DESPERATEMIGRATI

ONTO
EUROPEANDTHE
CHALLENGESOFNATION
BUILDI
NGINNIGERI
AFROM
2010TO2018.

BY

OKONABI
GIALI
TA
[
UNI
VERSI
TYOFCALABARRESEARCHFELLOW]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fort
heexecut
ionoft
hiswor
k,If
ir
stofal
lgi
vei
mmeasur
abl
ethanksandpr
aises

t
otheHol
yTr
ini
ty,
Godt
heFat
her
,Godt
heSonandGodt
heHol
ySpi
ri
tforgi
vi
ng

measoundmi
ndandt
hegr
acet
oseet
hiswor
kini
tscompl
etef
orm.

Mypr
ofoundgr
ati
tudegoest
omypr
ojectsuper
visorf
ort
hepai
nst
aki
ngef
for
tin

r
eadi
ng t
hrough t
he manuscr
ipt
,maki
ng cor
rect
ions,suggest
ions,and t
he

t
endencyt
odr
il
lmeandensur
ethatIgav
einmybestf
ort
hiswor
ktobeof

academi
cst
andar
d.

Myi
mmeasur
abl
edebtofgr
ati
tudegoest
omymot
her
,Li
on.Bar
r.Mr
s.Unwana

I
ta(
Ph.
d),f
orbei
ngt
hewi
ngsbeneat
hmywi
ngs,mybr
otherEmmanuel
,for

maki
ngmyl
i
fef
asci
nat
ingandf
un,
myman–RaphaelOgbuduf
orl
ovi
ngmeand

maki
ngmyl
i
fewor
thl
i
ving,
andmyLat
efat
herEl
d.Amb.Chap.Dr
.It
aOkon(
JP)

f
orbei
ngt
hesour
ceofi
nspi
rat
ionandmot
ivat
iont
owar
dtheat
tai
nment
sIhav
e

madesof
ari
nli
fe.Iappr
eci
ateal
lofy
ou.
 CHAPTERONE

I
NTRODUCTI
ON:

Thi
schapt
ergi
vesani
nsi
ghtont
hest
udybackgr
ound,
obj
ect
ivesand
si
gni
fi
canceoft
hisr
esear
chpr
oject
.

1.
1 BACKGROUNDTOTHESTUDY
Mi
grat
ioni
stheshi
ft
ingofi
ndi
vi
dualorgr
oupofi
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om one
r
elat
ivel
ysetpat
ter
nofnor
mat
ivebehav
iort
oanot
her
.Iti
nvol
vesphy
sical
mov
ementofani
ndi
vi
dualorgr
oup,r
esi
dent
ial
,occupat
ionalandsoci
o-
cul
tur
alchange(
Ley
play1970)
.Pi
eter(
1999.
p19)av
erst
hatmi
grat
ioni
s
t
he mov
ementofpeopl
e ov
ersome di
stance (
oratl
eastf
rom one
“
migr
ati
on-
def
ini
ngar
ea”t
oanot
her
).I
nessence,mi
grat
ioni
sthecr
ossi
ng
oft
heboundar
yofapr
edef
ined spat
ialuni
tbyoneormor
eper
sons
i
nvol
vedi
nachangeofr
esi
dence.

BanKi
-moon,Secr
etar
y– Gener
al(
2007– 2016)Uni
tedNat
ions,att
he
2013Hi
gh-
lev
elDi
alogueonI
nter
nat
ionalMi
grat
ionandDev
elopmentsai
d
t
hatmi
grat
ioni
sanexpr
essi
onoft
hehumanaspi
rat
ionf
ordi
gni
ty,saf
ety
andabet
terf
utur
e.I
tispar
toft
hesoci
alf
abr
ic,par
tofourv
erymake-
up
asahumanf
ami
l
y.

Mi
grat
ioni
sagl
obalphenomenon,wi
thmov
ement
sbot
hwi
thi
nnat
ions
andi
nter
nat
ional
l
yacr
ossbor
der
s.Thewor
ldhasanest
imat
ed244mi
l
li
on
i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grant
s(UNDESA,2016)and763mi
l
li
oni
nter
nalmi
grant
s
(
UNDESA,2013)
.Thi
sfi
gur
ecompr
isesofpeopl
efr
om di
ff
erentcount
ri
es
andcont
inent
ssuchasmi
grat
ionofsomeNi
ger
ianst
oEur
ope.
Eur
opeasacont
inenti
sthel
argestr
efugeehost
ingcont
inenti
nthewor
ld
hav
ingat
otalof44count
ri
es(
accor
dingt
otheUni
tedNat
ions)
.Thesear
e:
Russi
a,Ger
many
,Uni
tedKi
ngdom,Fr
ance,I
tal
y,Spai
n,Ukr
aine,Pol
and,
Romani
a,Net
her
lands,Bel
gium,Aust
ri
a,Ser
bia,Swi
tzer
land,Bul
gar
ia,
Demar
k,Fi
nland,Sl
ovaki
a,Nor
way
,Ir
eland,Cr
oat
ia,Mol
dov
a,Bosni
aand
Her
zeogov
ina,Al
bani
a,Li
thuani
a,Nor
th Macedoni
a,Sl
oveni
a,Lat
via,
Est
oni
a,Mont
enegr
o,Luxembour
g,Mal
ta,I
cel
and,Andor
ra,Monaco,
Li
echt
enst
ein,SanMar
inoandHol
ysee.Asi
def
rom Tur
keywhi
chi
sthe
l
argestr
efugehost
ingcount
ryi
nthewor
ldcur
rent
lypr
ovi
dingsaf
etyt
o3.
4
mi
l
li
onpeopl
e,t
heUni
tedKi
ngdom i
snextbyr
eset
tl
ing13,
961r
efugeesi
n
2018(
Ret
ri
evedf
rom Ref
ugeecounci
l
.or
g.uk_
webacess_
May3,2019)
.Iti
s
oneoft
heCont
inentwi
th manycount
ri
est
hathav
esi
gned t
he1951
Conv
ent
ionunderI
nter
nat
ionalLaw whi
chst
ipul
atest
hatpeopl
efeel
i
ng
per
secut
ionmayhav
etousei
rr
egul
armeansi
nor
dert
oescapeandcl
aim
asy
lum.

I
n2017,Eur
opewast
her
egi
onofbi
rt
hoft
hesecondl
argestnumberof
mi
grant
s(61mi
l
li
on)
.Wher
eas,Ni
ger
iai
soneoft
he54count
ri
esi
nAf
ri
ca
accor
dingt
otheUni
tedNat
ions.Thef
eder
ati
oncompr
ises36st
atesand1
Feder
alCapi
talTer
ri
tor
y,wher
ethe capi
tal
,Abuj
a,i
slocat
ed.The
const
it
uti
ondef
inesNi
ger
iaasademocr
ati
csecul
arcount
ry.Ni
ger
iai
s
r
atedasadev
elopi
ngcount
rycompar
edt
ocount
ri
esi
nEur
ope.Ni
ger
iahas
at
otalnumber of 1,
235 i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grant
s accor
ding t
o 2017
I
nter
nat
ional Mi
grat
ion Repor
t (
ret
ri
eved f
rom
ht
tps:
//www.
un.
org/
en/
dev
elopment
/desa/
popul
ati
on/
migr
ati
on/
publ
i
cat
i
ons/
migr
ati
onr
epor
t/docs/
Migr
ati
onRepor
t2017_
Highl
i
ght
s.pdf
).Ther
efor
e,
someNi
ger
ianst
aket
hemov
ementt
oEur
opeasapr
ior
it
ymay
bebecause
Eur
opei
samor
edev
elopedpl
acecompar
edt
oAf
ri
caandNi
ger
iaasa
whol
e.

Mi
grat
ionbi
rt
hst
het
erm“
Ref
ugee”and“
Asy
lum”
,andThe1951Uni
ted
Nat
ionsConv
ent
ionRel
ati
ngt
othest
atusofRef
ugesst
atest
hat“
aper
son
whoi
sowi
ngt
oawel
l
-foundedf
earofbei
ngper
secut
edf
orr
easonsof
r
ace,r
eli
gion,nat
ional
i
ty,member
shi
p ofa par
ti
cul
arsoci
algr
oup or
pol
i
ticalopi
nion,i
sout
sidet
hecount
ryofhi
snat
ional
i
tyandi
sunabl
efor
,
owi
ngt
ofear
,isunwi
l
li
ngt
oav
ailhi
msel
foft
hepr
otect
ionoft
hatcount
ry;
orwho,
nothav
inganat
ional
i
tyandbei
ngout
sidet
hecount
ryofhi
sfor
mer
habi
tualr
esi
denceasar
esul
tofsuchev
ent
s,i
sunabl
eor
,owi
ngt
osuch
f
ear
,iswi
l
li
ngt
oret
urnt
oit
”.Ther
efor
e,coul
dthi
sbet
her
easonf
or
Desper
ateMi
grat
iont
oEur
opebyNi
ger
ians?Hencet
heneedt
ocar
ryout
t
hisr
esear
chwor
k.

1.
2 STATEMENTOFTHEPROBLEM:

Humanspossesst
hecapabi
l
ityt
omov
efr
om onepl
aceoft
hei
rchoi
cet
o
anot
her
.Thi
smov
ementcoul
dbecar
ri
edouti
nthei
rcount
ry,al
soout
side
t
hei
rcount
ry,
legalori
l
legal
l
y.Mi
grat
ionasacont
inuouspr
ocesshasbeen
t
hesubj
ectofpol
i
ticaldebat
eWor
ld wi
de.I
thasshownanunbr
oken
upwar
dtr
end,bei
tofpeopl
ewhohav
elef
tthei
rhomel
andsv
olunt
ari
l
yfor
economi
corot
herr
easons,
oroft
hosewhohav
ebeenf
orcedt
oleav
ethei
r
homesduet
owar
,har
dshi
p,andordi
ctat
orshi
pingov
ernaceorot
her
r
easons.Ther
efor
e,what ar
ethe ot
her r
easons? -what coul
d be
r
esponsi
blef
ordesper
atemi
grat
ionofsomeNi
ger
ianst
oEur
ope?andhow
doest
hisaf
fectt
heNat
ionBui
l
dingofNi
ger
ia?Thi
siswhatt
hisst
udy
seekst
oinv
est
igat
e.

1.
3 RESEARCHQUESTI
ON:

Thef
oll
owi
ngf
ormul
atedquest
ionswi
l
lbeaskedi
nhar
monywi
tht
hegoal
s
oft
her
esear
chobj
ect
ive.

I
) Doeshumanmov
ementhav
etr
aceabl
ephy
sical
eff
ect
?.

I
I) Doespoornat
ionbui
l
dingaccountf
orhi
ghr
ateofbr
ain-
drai
nand
ci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion?
.

