0 because Ylm (0, 0) = Ylm (π, 0) = 0. Additionally for m = 0
r
2l + 1
ql0 = qal [Pl (1) + Pl (−1)]
4π
r
2l + 1 
= qal 1 + (−1)l .

4π
Thus the multipole moments are

qlm = 0 for m 6= 0,
ql0 = 0 for odd l,
r
2l + 1
ql0 = qal for even l.
π

7
(c) The expansion of the potential is
∞ l
1 X X 4π Ylm (θ, φ)
Φ(~x) = qlm
4π0 2l + 1 rl+1
l=0 m=−l
r
1 X qal 2l + 1 Yl0 (θ, φ)
=
0 2l + 1 π rl+1
l=2,4,···

q X al
= Pl (cos θ)
2π0 rl+1
l=2,4,···
 2 
q a 2
= (3 cos θ − 1) + · · · .
2π0 2r3

Since on the x − y plane θ = π/2,

a2
 
q
Φ(~x) = − 3 + ···
2π0 2r
q  a 3
' − + ···.
4π0 a r

Thus the potential on the x − y plane is described as Figure ??, where α = q/4π0 a and a is put to be 1.

Figure 1: the potential for (c) on the x − y plane

(d) Using the Coulomb’s law the exact potential are

 
q 1 2 1
Φ(~x) = √ − +√
4π0 r 2 + a2 r r2 + a2
 
q 1 1
= − −√
2π0 r r2 + a2
" #
q a 1
= − ·2 −p .
4π0 a r 1 + (r/a)2

Thus the potential on the x − y plane is described as Figure ?? with a = 1, and Figure ?? shows the rate
of the potential for (d) to the potential for (c). From Figure ??, we can find the asymptotic value of the
rate is 1.

8
 Figure 2: the potential for (d) on the x − y plane

Figure 3: Rate of Φ(d) /Φ(c)

4. If we use the given effective charge density ρeff in the general formula for potential,
ρ(~x0 ) 3 0
Z
1
Φ(~x) = d x
4π0 |~x − ~x0 |
1
Z h i 3 0
= − ~ x0 δ(~x0 − ~x0 ) d x
p~(~x0 ) · ∇
4π0 |~x − ~x0 |
Z  
1 0 0 ~ 1
= δ(~x − ~x0 )~ p(~x ) · ∇x 0 d3 x0
4π0 |~x − ~x0 |
  
1 0 ~ 1
= p~(~x ) · ∇x 0
4π0 |~x − ~x0 | ~x0 =~x0
~x − ~x0
 
1 0
= p~(~x ) ·
4π0 |~x − ~x0 |3 ~x0 =~x0
1 p~(~x0 ) · (~x − ~x0 )
= ,
4π0 |~x − ~x0 |3
where we use the specific character for delta function, such as the derivative of a delta function serves to pick
out derivatives of the function that it is multiplied against. Then the last expression is the expected potential
for a dipole.
Similaly, if we use the effective charge density ρeff in the general formula for energy,
Z
W = ρ(~x)Φ(~x)d3 x
Z h i
= − ~ x − ~x0 ) Φ(~x)d3 x
p~(~x) · ∇δ(~

9
 Z
= δ(~x − ~x0 )~ ~ x)d3 x,
p(~x) · ∇Φ(~
~ x0 ).
= p~(~x0 ) · ∇Φ(~

~ = −∇Φ,
By using the definition of the electric field, such as E ~

W = −~ ~ x0 ).
p(~x0 ) · E(~

This is the expected energy for a dipole.

5. (a) Since the given charge distribution is axisymmetric, only m = 0 moments will be non-vanishing. Additionally
we use the following relation such as
2
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ = [P0 (cos θ) − P2 (cos θ)] ,
3
then the multipole moments are given by
Z
ql0 = ρ(~x)rl Yl0∗ (θ, φ)d3 x
Z
= ρ(r, θ)rl Yl0∗ (θ, φ)r2 drdφd(cos θ)
Z
= 2π ρ(r, θ)rl+2 Yl0∗ (θ, φ)drd(cos θ)

2π 2 2l + 1 ∞ l+4 −r
r Z Z 1
= r e dr Pl (cos θ) [P0 (cos θ) − P2 (cos θ)] d(cos θ).
64π 3 4π 0 −1

Now we use the difinition of the Gamma function and the orthogonality for the Legendre functions, then
the above multipole moments are
r  
1 2l + 1 2
ql0 = Γ(l + 5) 2δ0l − δ2l .
48 4π 5

As a result, non-vanishing multipole moments are given by l = 0 and l = 2, such as

r r
1 5
q00 = , q20 = −6 ,
4π 4π
where we use the relation as Γ(n) = (n − 1)!.
Furthermore the multipole expansion at large distance yields

1 X 4π Ylm (θ, φ)
Φ = qlm
4π0 2l + 1 rl+1
l,m
r
1 X 4π 2l + 1 Pl (cos θ)
= ql0
4π0 2l + 1 4π rl+1
l
 
1 1 6
= − 3 P2 (cos θ) .
4π0 r r

(b) In general, a Green’s function can be written as

1 X 4π rl
G(~x, ~x0 ) = = <
Y ∗ (θ0 , φ0 )Ylm (θ, φ),
l+1 lm
|~x − ~x0 | 2l + 1 r>
l,m

10
where r< (r> ) is the smaller (larger) of |~x| and |~x|0 . Due to the nature of axisymmetry for the given charge
density, it is enough to focus on the m = 0 terms. Then
X rl
G(~x, ~x0 ) = <
P (cos θ0 )Pl (cos θ).
l+1 l
l
r>

Thus
Z
1
Φ(~x) = ρ(~x0 )G(~x, ~x0 )d3 x0
4π0
Z
0 r
l
1 1 2
= r02 e−r l+1 <
Pl (cos θ0 )Pl (cos θ) [P0 (cos θ0 ) − P2 (cos θ0 )] r02 dr0 dφ0 d(cos θ0 )
4π0 64π 3 r>
Z ∞ l Z 1
1 1 0 r
= r04 e−r l+1 <
dr0 [P0 (cos θ0 ) − P2 (cos θ0 )] Pl (cos θ0 )Pl (cos θ)d(cos θ0 )
4π0 48 0 r> −1
Z r 0l Z ∞
rl
  
1 1 0 r 0 2
= r04 e−r l+1 dr0 + r04 e−r 0l+1 dr0 × 2δ0l − δ2l Pl (cos θ)
4π0 48 0 r r r 5
  Z r Z ∞ 
1 1 1 0 0
= 2P0 (cos θ) r04 e−r dr0 + r03 e−r dr0
4π0 48 r 0 r
 Z r Z ∞ 
2 1 06 −r 0 0 2 0 −r 0 0
− Pl (cos θ) r e dr + r r e dr .
5 r3 0 r

Using the partial integration,


1 1 1
24 − e−r 24 + 18r + 6r2 + r3


Φ(~x) =
4π0 24 r

1 
− 3 144 − e−r 144 + 144r + 72r2 + 24r3 + 6r4 + r5 P2 (cos θ) .


r

Since e−r can be expanded in the vicinity of r = 0 as

∞
−r
X (−r)n
e = ,
n=0
n!

the potential Φ can be written near the origin as

r2
 
1 1
Φ' − P2 (cos θ) .
4π0 4 120

11