1.
4 OBJECTI
VESOFTHESTUDY:

Themai
nai
m oft
hisr
esear
chwi
l
lbet
olookatDesper
ateMi
grat
iont
o
Eur
opeandt
heChal
l
engesofNat
ionBui
l
dingi
nNi
ger
iaf
rom 2010t
o2018.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,
theexactgoal
soft
her
esear
char
e,t
o:

1) Ascer
tai
nwhet
herhumanmov
ementhav
ephy
sicalef
fectont
he
nat
ionbui
l
dingoft
hecount
rymi
grat
edf
rom,andt
henew pl
aceof
abode,al
sot
oexami
nei
fther
eisanyr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhuman
mi
grat
ionandnat
ionbui
l
ding.

2) Det
ermi
nei
fpoornat
ionbui
l
dingaccountf
orhi
ghr
ateofbr
aindr
ain
andci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion,andi
fther
eisar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenbr
ain
dr
ainandi
mmi
grat
ion.

1.
5 SI
GNI
FICANCEOFTHESTUDY:

I
nanyf
iel
dofhumanendeav
our
,impr
ovement
sar
eachi
evedbyl
ear
ning
aboutwhatpeopl
edo,how t
heydot
hem,wi
thwhatef
fect
sandpossi
bly
,
needsanadj
ust
ment
.

Tof
urt
herj
ust
if
ythechoi
ceoft
hist
opi
cforr
esear
ch;i
tisv
aluabl
eto
speci
fyt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
het
opi
ctosoci
ety
.Thef
indi
ngsoft
hisr
esear
ch
wi
l
lbebenef
ici
ali
nmanyway
s.Fi
rstofal
l
,thest
udywi
l
lbeaddedt
othe
pool
sofr
esear
chr
esour
cesi
nthear
eaofNat
ionbui
l
ding.Secondl
y,i
twi
l
l
f
ormt
hebasi
sforf
urt
herr
esear
chont
hesubj
ectar
ea.Thef
indi
ngsoft
his
st
udywi
l
lbebenef
ici
alt
ost
udent
sandt
hepubl
i
csbyexpandi
ngt
hei
r
knowl
edgeonmi
grat
ion.

I
nal
l
,thi
swor
kwi
l
lser
veasar
efer
encepoi
ntandi
nfor
mat
ionbankt
oal
l
t
hathav
ear
easont
oknowmor
eonmi
grat
ion,andi
tschal
l
engeonnat
ion
bui
l
ding.Thesi
gni
fi
canceoft
hest
udyi
smadeupoft
het
heor
eti
caland
pr
act
icalsi
gni
fi
cance.Theor
eti
calsi
gni
fi
cance-i
twi
l
laddt
otheexi
sti
ng
pul
lofknowl
edgeondesper
atemi
grat
iont
oEur
opeandt
hechal
l
engesof
nat
ionbui
l
dingi
nNi
ger
ia.Whi
l
efort
hepr
act
icalsi
gni
fi
cance-or
gani
zat
ios,
i
nst
it
uti
onswi
l
lwor
ktoget
hert
oenabl
ethem sol
vet
hei
ssuesr
elat
ingt
o
desper
atemi
grat
iont
oEur
opeandt
hechal
l
engesofnat
ionbui
l
dingi
n
Ni
ger
ia.

1.
6. SCOPEOFTHESTUDY:

Thi
sresear
ch wi
l
lfocus on desper
ate Mi
grant
sto Eur
ope and t
he
chal
l
enges ofNat
ion bui
l
ding i
n Ni
ger
ia.Si
nce mi
grat
ion i
s a gl
obal
phenomenon,t
hisst
udywi
l
lbecent
eredonNi
ger
iami
grant
s.Al
sot
he
chal
l
engesofmi
grat
iononnat
ionbui
l
dingofNi
ger
ia.
1.
7. LI
MITATI
ONOFTHESTUDY:

Thi
sresear
chwi
thoutdoubtmetwi
thal
otofaconst
rai
ntsoni
tswayt
o
bei
ngcompl
eted.Ther
esear
cherhadf
inanci
alpr
obl
emsast
her
ewer
enot
enoughf
inancet
ocar
ryoutani
mpactf
act
orr
esear
ch.Secondl
y,t
her
e
wer
enotenought
imef
ort
her
esear
cherandasar
esul
t,t
her
esear
cher
wasbat
tl
ingt
obeatt
hedeadl
i
nef
orsubmi
ssi
on.

1.
8. OPERATI
ONALI
ZATI
ONOFCONCEPT:

1.Mi
grant
s:Thi
sisuset
oref
ert
oaper
sonwhomov
esf
rom onepl
acet
o
anot
her
,especi
all
yinor
dert
ofi
ndwor
korbet
terl
i
vingcondi
ti
ons.Mi
grant
s
canal
sobecal
l
ed:
immi
grant(
aper
sonwhocomest
oli
veper
manent
lyi
na
f
orei
gncount
ry)
,emi
grant(
aper
sonwhol
eav
est
hei
rowncount
ryi
nor
der
t
oset
tl
eper
manent
lyi
nanot
her
),orasy
lum seeker
.

2.Asy
lum:Accor
dingt
otheLongmanDi
cti
onar
yofCont
empor
aryEngl
i
sh
-Asy
lum i
saf
orm ofpr
otect
iongi
venbyagov
ernmentt
osomeonewho
hasl
eftanot
hercount
ryi
nor
der t
oescapebei
nghar
med.

3.Ref
ugee:Someonewhohasbeenf
orcedt
oleav
eacount
rybecauseof
warorf
orr
eli
giousorpol
i
ticalr
easons:onet
hatf
lees;especi
all
y:aper
son
whof
leest
oaf
orei
gncount
ryorpowert
oescapedangerorper
secut
ion.

4.Nat
ion-
bui
ldi
ng:Nat
ion-
bui
l
dingi
stheuni
fi
cat
ionofpeopl
ewi
thi
nthe
st
ate so t
hati
tremai
ns pol
i
tical
l
yst
abl
e and v
iabl
eint
he l
ong r
un.
Accor
dingt
otheEconomi
st’
sgl
ossar
yoft
erms,
todef
inenat
ionbui
l
dingi
s
asf
oll
ows:“
Creat
ingacount
ryt
hatwor
ksoutofonet
hatdoesnot–
becauset
heol
dor
derhascol
l
apsed(
asi
nthef
ormerSov
ietUni
on)
,or
beendest
roy
edbywar(
Ir
aq)
,ornev
err
eal
l
yfunct
ionedi
nthef
ir
stpl
ace
(
Afghani
stan)
.Iti
stot
ransf
orm af
ail
edcount
ry,
est
abl
i
shi
ngor
dert
hrough
t
her
uleofl
aw andcr
eat
ingl
egi
ti
mat
egov
ernmentandot
heref
fect
ive
soci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons,aswel
lasacr
edi
blecur
rencyandaf
unct
ioni
ngmar
ket
economy
.”

5.Chal
lenges:Achal
l
engei
ssomet
hingnew anddi
ff
icul
twhi
chr
equi
res
gr
eatef
for
tanddet
ermi
nat
ion.

6.Desper
ate:Thewor
dDesper
atesi
gni
fi
esf
eel
i
ngorshowi
ngahopel
ess
senset
hatasi
tuat
ioni
ssobadast
obei
mpossi
blet
odealwi
th.I
nthi
s
cont
ext
,itmeansaper
sonorgr
oupofpeopl
ewi
l
li
ngt
odoany
thi
ngt
o
changeav
erybadsi
tuat
ion,
andnotcar
ingaboutdangerofmi
grat
ion.

7.Mi
grat
ion:Thi
sist
hemov
ementofpeopl
efr
om onepal
acet
oanot
her
.It
i
nvol
vesachangei
npl
aceofabodewi
thcl
aim ofasy
lum.

CHAPTERTWO

2.
0 I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
s chapt
ergi
ves us an i
nsi
ghton r
elat
ed l
i
ter
atur
e,t
he r
esear
ch
hy
pot
hesi
s,t
het
heor
eti
calf
ramewor
k,andt
her
esear
chmet
hodst
hatwi
l
l
beappl
i
edi
nthi
sst
udy
.

2.
1 LI
TERATUREREVI
EW

2.
1.1 THECONCEPTOFHUMANMOVEMENT:

Di
ff
erentschol
arshav
etr
iedt
odef
inet
heconceptofhumanmov
ement
di
sti
nct
lybecauseoft
hei
rdi
ff
erentappr
oaches,
giv
ingi
tal
i
ter
almeani
ng-
Mi
grat
ion,t
heshi
ft
ingofpeopl
eorani
ndi
vi
dualorgr
oupofi
ndi
vi
dual
’
s
f
rom onecul
tur
alar
eat
oanot
her
,whi
chmaybeper
manentort
empor
ary
.
I
nWebst
er’
sdi
cti
onar
y,t
het
erm hasbeendef
inedast
heactorani
nst
ance
ofmov
ingf
rom onecount
ry,r
egi
ont
oset
tl
einanot
her
.Secondl
yiti
s
def
inedasanactofmov
ingf
rom onear
eat
oanot
heri
nsear
chofwor
k.
Accor
dingt
omanyi
ndi
vi
dual
sli
keSmi
th(
1960)t
hesi
mpl
estmeani
ngof
t
hewor
dmi
grat
ioncanbeasi
mpl
eshi
fti
nthephy
sicalspace.Buti
twoul
d
be i
nter
est
ing t
o not
e t
hat meani
ng of mi
grat
ion i
s changi
ng
si
mul
taneousl
ywi
tht
hepassageoft
ime.

Thedef
ini
ti
onsuggest
edbyLee,E.S(
1969)i
n‘A Theor
yofMi
grat
ion’
posest
heconceptofmi
grat
ioni
.e.t
hemov
ementofpeopl
efr
om v
il
lages
t
o ur
banar
easf
ort
hedur
ati
onoft
hei
ract
ivel
i
fe,wher
easTheodor
e
Lapl
owasser
t,

“
Migr
ati
oni
sst
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ng,achangeofr
esi
denceand
neednotnecessar
il
yinvol
veanychangeofoccupat
ion,
buti
tiscl
osel
yassoci
atedwi
thoccupat
ionalshi
ft
sofone
ki
ndoranot
her
.Thepr
inci
paldi
rect
ionsofmi
grat
ionar
e
i
l
lust
rat
edbymor
eorl
esscont
inuousmovement
sfr
om
r
uralar
eas t
owar
ds t
he ci
ty,f
rom ar
eas of st
abl
e
popul
ati
ont
owar
dscent
ersofi
ndust
ri
alorcommer
cial
oppor
tuni
ty,f
rom densel
y set
tl
ed count
ri
es t
oless
densel
yset
tl
edcount
ri
esandf
rom t
hecent
ersoft
he
ci
ti
est
othei
rsubur
bs”
.

Al
so,Ei
senst
adtl
ooks atmi
grat
ion as t
he phy
sicalt
ransi
ti
on ofan
i
ndi
vi
dualoragr
oupf
rom onesoci
etyt
oanot
her
.Thi
str
ansi
ti
onusual
l
y
i
nvol
ves abandoni
ng one soci
al set
ti
ng and ent
eri
ng anot
her and
per
manentone.Buti
nthi
sdef
ini
ti
onhef
ail
edt
oexpl
aint
hepsy
chol
ogyof
i
ndi
vi
dualorgr
oupswhoar
eshi
ft
ingf
rom onegeogr
aphi
call
ocat
iont
o
anot
her
.

Ascompar
edt
otheabov
ement
ioneddef
ini
ti
onsofmi
grat
ion,
def
ini
ti
onof
mi
grat
ionsuggest
edbyWei
nber
gappear
srel
ati
vel
yfl
exi
blebecausehe
consi
der
ed human mi
grat
ion as t
he change ofpl
ace per
manent
ly or
t
empor
ari
l
yforapar
ti
cul
ardur
ati
onoft
imeasi
ncaseofseasonal
wor
ker
s.
I
fpeopl
emai
ntai
nmul
ti
pler
esi
dencesi
nci
ty,t
ownandv
il
lage,t
henhi
s
f
requencyofmov
ementwi
l
lhel
pindeci
dinghi
sst
atusasami
grant
.Ev
en
t
houghmanysoci
alsci
ent
ist
scamef
orwar
dtodi
scussanddef
inet
he
conceptofmi
grat
ionbutsomeoft
hem hav
ecompl
i
cat
edi
tsdef
ini
ti
on.But
l
atestdef
ini
ti
ons of Baker
,Hager
str
and,Rose,and Saf
a ar
e wor
th
ment
ioni
ng.Accor
dingt
oBaker
,mi
grat
ioni
stheactofmov
ingf
rom one
spat
ialuni
ttoanot
her
”.Abr
oadar
eahasbeencov
eredbyt
hisdef
ini
ti
on
and al
so i
ttouchesal
argenumberofbr
anchesofnat
ural
i
sts,soci
al
sci
ent
ist
s,and ot
her
s.Hager
str
and hasst
udi
ed t
heSwedi
shmi
grat
ion
f
iel
dsandhehasdef
inedmi
grat
ioni
nter
msofchangei
nthecent
erof
gr
avi
tyandhasdef
inedt
hatani
ndi
vi
dual
’
smobi
l
itydependsupont
he
changei
ntheCent
reofgr
avi
ty,f
orexampl
eter
miniofj
our
neyt
owor
k,
r
ecr
eat
ionalandshoppi
ngmov
ement
smayr
emai
nsame,whi
l
ether
ewi
l
l
bechangei
nint
er-
urbanmov
e.Anot
herper
sonwhogav
eacompr
ehensi
ve
def
ini
ti
onofmi
grat
ionwasAr
nol
dRose.Hi
sdef
ini
ti
onest
abl
i
shest
he
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween mi
grat
ion and t
hegr
owt
h ofpopul
ati
on al
though
i
ndi
rect
ly.Accor
dingt
ohi
m,mi
grat
iondoesnotaddorsubt
ractf
rom t
he
t
otal
popul
ati
onofwor
ld,
buti
tcanhav
ehandef
fectont
het
otal
popul
ati
on
byi
nvol
vi
ngt
hemov
ementofpeopl
efr
om ar
easwher
etheyar
eli
kel
yto
r
epr
oducel
esst
oar
easwher
etheyar
eli
kel
ytor
epr
oducemor
eorv
ice
v
ersa.Saf
aexpr
essedherv
iewt
hat
,

“
Migr
ati
on i
s nor
mal
l
y vi
ewed as an economi
c
phenomenon t
hough non-
economi
cfact
ors obvi
ousl
y
havesomebear
ing.Mostst
udi
esconcurt
hatmi
grant
s
l
eavet
hei
rar
eaofor
igi
npr
imar
il
ybecauseofl
ackof
empl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
esandwi
tht
hehopeoff
indi
ng
bet
teroppor
tuni
ti
esel
sewher
e”.

Af
terev
aluat
ingal
lthedef
ini
ti
onsofdi
ff
erentschol
arswecomet
ofi
ndout
t
hatmostoft
hem hav
est
ressedupont
imeandspacebutnoneoft
hem
hasl
aidst
ressonsoci
o-economi
creper
cussi
on.Ther
efor
e,mi
grat
ioncan
bedef
inedasper
manentorsemi
-per
manentmov
ementf
rom onepl
acet
o
anot
herwhi
chl
eadst
ocul
tur
edi
ff
usi
onandsoci
ali
ntegr
ati
on.

Mi
grat
ioni
sov
ert
aki
ngf
ert
il
it
yasamai
ndr
iverofpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hin
someoft
hekeyr
egi
onsoft
hedev
elopi
ngwor
ld.Thenumberofmi
grant
s
i
nthedev
elopedwor
ldhasgr
ownatanav
erageof3.
0% annual
l
ysi
nce
2000,f
armor
ethant
he0.
6%annualpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h(McKi
nsey
,2016)
.
Basedonpopul
ati
onpr
oject
ionsf
rom t
heUni
tedNat
ionsDepar
tmentof
Economi
candSoci
alAf
fai
rs(
UNDESA)
,thesur
plusofdeat
hsov
erbi
rt
hs
af
ter2020 i
spr
oject
ed t
o besi
gni
fi
cantenought
o decr
easeEur
ope’
s
popul
ati
on,despi
tecont
inuedposi
ti
venetmi
grat
ion.Fur
ther
mor
e,onei
n
t
hreeadul
tssur
vey
edpl
anst
omi
grat
etoadev
elopi
ngcount
ry,wi
tht
he
Uni
ted St
atesast
hemostpopul
ardest
inat
ion f
oll
owed byt
heUni
ted
Ki
ngdom (
Sour
ce:I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionf
orMi
grat
ion,2015,Wor
ld
Mi
grat
ionRepor
t2015)
.Accor
dingt
otheGal
l
upWor
ldPol
ldat
afr
om 2013
t
o2016,
thedesi
ret
omi
grat
ehasgr
ownsi
ncet
he2010-
2012per
iodNear
ly
710mi
l
li
onpeopl
e(14%oft
hewor
ld’
sadul
tpopul
ati
on)woul
dli
ket
omov
e
t
oanot
hercount
ryi
ftheyhadt
heoppor
tuni
ty.Atl
eastt
hreei
n10adul
tsi
n
31count
ri
esandar
easwor
ldwi
dei
ntendt
omov
eper
manent
lyt
oanot
her
count
ry,t
hesei
ncl
udenat
ionsi
nev
eryr
egi
onexceptNor
thAmer
ica,Asi
a
andOceani
a,t
heSy
rianci
vi
lwar
,hi
ghr
atesofunempl
oymenti
ncount
ri
es
l
i
keI
tal
yandAl
bani
a,andt
heEbol
avi
rusout
breaki
nSi
err
aLeone,andt
he
i
nsur
genci
esi
nNi
ger
iaar
esomeoft
hemaj
orcont
ri
but
orst
othei
ncr
eased
desi
ret
omi
grat
eint
hesepopul
ati
ons(
Esi
pov
a,Ray
,&Pugl
i
ese,2017)
.
Hence,gl
obaldesi
ret
oMi
grat
eReboundsi
nSomeAr
easoft
hosel
i
vingi
n
t
heser
egi
onsandwhodesi
ret
omi
grat
e.Somedev
elopi
ngcount
ri
eshav
e
becomebot
hor
igi
nanddest
inat
ionl
ocat
ions.Fori
nst
ance,Eur
opeand
Chi
nai
sadest
inat
ionpl
acef
ori
mmi
grant
sfr
om Ni
ger
iaandi
sal
sot
he
count
ryofor
igi
nforemi
grant
stot
heMi
ddl
eEast
.Thel
evelofi
nter
nal
mi
grat
ioni
nthesecount
ri
esi
sal
soi
ncr
easi
ng,
causi
ngt
her
api
dexpansi
on
ofci
ti
es.(
Sour
ce:I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionf
orMi
grat
ion,2015,Wor
ld
Mi
grat
ionRepor
t2015)
.Inaddi
ti
on,mi
grant
sar
emov
ingt
omet
ropol
i
tan
ar
eas,
whi
char
ebecomi
ngnewdest
inat
ions

2.
1.2 CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFMI
GRATI
ON:

Mi
grat
ionhasbeencl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
ivet
ypesbyGonzal
ezi
.e.seasonal
,
t
empor
arynon-
seasonal
,re-
cur
rent
,cont
inuousandper
manentr
emov
al.
Wher
eas mi
grat
ion has been cl
assi
fi
ed i
nto i
nvasi
on, conquest
,
col
oni
zat
ionandi
mmi
grat
ionbyFai
rchi
l
d.Lat
eron,I
saacmodi
fi
edt
he
di
vi
sions of Fai
rchi
l
d as f
ree (
reasonabl
e,nomadi
c,t
empor
ary and
per
manent
)and f
orced (
ref
ugee,sl
ave et
c).weakness ofFai
rchi
l
d’s
t
ypol
ogyhasbeenexposedbyPet
ersonwhohascl
aimedt
hati
tisan
i
mpl
i
citandi
ncompl
etecr
ossi
ngoft
wocr
it
eri
ai.
e.peacef
ul-
war
li
keand
l
ow cul
tur
e-hi
ghcul
tur
e.Pet
ersonsuggest
edamor
ecompl
ext
ypol
ogy
basedont
womai
ncr
it
eri
ai.
e.conser
vat
ion-
innov
ati
onandmi
grat
oryf
orce
i
.e.ecol
ogi
calpush,pol
i
ticalf
orce,aspi
rat
ion f
reel
ytof
ind bet
ter
condi
ti
onsandsoci
alpr
essur
eexer
tedbyamassmov
ement
.Mi
grat
ion
canbecl
assi
fi
edi
nsev
eralway
sandaccor
dingt
oMcKi
nsey2016,I
tis
usual
l
ycat
egor
izedby
:

A. POLI
TICAL BOUNDARI
ES: Based on pol
i
tical l
i
mit
s and t
he
boundar
ies cr
ossed,such as di
str
ict
s,count
ri
es,st
ate bor
der
s and
i
nter
nat
ionalboundar
ies,f
urt
heri
dent
if
ied ast
he pl
acesofor
igi
n and
dest
inat
ion.A wi
del
yrecogni
zeddi
sti
nct
ionexi
stsbet
weeni
nter
naland
i
nter
nat
ional
migr
ati
on:

a)I
nter
nalmi
grat
ion:Mi
grat
ionoccur
ri
ngwi
thi
nacount
ryf
rom cr
ossi
ng
pol
i
ticalboundar
ies,ei
therwi
thi
nast
ateorbet
weenst
ates,whet
herur
ban
t
orur
al,
urbant
our
ban,
rur
alt
orur
al,
orr
uralt
our
ban.Thet
erm associ
ated
wi
thmi
grant
sar
ri
vi
ngatt
hei
rdest
inat
ioni
sin-
migr
ant
s,andwi
tht
hose
l
eav
ingt
hei
rpl
aceofor
igi
nisout
-mi
grant
s.Thi
sfor
m ofmi
grat
ional
so
i
ncl
udesmov
ementbet
weenv
il
lages,
blocksanddi
str
ict
s.

b)I
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion:Mi
grat
ionoccur
ri
ngacr
osscount
ryboundar
ies.
Suchmi
grant
sar
eknownasi
mmi
grant
s(comi
ngi
ntoaf
orei
gncount
ry)
andemi
grant
s(l
eav
ingt
hei
rowncount
ry)
.Thi
sal
soi
ncl
udescont
inent
-t
o-
cont
inentmi
grat
ion(
McKi
nsey
,2016)
.

B. MOVEMENTPATTERNS:Basedoncl
assi
fyi
ngpeopl
eaccor
dingt
o
t
hei
rsoci
alst
atus,
trav
elpoi
ntsandper
iodi
ci
ty:

a)St
epmi
grat
ion:Mi
grat
ioni
nit
iat
ingf
rom asmal
lset
tl
ementandmov
ing
t
oal
argeronei
ntheur
banhi
erar
chyov
ert
hey
ear
s.Thi
sincl
udesapat
ter
n
ofcl
oser
,nott
oodest
abi
l
izi
ngmi
grat
ionsf
rom aper
son’
spl
aceofor
igi
nto
anensui
ngdest
inat
ion,
suchasmov
ementf
rom af
armt
oav
il
lage,
thent
o
at
ownandsubsequent
lyt
oasubur
b(i
fappl
i
cabl
e)andf
inal
l
yint
oaci
ty.
Thi
scat
egor
yal
soi
ncl
udest
hemov
ementofpeopl
efr
om asmal
l
ert
oa
bi
ggerci
ty.

b)Ci
rcul
armi
grat
ion:Ci
rcul
armi
grat
ionexper
iencesbet
weenanor
igi
nand
adest
inat
ionwi
thatl
eastonemi
grat
ionandr
etur
n.Mi
grant
sshar
ethei
r
t
imebet
weenmul
ti
ple(
atl
eastt
wo)l
ocat
ions,wi
tht
hei
rfami
l
y,wor
k,et
c.
Whi
l
ethef
requencyofmov
ementmayv
aryal
ongwi
tht
hel
engt
hofst
ayat
t
hedest
inat
ion,
aci
rcul
armi
grantspendssi
gni
fi
cantper
iodsoft
imeatt
he
or
igi
n and dest
inat
ion.Seasonalmi
grat
ion i
sav
erycommon f
orm of
ci
rcul
armi
grat
ion,dr
ivenbyseasonalpeaksi
nlabourdemand,most
lyi
n
agr
icul
tur
e.

c)Ret
urnmi
grat
ion:ont
heot
herhand,
ref
erst
oaone-
ti
meemi
grat
ionand
r
etur
naf
teranext
endedst
ayout
sidet
hehostt
err
it
ory
.

d)Chai
nmi
grat
ion:Mi
grat
ionoff
ami
l
iesatdi
ff
erentst
agesoft
hel
i
fecy
cle
f
rom onel
ocat
iont
othenext
,whosubsequent
lybr
ingpeopl
efr
om t
hei
r
homel
ocat
iont
othi
snew pl
ace.I
ntheor
y,achai
nofpeopl
econst
ant
ly
mov
esf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace,suppor
tedbyt
hosewhomi
grat
edbef
oret
hem
(
McKi
nsey
,2016)
.

C. DECI
SION-
MAKI
NG APPROACH:Basedoncl
assi
fyi
ngmi
grat
ionas
v
olunt
aryori
nvol
unt
ary
,gi
vencer
tai
nsoci
opol
i
ticalf
act
ors(
e.g.t
hef
earof
i
l
l-t
reat
mentat
tri
but
edt
orace,r
eli
gion,pol
i
ticalaf
fi
li
ati
on,nat
ional
i
tyor
associ
ati
ont
osoci
algr
oups;f
li
ghtf
rom war
;conf
li
cti
nvol
vi
ngar
ms;ci
vi
l
war
;nat
uralorman-
madedi
sast
ers;
fami
ne)ordev
elopment
alf
act
ors(
e.g.
subst
ant
iali
nfr
ast
ruct
ure pr
oject
s,i
ncl
udi
ng ai
rpor
t,r
oad,dam orpor
t
const
ruct
ion;t
headmi
nist
rat
ivecl
ear
anceofur
banpr
oject
s;mi
ningand
def
orest
ati
on;t
he cr
eat
ion ofconser
vat
ion par
ks/
reser
ves and ot
her
bi
ospher
erel
atedi
nit
iat
ives,
amongot
her
s).

a) Vol
unt
arymi
grat
ion:Based on a per
son’
sfr
eewi
l
l,i
nit
iat
iveand
desi
ret
oli
vei
nabet
terpl
aceandt
oimpr
ovet
hei
rfi
nanci
alst
atus,among
ot
herf
act
ors.

b) I
nvol
unt
arymi
grat
ion:Basedonaper
son’
sbei
ngf
orcedoutoft
hei
r
homeduet
ocer
tai
nunf
avour
abl
eenv
ironment
alandpol
i
ticalsi
tuat
ions.
Thi
scanbef
urt
hersub-
classi
fi
edas:

i
) Rel
uct
ant
/i
mpel
l
ed/
imposedmi
grat
ion:Whenaper
soni
sputi
na
si
tuat
iont
hatencour
agesr
elocat
ionormov
ementout
sidet
hei
rpl
aceof
r
esi
dence.

i
i
) For
cedmi
grat
ion:Whenaper
soni
sunabl
etor
etur
nhome(
ref
ugee)
,
orunder
goesal
egalpr
ocedur
etoqual
i
fyasar
efugeei
nthehostcount
ry
(
asy
lee)
,ori
sfor
cedt
oleav
ethei
rhomeduet
oaconf
li
ctordev
elopment
butdoesnotcr
ossanyboundar
ies(
int
ernal
l
ydi
spl
aced per
son[
IDP]
).
(
Sour
ces:McKi
nsey
,2016;UNDESA2016,Cr
oss-
nat
ionalcompar
isonsof
i
nter
nal
migr
ati
on)
.

2.
1.3 TYPESOFMI
GRATI
ON:

Zachar
iaul(
1961:250-
51)del
i
gnat
est
womai
nty
pesofmi
grat
ionnamel
y,
(
i)shor
tdi
stancemi
grat
ionand(
ii
)Longdi
stancemi
grat
ion.Wher
eas,
Smi
th(
1977:295-
96)i
dent
if
iedt
hreemai
nty
pesofmi
grat
ionnamel
y(i
)
count
ryt
oci
ty,
(ii
)ci
tyt
ocount
ryand(
ii
i)count
ryt
ocount
rymi
grat
ion.Al
so,
Kant(
1962:351)poi
ntsoutt
hreemai
nty
pesofmi
grat
ioni
nter
msof
mi
grant
s’nat
ureofset
tl
ementandper
iodofst
ayi
nthepl
aceofdest
inat
ion.
Thesei
ncl
ude(
i)Acci
dent
alort
empor
arymi
grat
ion,(
2)Per
manentor
per
iodi
cmi
grat
ionand(
3)Def
ini
ti
vemi
grat
ion.Outoft
hesev
ari
oust
ypes
andst
reamsofhumanmi
grat
iont
heshor
t-
dist
ancet
ypeofmi
grat
ioni
s
si
gni
fi
canti
nter
msofi
tsv
olume,
whi
l
erur
alt
our
banst
ream i
ssi
gni
fi
cant
'
i
nter
msofi
ts(
soci
alchange-
bri
ngi
ngpot
ent
ial
i
ty)
.

I
nter
disci
pli
nar
y appr
oaches of v
ari
ous schol
ars hav
e br
ought i
nto
consi
der
ati
onv
ari
oust
ypesofmi
grat
ion.Ty
pol
ogyofmi
grat
ionhasbeen
i
nfl
uencedbyspace,t
ime,v
olume,di
rect
ion,cause,v
eloci
ty,sel
ect
ivi
ty,
st
abi
l
ity
,behav
iouret
c.Var
ioust
ypesofmi
grat
ionhav
ebeensuggest
edby
schol
arsf
rom t
imet
oti
me.

Thi
smov
ementcanbedi
vi
dedi
ntof
oll
owi
ngt
ypesaccor
dingt
oMcKi
nsey
,
(
2016)

1.I
nter
cont
inent
almi
grat
ion

2.I
nter
nat
ional
migr
ati
on
3.I
nterst
atemi
grat
ion

4.Local
migr
ati
on

5.Rur
al-Rur
almi
grat
ion

6.Rur
al-Ur
banmi
grat
ion

7.Ur
ban-Ur
banmi
grat
ion

8.Ur
ban-Rur
almi
grat
ion

1.I
ntercont
inent
almi
grat
ion:Whenmov
ementofpeopl
eisf
rom one
cont
inenti
ntoanot
hercont
inent
,thi
sty
peofmov
ementi
sknownasi
nter
cont
inent
almi
grat
ion.Fur
thert
hist
ypeofmi
grat
ionwaspr
eval
entdur
ing
17t
htoear
ly20t
hcent
ury
.Ini
ti
all
yitt
ookpl
acef
rom cr
adl
elandofAsi
ato
ot
hercont
inent
s,but
,lat
eron,peopl
emov
edf
rom Eur
opeancount
ri
est
o
ot
hercount
ri
esi
nthepr
ocessofcol
oni
zat
ion.

2.I
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion:Whenmov
ementofpeopl
ehappenst
ocr
oss
i
nter
nat
ionalbor
der
stheni
tiscal
l
edi
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion.Ear
li
erpeopl
e
usedt
omov
efr
eel
yacr
osst
hebor
der
sbecauset
her
ewasnodemar
cat
ion.
Thi
sdemar
cat
ionbecamear
est
ri
cti
vef
orcei
nfr
eemov
ementofpeopl
e.
Ev
ent
henpeopl
ehav
emi
grat
edf
rom onecount
ryandset
tl
edper
manent
ly
i
not
hercount
ry.

3.I
nterst
atemi
grat
ion:Aphenomenoni
nwhi
chpeopl
emi
grat
efr
om one
pr
ovi
nce t
o anot
heri
s known as i
nterst
ate mi
grat
ion.Thi
sty
pe of
mi
grat
ioni
sver
ycommont
hroughoutt
hewor
ldbecauseoff
avour
abl
e
l
aws.Al
lcount
ri
esi
nthewor
ldhav
eal
l
owedt
hei
rci
ti
zenst
omov
e,wor
k
andset
tl
efr
om onest
atet
oanot
herwi
thi
nthecount
ry.
4.Localmi
grat
ion:When peopl
e mov
efor a shor
t di
stance t
hat
phenomenoni
scal
l
edl
ocalmi
grat
ion.I
tisofv
ari
oust
ypesi
.e.i
nterv
il
lage,
i
nterdi
str
ictand i
ntr
a di
str
ict
.Thi
sty
pe ofmi
grat
ion i
s pr
efer
red by
maj
ori
tyofpeopl
east
heyr
emai
nawar
eoft
hel
i
vingcondi
ti
onsandj
ob
oppor
tuni
ti
esoft
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ion.

5.Rur
al-r
uralmi
grat
ion:Whent
hepeopl
emov
efr
om oner
uralar
eto
anot
herr
uralar
ea,i
tis known as r
ural
-rur
almi
grat
ion.Thi
sty
pe of
mi
grat
ion usual
l
y occur
sin dev
elopi
ng count
ri
es because i
nthese
count
ri
esei
thermostoft
hepeopl
eli
vei
nrur
alar
easort
her
eisi
mbal
anced
di
str
ibut
ionofr
esour
ces.Peopl
eher
epr
efert
omov
etopl
aceswhi
char
e
agr
icul
tur
all
ymor
edev
eloped.

6.Rur
al-Ur
banmi
grat
ion:Whenpeopl
emi
grat
efr
om agr
ari
aneconomyt
o
non-
agr
ari
aneconomyt
hent
hatt
ypeofmi
grat
ioni
sknownasRur
al-
urban
mi
grat
ion.I
nur
banar
east
her
ear
elot
sofoppor
tuni
ti
esofwhi
tecol
l
arj
obs,
l
uxur
iousl
i
feandmoder
nameni
ti
esandi
tisbecauseoft
heseabov
e
ment
ionedpr
oper
ti
est
hatpeopl
epr
efert
omi
grat
efr
om r
uralar
easwhi
ch
ar
esomet
imesdev
oidofev
enbasi
crequi
rement
s.Thi
sphenomenonof
r
uralur
banmi
grat
ionhasbecomev
erycommoni
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es
andt
hisdr
if
tiscausi
ngl
otsofpr
obl
emst
obot
har
eaofor
igi
naswel
las
ar
eaofdest
inat
ion.

7.Ur
ban-
Urbanmi
grat
ion:I
tcanbedef
inedasmov
ementofpeopl
efr
om
one ur
ban ar
ea t
o anot
herur
ban ar
ea.Thi
sis si
mil
art
orur
alur
ban
mi
grat
ionbecauseher
epeopl
emov
efr
om smal
l
erur
bani
zedt
ownst
o
maj
orur
bancent
ers.Att
imest
hisdr
if
tiscausedbecauseoft
ransf
erand
post
ing.
8.Ur
ban-Rur
almi
grat
ion:Whenur
bani
tesmov
etor
uralar
east
hent
hat
phenomenon i
sknown asur
ban r
uralmi
grat
ion.Thi
sisnotcommon
pr
act
ice.Thi
shappenswhenpeopl
egetdi
sgust
edwi
tht
hei
ndust
ri
aland
v
erybusyschedul
eofur
banl
i
feandwantt
omov
einsear
chofpeace.Such
i
nci
dencesar
eusual
l
yfoundi
ndev
elopednat
ionsl
i
keUSA.Mobi
l
ityof
manki
ndi
sofdi
ff
erentt
ypes.I
tchangesf
rom t
imet
oti
me.Peopl
ein
pr
ehi
stor
icper
iodhadnoper
manenthabi
tat
ionandt
hei
rmov
ementwas
notor
ient
ed t
owar
ds a par
ti
cul
ardi
rect
ion.Theywer
eleadi
ng l
i
fe of
wander
ers.Humanmi
grat
iongoti
nfl
uencedi
nadi
ff
erentwaywi
tht
he
gr
owt
h ofci
vi
li
zat
ion,f
ormat
ion ofadmi
nist
rat
iveuni
tsand gr
owt
h of
cul
tur
alr
egi
onset
c.somet
imespeopl
emov
eforashor
terdur
ati
onoft
ime
andsomet
imest
heymov
eforal
ongerdur
ati
on.

2.
1.4.THECAUSESOFMI
GRATI
ON

Amy
riadoff
avour
abl
e,unf
avour
abl
eorneut
ralf
act
orscausemi
grat
ion.
Basedont
heav
ail
abl
econcept
sofschol
arsaboutmov
ementofpeopl
ein
ear
lyt
imes,t
rends ofmi
grat
ion hav
e been di
scussed di
vi
ding i
tint
o
di
ff
erentphasessuchaswonder
ingst
agesofpr
e-hi
stor
icper
iods,st
ages
ofor
gani
zedset
tl
ement
sandr
elat
edmov
ement
sofanci
entper
iod,
stages
oft
radeor
ient
edmov
ementofmedi
evalper
iodandst
agesofcol
oni
zat
ion
ofmoder
nper
iodf
oll
owedbydecol
oni
zat
ionandr
esul
tantr
epat
ri
ati
on
(
McKi
nsey
,2016)
.

A. PRE-
HISTORI
C PERI
OD OF HUMAN MI
GRATI
ON:Phy
sicalf
act
ors
whi
ch wer
e supposed t
o hav
einf
luenced human mi
grat
ion dur
ing
pr
ehi
stor
icper
iodhav
ebeent
hesuccessi
veadv
ancesandr
etr
eat
soft
he
i
cesheet
sdur
inggl
aci
alt
imes.Lar
gescal
ehumanmi
grat
ionwascaused
bymaj
orcl
i
mat
icchanges.Ar
chaeol
ogi
stshav
eadv
ancedt
hei
nci
dences
of human mi
grat
ion based on t
he i
mpactof cl
i
mat
icf
luct
uat
ions.
Rel
ati
onshi
p bet
ween cl
i
mat
icf
luct
uat
ionsand pr
imi
ti
ve mi
grat
ion has
beenr
eveal
edbyt
hest
udyofanci
entsi
tesofhumanabode.Nomadsof
cent
ralAsi
ahadmi
grat
edf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herbecauseofi
ncr
easi
ng
ordecr
easi
ng r
ainf
allr
esul
ti
ng i
nto ei
therabundance orshor
tage of
past
ures.Li
kewi
se,ant
iquar
ianr
emai
nsofpr
ehi
stor
icsi
tesr
eveal
edshi
ft
s
ofset
tl
ement
sbasedoncl
i
mat
icv
ari
ati
on.Hunt
ingandgat
her
ingwer
ethe
t
womai
nact
ivi
ti
es,
anci
entpeopl
ewer
einv
olv
edi
nandwer
edependenton
i
t.Wi
tht
hei
ncr
easi
ng popul
ati
on peopl
emov
ed t
o ot
herhunt
ing and
f
ishi
nggr
ounds.Rel
ati
onshi
pofpeopl
ewi
thpast
orall
andandcl
i
mat
ic
condi
ti
onsbecamecl
oserwhent
heyst
art
eddomest
icat
ingani
mal
s.Then
peopl
est
art
edmi
grat
ingont
hebasi
sofav
ail
abi
l
ityofl
argepast
orall
and.
Whenpeopl
est
art
edset
tl
ingatonepl
aceont
hebasi
sofagr
icul
tur
aland
past
oralact
ivi
ti
es,t
heyst
oppedwonder
ingf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace.Att
his
poi
nt al
so t
her
e wer
e ot
her f
act
orst
hat i
nfl
uenced mi
grat
ion i
.e.
homogeneousl
andsur
face,
fer
ti
lesoi
l
,goodpast
ures,
adequat
erai
nfal
let
c.
Topogr
aphi
calf
act
orssuchasr
ivercour
sesandmount
ainpasseshav
e
cont
rol
l
edear
lymi
grat
ions.Seawi
ndsandoceancur
rent
sal
soi
nfl
uenced
ear
lymi
grat
ionsbecausebot
hthesef
act
orscont
rol
l
edmi
grat
ion.

B. ANCI
ENTANDMEDI
EVALPERI
ODS:Ar
emar
kabl
ehumanmi
grat
ion
hasbeenexper
iencedbyt
hesehi
stor
icalper
iods.I
nsear
choff
reshand
sui
tabl
eagr
icul
tur
all
andandgoodpast
ures,nomadi
cmi
grat
iongear
edup
i
nthese per
iods.Peopl
e wer
e mot
ivat
ed t
o expl
ore ar
eas oft
rade
i
mpor
tanceanddur
ingt
hispr
ocessl
argenumberofexpl
orer
semer
ged
andbecauseoft
hei
radv
ent
urel
ongdi
stancemi
grat
ionsoccur
red.Human
mi
grat
ionwasal
soencour
agedbymer
chant
swhower
eexpl
ori
ngdi
ff
erent
par
tsoft
hewor
ld.Unequal
dist
ri
but
ionofagr
icul
tur
all
andandpast
uresl
ed
t
othemobi
l
ityofal
lthesepeopl
e.Theyusedt
oat
tackot
hert
err
it
ori
esi
n
caseoff
oodshor
tageandusedt
obr
ingf
oodandot
hernecessi
ti
esf
rom
t
hosear
eas.Dur
ingal
lthi
spr
ocesssomei
nvader
sset
tl
edi
nthenewl
and
andt
heact
ual
inhabi
tant
swer
efor
cedt
omov
eoutoft
her
e.

C. MODERN PERI
OD:Mi
grat
ionhasexper
iencedchangesi
nit
str
ends
and mot
ivat
ing f
act
orsi
n moder
n per
iod.Mass mov
ementhas been
r
epl
acedbyi
ndi
vi
dualmov
ement
s,mov
ingoutf
oreconomi
cset
tl
ementor
t
empor
arywor
k.Gov
ernmentpol
i
cieshav
econt
rol
l
edmoder
nmi
grat
ions
t
oal
argeext
ent
.Int
ernat
ionalandI
nter
cont
inent
almi
grat
ionshav
ebeen
i
ncr
easedbet
ween15t
hand17t
hcent
uri
es.

D. RECENTPERI
OD:Mi
grat
ionoft
hisper
iodcanbebr
oadl
ydi
vi
dedi
nto
t
wocat
egor
iesi
.e.f
orcedori
nvol
unt
aryandwi
l
li
ngorv
olunt
ary
.Theset
wo
t
ypeshav
eoccur
redwor
ldov
er.Dev
elopi
ngnat
ionsdur
ingr
ecenty
ear
s
hav
eexper
iencedanewmi
grat
iont
rendduet
odecol
oni
zat
ionmov
ement
.
When al
lthe count
ri
es gotl
i
ber
ati
on t
hey st
art
ed expl
oit
ing nat
ural
r
esour
ces,dev
elopi
ng i
nfr
a st
ruct
ure,et
c.t
hisl
ed t
othe gr
owt
h and
est
abl
i
shmentofur
ban cent
ers.Dev
elopi
ng nat
ions hav
e exper
ienced
consi
der
abl
eint
ernalmi
grat
ioni
nthef
orm ofr
uralur
banmi
grat
ionand
r
uralr
uralmi
grat
ion.I
nterr
egi
onalmi
grat
ionwascausedbyunbal
anced
r
egi
onaldev
elopment
.Inhi
ghl
yindust
ri
ali
zednat
ionsmaj
orur
bancent
ers
har
dly pr
ovi
de peacef
ulat
mospher
eto peace l
ovi
ng peopl
e.Peopl
e
somet
imesbecomedi
sgui
sedwi
thv
erybusyl
i
feofur
banci
tycent
ersand
t
heypr
efert
omov
etonear
byr
uralar
eas,
from wher
etheycancommut
eto
t
hei
rwor
kondai
l
ybasi
s.Thi
str
endhasgi
venr
iset
our
banr
uralmi
grat
ion
i
ndev
elopednat
ionsi
nrecenty
ear
s.

Fact
orst
hatdet
ermi
newhyaper
sonmi
grat
esar
erel
atedt
othepl
aceof
r
esi
dencef
rom wher
emi
grat
ionst
art
s,al
soknownast
heor
igi
n,andt
he
pl
aceofnew set
tl
ement
,orwher
emi
grat
ionendsei
thercompl
etel
yor
t
empor
ari
l
y,al
soknownast
hedest
inat
ion.Bot
htheor
igi
nanddest
inat
ion
ar
echar
act
eri
zedbyf
act
orst
hatsuppor
t(enabl
e),r
eject(
det
er)orar
e
neut
ral(
nei
thersuppor
tnoropposemi
grat
ion)
.Ty
pical
l
y,t
hecausesar
e
economi
c,soci
opol
i
tical
andecol
ogi
cal
:

I
)Economi
cfact
ors:Theser
elat
etot
hel
abourmar
ketofapl
ace,t
he
empl
oymentsi
tuat
ionandt
heov
eral
lst
ateoft
heeconomy
.Fav
our
abl
e
economi
ccondi
ti
onsatt
hedest
inat
ionbr
ingsoutt
hepr
ospectofhi
gher
wages,
bet
terempl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
esandpr
ospect
sforweal
thcr
eat
ion
andt
hedesi
ret
oescapet
hedomest
icsoci
alandpol
i
ticalsi
tuat
ionoft
hei
r
homer
egi
oncandr
aw mi
grant
stoanydest
inat
ion.Li
kewi
se,i
feconomi
c
condi
ti
onsar
eunf
avour
abl
eatt
hepl
aceofor
igi
n,poorandunempl
oyed
i
ndi
vi
dual
s woul
d be compel
l
ed t
o mi
grat
eto sust
aint
hei
rli
vel
i
hood.
Ther
efor
e,unempl
oymentorl
ack ofempl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
es,r
ural
pov
ert
yunsust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hoodi
soneoft
hel
eadi
ngf
act
orst
hatcauses
mi
grat
ion.

I
I)Soci
opol
it
icalf
act
ors: Thesei
ncl
udef
ami
l
yconf
li
ctsanduni
fi
cat
ion;
t
hequestf
ori
ndependence;
ethni
c,r
eli
gious,
raci
alandcul
tur
alpar
amet
ers;
war
far
e,ort
het
hreatofconf
li
ct,amongot
herf
act
orst
hatcont
ri
but
eto
mi
grat
ion.
Fur
ther
mor
e,pol
i
ticali
nst
abi
l
ity
,saf
ety and secur
it
y concer
ns (
ethni
c,
r
eli
gious,r
aci
alorcul
tur
alper
secut
ion)
,conf
li
ctsort
hreatofaconf
li
ct,
Sl
aver
y orbonded l
abour
,inadequat
e orl
i
mit
ed ur
ban ser
vices and
i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure(
incl
udi
ngheal
thcar
e,educat
ion,
uti
l
iti
es,
transpor
tandwat
er)
ar
epar
tofsomemi
l
itat
ingf
act
orst
hanr
esul
tst
omi
grat
ionofci
ti
zensi
n
anypar
toft
hewor
ld.

I
II
)Ecol
ogi
calf
act
ors:These i
ncl
ude env
ironment
alf
act
ors,such as
cl
i
mat
e change and t
he av
ail
abi
l
ity ofnat
uralr
esour
ces,t
hatcause
i
ndi
vi
dual
stomi
grat
einsear
chofmor
efav
our
abl
eecol
ogi
calcondi
ti
ons.
Mor
eso,cl
i
mat
echange(
incl
udi
ngext
remeweat
herev
ent
s),Cr
opf
ail
ure
andscar
cit
yoff
ood.Pov
ert
ycanal
sobeanobst
acl
etomi
grat
ionandal
so
t
hecauseofci
ti
zenr
ymov
ement
.InAf
ri
ca,85% ofi
nter
nat
ionalmi
grant
s
ar
emi
grat
ingt
owar
dsanot
herAf
ri
cancount
ry(
Dumont
,Spi
elv
ogeland
Wi
dmai
er,
2010)
.

Af
ri
cahasoneoft
hel
owestr
atesofi
mmi
grat
ionbecausepeopl
ear
etoo
poort
o mi
grat
e.Oncet
heyhav
esuf
fi
ci
entf
inanci
alr
esour
ces,peopl
e
mi
ghtmov
efr
om ar
uralt
oanur
banar
eaf
orbet
teroppor
tuni
ti
es,
andt
hen
mov
etonei
ghbour
ingcount
ri
esandsubsequent
lybey
ondt
hecont
inent
t
owar
dshi
gh-
incomecount
ri
es.

2.
1.5 THEI
MPACTOFMI
GRATI
ON:

Gl
obal
l
y,mi
grat
iont
endst
ofl
owt
owar
dsci
ti
est
hathav
eal
argepopul
ati
on.
Thev
olumeofmov
ementdecr
easesast
hedi
stancebet
weent
hepl
aceof
or
igi
nandt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
ncr
eases.Mi
grant
stendt
oremai
nin
ci
ti
esoncet
heyhav
ear
ri
vedi
nthei
rdest
inat
ioncount
ry,andbecome
si
gni
fi
cantdr
iver
sofeconomi
candur
banpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h.I
mmi
grant
s
ar
e mor
eli
kel
ytoi
ntegr
ate when t
hey j
oinl
arge number
s off
ell
ow
i
mmi
grant
sin communi
ti
es wher
eaf
ami
l
iarl
anguage i
s spoken and
suppor
tgr
oupscanbef
ound(
McKi
nsey
,2016)
.

I
mpactofmi
grat
ioni
sasubj
ectofchangei
nter
msoft
imeandspace.
Peopl
ewer
esi
mpl
ywander
ingf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
heri
nsear
chof
l
i
vel
i
hooddur
ingear
lyday
sandt
hei
rli
fewasv
erysi
mpl
e.Theef
fectof
t
hei
rmi
grat
ionwasconf
inedt
opr
imar
yact
ivi
ti
es;al
so,t
hedi
mensi
onsof
mi
grat
ion wer
e br
oadened byt
he gr
owt
h ofci
vi
li
zat
ion f
rom pr
imar
y
act
ivi
tyt
osecondar
yandf
inal
l
yter
ti
aryact
ivi
ty.Todayt
hescenar
ioi
sas
sucht
hatt
hemi
grant
shav
est
art
edt
aki
ngpar
tint
hesoci
al,
economi
c,and
pol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
esoft
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ion.Butt
hisf
actal
soaf
fect
sthe
pl
aceofor
igi
n.Mi
grant
snotonl
ychanget
heconcer
nedpl
acesbutt
hey
al
sobecomet
hesubj
ectt
ochange.

Di
ff
erentt
ypesofmi
grat
ionhav
edi
ff
erenti
nfl
uences.Outmi
grat
ionf
rom
anyr
egi
oni
nfl
uencest
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
nter
msofsoci
al,pol
i
tical
and economi
calaspect
s.Al
so,due t
o outmi
grat
ion r
ati
o off
emal
e,
chi
l
drenandol
dper
sonsi
ncr
easesatt
hepl
aceofor
igi
nandal
sor
ateof
f
ert
il
it
yandwor
kingf
orcedecr
easesconsi
der
abl
yatt
hepl
aceofor
igi
n.
Outmi
grat
ionhav
ebot
hposi
ti
veaswel
lasnegat
ivei
mpact
s.Si
mil
arl
y,
i
mmi
grat
ion has al
so got i
tsi
mpact on phy
sical
,economi
caland
demogr
aphi
cfeat
ures. The congr
egat
ion of wor
king f
orces br
ings
ef
fi
ciencyl
eadi
ngt
oincr
easei
nwor
k,pr
oduct
ionandt
hisul
ti
mat
elyl
eads
t
othepr
ogr
essoft
her
egi
on.Pl
aceofor
igi
nanddest
inat
ionbot
har
e
af
fect
eddi
sti
nct
lyduet
oper
manentmi
grat
ion.

Donorsoci
etyl
osesaski
l
ledper
sonper
manent
lyi
nthef
orm of‘
brai
ndr
ain’
.
Butt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
iongai
nsi
nthef
orm ofski
l
led l
abour
.Al
so,
somet
imest
heseper
sonswhi
l
emi
grat
ingbr
ingt
hei
rweal
tht
othepl
aceof
dest
inat
ionandi
nvesti
t,whi
chf
urt
heraddst
oit
sdev
elopment
.

Rur
alur
banmi
grat
ionhasbecomemor
esi
gni
fi
canti
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es
dur
ing r
ecenty
ear
sbecausei
ndust
ri
esar
edev
elopi
ng i
n ur
ban ar
eas.
Becauseoft
hisscenar
io,
soci
o-economi
clev
elofr
uralar
eashasi
mpr
oved
al
otaspeopl
ewor
kingher
eear
nhandsomesal
ary
.Thesal
aryear
nedby
mi
grat
ingpopul
ati
oni
nur
banar
eashasbeensentbackt
othei
rpl
aceof
or
igi
ntot
hei
rfami
l
ies r
esi
ding t
her
e. Accor
ding t
o soci
alsci
ent
ist
s,
t
ransf
ormat
ionsar
ebasi
cimpactofmi
grat
ionbr
oughtaboutbypopul
ati
on
mov
ement
.Thechar
act
eroft
hemi
granti
sofov
erwhel
mingi
mpor
tancei
n
t
hest
udyoft
hei
mpactofmi
grat
ionashei
stheagentofchangeandsuch
i
mpactcanbei
dent
if
iedas:

(
a)I
mpactonphy
sical
env
ironment

(
b)I
mpactoneconomi
c

(
c)I
mpactonsoci
alcondi
ti
ons

(
d)I
mpactoncul
tur
e

(
e)I
mpactondemogr
aphi
cst
ruct
ure

(
f)I
mpactonur
bani
zat
ion

(
g)I
mpactonpol
i
tical
act
ivi
ti
es
(
h)I
mpactonbi
ologi
cal
act
ivi
ti
es

(
i)I
mpactondi
scov
eryandexpl
orat
ions

(
a)I
mpacton phy
sicalenv
ironment
:Mobi
l
ity has been exer
ti
ng i
ts
i
nfl
uenceonphy
sicall
andscaper
ightf
rom t
hebegi
nni
ngofhumanl
i
fe.
I
ntensi
tyofi
mpactchangest
empor
all
y.I
nthewander
ingst
agepeopl
e
wer
econf
inedt
ogat
her
ingeat
abl
esf
rom t
hef
orest
srat
hert
hanal
ter
ing
l
andscapes.Al
ter
ati
onsst
art
ed i
nlandscapeonl
ywhenpeopl
est
art
ed
r
eal
i
zingt
hei
mpor
tanceofdomest
icat
ionofani
mal
s,agr
icul
tur
e,et
c.Then
t
heyst
art
edt
hepr
ocessofdef
orest
ati
onofl
andt
ost
artagr
icul
tur
eand
t
hiswasf
ir
sti
mpactofmi
grat
iononl
andscape.I
nit
ial
l
ypeopl
emov
edt
o
f
ert
il
epl
ainswi
thsui
tabl
ecl
i
mat
e.Butast
hepopul
ati
onkeptoni
ncr
easi
ng,
peopl
est
art
edmov
ingt
owar
dsl
essf
ert
il
elandsi
nmount
ainousr
egi
on,
pl
ateaus,andsemiar
idar
easandhencet
heybr
oughtsi
gni
fi
cantchanges
i
nthe phy
sicall
andscape.Peopl
e st
art
ed cut
ti
ng down f
orest
sin
mount
ainous r
egi
on t
o per
for
m t
err
ace f
armi
ng and al
so dev
eloped
i
rr
igat
ion f
aci
l
iti
es.Peopl
ereached her
ewi
thl
essdi
ff
icul
ty.I
mpactof
mi
grat
ioncaneasi
l
ybeseenonsemi
-deser
tanddeser
tregi
ons.Gr
owi
ng
demands of peopl
e coupl
ed wi
tht
he dev
elopmentof sci
ence and
t
echnol
ogy enabl
ed peopl
etoi
nhabi
t ar
eas whi
ch wer
e ot
her
wise
unsui
tabl
eforl
i
ving.Al
so,i
n and outmi
grat
ions i
nrur
alar
eas hav
e
consi
der
abl
eimpactonphy
sicall
andscape.Landscapet
ransf
ormat
ioni
s
muchmor
einur
banar
easandi
ndust
ri
alar
east
hanr
uralar
eas.I
nur
ban
ar
ea,att
hesamet
imet
her
ewi
l
lbeav
ail
abi
l
ityofmanpowerbutl
ackof
oppor
tuni
ti
esi
nther
uralar
eas,sot
hiski
ndofi
mbal
ancei
sequal
i
zedby
mi
grat
ion.

(
b)I
mpactoneconomi
cact
ivi
ty:
-impactofeconomi
cact
ivi
tycanbeseen
onal
laspect
sandst
agesofmi
grat
ion.Economi
cact
ivi
typl
aysapi
vot
al
r
olei
ndi
ff
erentst
agesofmi
grat
ion.Peopl
egetmot
ivat
edt
omov
efr
om
onepl
acet
oanot
herf
ordi
ff
erent
ialeconomyandwi
thal
ustf
oreconomi
c
bet
ter
ment
.Mi
grant
simpr
ovet
hei
reconomi
cst
atusbyget
ti
ngbet
terj
obs
att
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ion.Si
gni
fi
cantchangescanbeseeni
nagr
icul
tur
e
att
hepl
aceofor
igi
n.Dur
ingdi
ff
erentphasesofagr
icul
tur
aldev
elopment
i
mpactofmi
grat
iononagr
icul
tur
ecanbeseendi
sti
nct
ly.Ear
li
erduet
olack
of per
manent habi
tat
ion peopl
e wer
e pr
act
ici
ng shi
ft
ing agr
icul
tur
e,
becauseoft
hissi
gni
fi
cantchangeswer
ebr
oughti
nagr
icul
tur
all
andscape.
Al
sobecauseofmi
grat
ion,met
hodsofagr
icul
tur
ewer
eal
soaf
fect
ed.
Met
hodssuchascommer
cialf
armi
ng,t
ruckf
armi
ng,dai
ryf
armi
ng,et
c,
i
nvol
vedi
nshi
ft
ingagr
icul
tur
eunder
wentchanges.Hi
stor
icalanal
ysi
sof
v
ari
ouscr
opsandf
rui
tsshowst
hatt
heyar
enotnat
iveoft
hepl
acewher
e
t
heyar
egr
ownnow.Mi
grant
shav
ebr
oughtt
hem al
ongwi
tht
hem f
rom
t
hei
rpl
acesofor
igi
n.Pl
ant
ati
onsl
i
kecof
fee,t
ea,andsugar
canewer
e
or
igi
nal
l
ypr
oducedi
nAby
ssi
nianhi
ghl
and,Chi
naandI
ndi
arespect
ivel
y.A
changei
nresour
ceut
il
izat
ion,t
echnol
ogi
cali
nnov
ati
ons,and i
ndust
ri
al
dev
elopmentcan be seen as a consequence ofmi
grat
ion.Excessi
ve
mi
grat
ionencour
agedpeopl
etot
apal
lki
ndsofav
ail
abl
eresour
cest
oful
fi
ll
t
hei
rincr
easi
ngdemands.Tr
adeact
ivi
ti
esar
eal
soaf
fect
edbyt
hepr
ocess
ofmi
grat
ion.Forexampl
e,Eur
opeanmov
ementt
owar
dst
hedi
ff
erentpar
ts
oft
hewor
ldwast
radeor
ient
ed.Theyest
abl
i
shedt
hei
rtr
adecent
erst
o
gat
herr
aw mat
eri
als.Peopl
emi
grat
etoi
mpr
ovet
hei
rst
atusbyget
ti
ng
hi
ghsal
ari
edj
ob,byi
nvol
vi
ngt
hemsel
vesi
nhi
ghl
ypr
ofi
tabl
ebusi
nessand
dev
elopi
ngagr
icul
tur
e.Thi
sleadst
othet
ransf
ormat
ionoft
heeconomyof
t
hear
eaandf
inal
l
ypercapi
tai
ncomeoft
hepeopl
eincr
eases.Butout
mi
grat
ionofski
l
ledl
abour
,fi
nal
l
ypr
ovest
obeahi
ndr
ancei
nthewayof
economyoft
her
egi
on.Mi
grat
ionhasi
tsposi
ti
veef
fect
sint
hewayt
hati
t
equal
i
zeseconomi
coppor
tuni
ti
es.Ther
ewi
l
lbeav
ail
abi
l
ityofempl
oyment
butl
ackofmanpoweri
n ur
ban ar
ea,att
he same t
ime t
her
e wi
l
lbe
av
ail
abi
l
ityofmanpowerbutl
ackofoppor
tuni
ti
esi
nther
uralar
eas,
sot
his
ki
ndofi
mbal
ancei
sequal
i
zedbymi
grat
ion.

(
c)I
mpactonsoci
alcondi
ti
ons:-i
mpactofmi
grat
ionhasbeenseenon
di
ff
erentaspect
s ofsoci
all
i
fer
ightf
rom t
he begi
nni
ng ofhuman
ci
vi
li
zat
ion.Thi
s has r
esul
ted i
nthe soci
alcompl
exi
ti
es and t
hese
compl
exi
ti
esar
ewel
lmar
kedi
nsoci
alst
ruct
ure,st
andar
dofl
i
vingand
soci
ali
zat
ionpat
ter
n.Soci
alst
ruct
urei
sanessent
ialf
ramewor
kofhuman
r
elat
ions.I
tref
erst
othef
undament
alsoci
alr
elat
ionsbecauseofwhi
ch
soci
etyget
sit
sbasi
cfor
msandal
soi
tset
sthel
i
mit
soft
heact
ion.An
or
gani
zedar
rangementcanbeappl
i
edt
oat
owni
nadi
sti
ngui
shedmanner
i
.e.t
othei
nst
it
uti
ons,gr
oups,si
tuat
ions,pr
ocesses,soci
alposi
ti
onset
c.
soci
alst
ruct
ureconst
it
utesi
mpor
tantsoci
algr
oupssuchasf
ami
l
y,cast
e,
cl
ass,mar
ri
ageandr
eli
gion.Al
lthesegr
oups‟basi
cskeptchangi
ngi
nthe
wakeofmi
grat
ion.Fami
l
yst
ruct
urehasbeenaf
fect
edi
mmensel
yduet
o
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,gr
owt
h of sci
ent
if
ic knowl
edge,and ext
ensi
ons of
communi
cat
ions"
.Tr
adi
ti
onalj
ointf
ami
l
yst
art
eddi
si
ntegr
ati
ngbecauseof
peopl
e’
smi
grat
ion f
rom v
il
lagest
otheci
ti
es,l
eadi
ng t
o anumberof
psy
chol
ogi
cal
,soci
alandeconomi
cpr
obl
ems.Si
zeoff
ami
l
yexper
ienced
changesduet
orur
alur
banmi
grat
ionandur
bani
zedcomposi
ti
on.
I
nrur
alar
eas,f
ami
l
iesar
ecompr
isedofmor
ethanonegener
ati
oni
.e.
f
ather
,gr
andf
ather
,andassoci
atedmember
s,al
lli
vet
oget
her
.Buti
nur
ban
ar
eas,f
ami
l
iesar
ecompr
isedofonl
yhusband,wi
feandt
hei
rchi
l
dren.
Pr
ocessofur
bani
zat
ionhasdi
stur
bedt
hehomogenei
tyoff
ami
l
iesofr
ural
mi
grant
s.Mi
grant
swhenmov
etoci
tyt
heywi
l
lnotbeshi
ft
ingt
her
eal
ong
wi
tht
hei
rwhol
efami
l
iesandt
her
ear
esev
eralr
easonsf
orsuchbehav
iour
i
.e.mai
ntenanceoft
radi
ti
onalpr
oper
ty,emot
ionalat
tachmentwi
tht
he
pl
aceofbi
rt
handdi
sl
ikeofpar
ent
stomov
etoci
tyet
c.I
nit
ial
l
ytheymi
ght
hav
emi
grat
edal
onebutl
ateronaf
terset
tl
ingt
hingsi
nur
banar
east
hey
cal
lthei
rfami
l
iest
othenew abode.Somet
imesapar
tofabi
gfami
l
yi.
e.
husband,wi
feandki
dsmov
etot
heci
tyandst
artl
i
vingsepar
atel
yli
kea
nucl
earf
ami
l
y.Ov
eraper
iodoft
imet
hesef
ami
l
iesl
oosecont
actwi
tht
hei
r
nat
iveandt
hisl
eadst
odi
sint
egr
ati
onofj
ointf
ami
l
y.Var
iousaspect
sof
mar
ri
agei
.e.r
it
ual
sofmar
ri
age,mar
ri
ageabl
eage,sel
ect
ionofpai
r,cast
e
consi
der
ati
onet
car
egr
eat
lyi
nfl
uencedbymi
grat
ion.I
nrur
alar
easi
tis
consi
der
edt
hatmar
ri
agei
saj
ointr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,f
inanceswi
l
lbehandl
ed
byt
hef
ami
l
yjoi
ntl
ybutext
ernal
responsi
bil
i
tieswi
l
lbeshar
edbyt
hev
il
lage
peopl
eandr
elat
iveswhol
i
venearby
.Butmi
grantapar
tfr
om t
radi
ti
onal
consi
der
ati
onhav
edev
elopedanewcr
it
eri
aofmat
esel
ect
ion.Al
so,
impact
ofmi
grat
ion on mar
ri
age has been changi
ng wi
tht
ime and space.
Pr
evi
ousl
y,peopl
eofpl
aceofor
igi
nandpl
aceofdest
inat
ionwer
emor
e
i
ncl
i
nedt
owar
dst
radi
ti
onalmanner
s.Butnow aday
’speopl
eofur
ban
ar
eashav
ebeenexper
ienci
ngr
api
dchangei
nthemat
ter
sofmar
ri
age.
Si
mil
arl
y,dev
elopedanddev
elopi
ngnat
ionshav
edi
ff
erentout
looksov
er
t
heconceptofmar
ri
age.
Ther
eisav
eryl
i
ttl
eimpactofmi
grat
ionondev
elopednat
ions,buti
tdoes
hav
eimpacton r
uraland ur
ban ar
eas.Al
so,t
he sy
stem ofmar
ri
age
under
goeschangesduet
omi
grat
ion.Peopl
ecomi
ngf
rom hi
ghersoci
o-
economi
cst
rat
ast
artadopt
ingnew met
hodst
hant
hoseofl
owerst
rat
a.
Cr
it
eri
onf
orsel
ect
ionofmat
esal
sochangeswi
tht
hemi
grat
ion.Peopl
e
hav
est
art
edemphasi
zi
ngoneducat
ionalbackgr
ound,occupat
ionalst
atus
et
cast
hebasi
cforsel
ect
ingamat
eformar
ri
ager
athert
hanconcent
rat
ing
on cast
e,cl
ass,cl
an,hor
oscope,et
c.Age ofmar
ri
age has i
ncr
eased
becauseofr
uralur
banmi
grat
ion.Peopl
egetmar
ri
edatat
enderagei
n
r
uralar
eas.Peopl
einr
uralar
easwantt
hei
rdaught
erst
ogetmar
ri
edas
soonaspossi
blebecauseoft
hei
rconser
vat
ivet
hinki
ng.Butmi
grat
ionhas
l
edt
omoder
nizat
ionandi
tledt
othechangei
nthemar
ri
ageabl
eageof
boy
sandgi
rl
s.I
ntercast
erel
ati
onshav
eal
sobeenchanged.Andt
his
changehasr
emov
edt
her
est
ri
cti
ononunt
ouchabi
l
ity
.

Mi
grat
ion has i
tsi
mpacton t
he soci
alcont
actofpeopl
e.Ext
entof
r
elat
ionshi
p wi
thf
ami
l
y,f
ri
endsand r
elat
iveshasdecr
eased.I
tisnot
becauset
heydonotwantt
obei
ntouchwi
tht
hem buti
tisbecauseoft
he
di
stanceamongt
hem.Mi
grant
shav
etosuf
feral
oti
nit
ial
l
ybecauset
hey
t
ryt
oadj
ustt
hemsel
vesatt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionandst
ruggl
etomake
f
ri
endst
her
e.Soci
ali
nter
act
ionofmi
grant
sisal
soaf
fect
edbyt
hel
evelof
educat
ion.I
tisbel
i
evedt
hatpeopl
ewhoar
ehi
ghl
yeducat
edi
nter
actmor
e
wi
thl
ocalpeopl
eascompar
edt
oil
l
iter
atepeopl
e.Fr
om t
heabov
efacti
t
canbeconcl
udedt
hathi
ghert
hel
evelofeducat
ionofmi
grant
sgr
eat
eri
s
t
hei
rint
eract
ionwi
thot
herpeopl
ehav
inghi
gheducat
ion.Bef
oreget
ti
ng
segr
egat
edatt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionmi
grant
sfacepr
obl
em ofsoci
al
adj
ust
ment
.Her
eadj
ust
menthasr
efer
redt
oper
sonaladj
ust
mentandal
so
t
otheabi
l
iti
esoft
hemi
grantt
o per
for
m t
her
oleswi
thoutexcessi
ve
psy
chol
ogi
calst
ress.Sev
eralpr
obl
emsar
efaced byr
uralmi
grant
sto
adj
ustt
otheur
bansoci
etybecauseoft
hei
rlesseducat
ion,i
l
li
ter
acy
,and
l
ow i
ncomegr
oup.Theyf
acepr
obl
emsr
elat
ed t
olanguage,cust
oms,
housi
ng,mar
ri
age,r
ecr
eat
ionand cer
emoni
eset
c.soci
ali
ntegr
ati
oni
s
anot
herf
act
orwhi
chi
sinf
luencedbymi
grat
ion.I
tisduet
othi
spr
obl
em of
i
ntegr
ati
onsev
eralsoci
algr
oupsar
efor
med.Whenpeopl
ecomef
rom r
ural
ar
east
heyf
indt
heset
ti
ngdi
ff
erentandt
heyf
ormt
hei
rowngr
oupwhi
chi
s
basedoncommonl
anguage,
cust
omsandpr
act
ices.Peopl
eofr
uralar
eas
r
emai
nmor
econt
rol
l
edbysoci
all
awsascompar
edt
othepeopl
eli
vi
ngi
n
ur
banar
eas.Soci
almi
grat
ionsar
egener
all
ybr
acket
edi
ntosoci
alsel
ect
ion
pr
ocessi
.e.di
str
ibut
ionofpeopl
eint
odi
ff
erentsoci
alposi
ti
onsorst
atuses.

Theseanal
ysest
hei
mpactofmi
grat
ionondi
ff
erentaspect
sofsoci
al
st
ruct
uresand soci
ali
zat
ion pat
ter
ns.Tr
emendouschangeshav
e been
br
oughtbymi
grat
ioni
nthef
iel
doff
ami
l
y,mar
ri
age,cast
e,cl
ass,st
andar
d
ofl
i
ving,soci
ali
nter
act
ion,soci
ali
ntegr
ati
on,soci
aladj
ust
mentandsoci
al
gr
oupet
c.

(
d)I
mpacton cul
tur
e:-bef
ore get
ti
ng i
ntot
he det
ail
s ofi
mpactof
mi
grat
iononcul
tur
e,weshoul
dfi
rstbeawar
eofcul
tur
eandaccul
tur
ati
on
i
sMan’
sbehav
iourandt
hewayofcar
ryi
nghi
sdai
l
yact
ivi
ti
esr
epr
esenthi
s
cul
tur
e.A cul
tur
econsi
stsofhabi
tst
hatar
eshar
edbymember
sofa
par
ti
cul
arsoci
ety
,whet
heri
tisapr
imi
ti
vet
ri
beoraci
vi
li
zednat
ion.The
habi
tst
hatar
eshar
edi
nasoci
etyf
alli
ntot
womaj
orheadi
ngsi
.e.t
ermed
ascust
omsandcol
l
ect
ivei
deasr
espect
ivel
y.Modesofbehav
ioursuchas
et
iquet
tes and t
he t
echni
ques ofmani
pul
ati
ng mat
eri
alobj
ect
s ar
e
i
ncl
udedi
ncust
oms.Ont
heot
herhand,pr
act
icalknowl
edge,r
eli
gious
bel
i
efs and soci
alv
alues comes undercat
egor
y ofcol
l
ect
ivei
deas.
Si
mil
arl
y,accul
tur
ati
oni
sapr
ocessofchangei
ncust
om r
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
he
cont
actofpeopl
eofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
albackgr
ounds.Ani
ndi
vi
dualmayl
i
ke
t
ochangehi
spat
ter
nofbehav
iourandact
ivi
ti
es.Tr
ansf
erofcul
tur
eand
accul
tur
ati
onhasbeenseeni
nhi
stor
yal
ot,ashi
stor
yisf
ullofmi
grat
ion.
Peopl
enotonl
ymov
eint
oanewpl
acebutt
heyal
sobr
ingwi
tht
hem t
hei
r
owncul
tur
eandt
ryt
omai
ntai
nthesamei
nthei
rnewenv
ironment
.Andi
n
t
hiswhol
epr
ocesst
hecul
tur
eoft
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionst
art
schangi
ng.
Thesechangescanbeobser
vedi
ndi
ff
erentel
ement
sofcul
tur
esuchas
cust
oms,manner
s,dr
ess,l
anguage,v
alues,et
c.Ther
eisahugedi
ff
erence
bet
weencul
tur
alat
tri
but
esofpeopl
einr
ural
areasf
rom ur
banar
eas.

Rel
i
gionhasal
way
sbeenast
rongbi
ndi
ngf
orcef
orcommuni
ti
est
ost
ay
t
oget
her
.Buteducat
ionandi
nter
act
ionwi
thdi
ff
erentpeopl
ehasbr
ought
changesi
nrel
i
giousandmodeofl
i
feofmi
grant
s.Rel
i
gionhasal
way
s
occur
redi
noneort
heot
herf
ormi
nrur
alandur
banar
eas.Whenpeopl
e
mi
grat
efr
om r
uralar
east
o ur
ban ar
easa si
gni
fi
cantchangei
nthei
r
r
eli
giousf
ait
h,bel
i
efs,
foodhabi
tsandcl
othi
ngcanbeobser
ved.Bot
hfood
habi
tsandcl
othi
ngdi
ff
ersf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace.Peopl
einr
uralar
easpr
efer
f
ood gr
own t
hei
rand ar
e har
dlydepended on i
mpor
ted eat
abl
es but
ur
bani
teshav
etodependonpur
chases.

Mi
grat
ionhasl
eftwi
despr
eadi
mpactont
hedr
essofpeopl
e.Di
ff
erent
cul
tur
eshav
edi
ff
erentdr
essi
ngpat
ter
nsoft
hei
rown.Whenpeopl
eof
di
ff
erentcul
tur
esAssembl
etoget
hert
heyt
ryt
oadopteachot
her
sdr
ess
pr
efer
abl
ythebet
terone.Ol
dpeopl
ear
elessadapt
ivet
hant
headul
tsand
ki
ds.Ur
banar
eashav
eav
ari
etyofdr
essesbuti
nrur
alar
easal
most
ev
ery
onewear
str
adi
ti
onaldr
essoft
hei
rowncul
tur
e.Mor
eov
erdesi
gnand
use ofor
nament
s has al
so been af
fect
ed bymi
grat
ion.Mostoft
he
mi
grant
sgetaddi
ctedt
oat
tendr
est
aur
ant
sandcl
ubs.Butmostoft
he
cl
ubsandr
est
aur
ant
sar
ever
ycost
lyandmi
grant
susual
l
ybel
ongt
olower
soci
o-economi
cst
atus.Becauseoft
hehi
ghcostofcl
ubsandr
est
aur
ant
s
t
heygetat
tract
edt
owar
dst
heat
rewhi
chi
scompar
ati
vel
ylesscost
ly.

(
e)I
mpactondemogr
aphi
cst
ruct
ure:
-thedemogr
aphi
cst
ruct
ureofbot
h
t
hepl
acesi
.e.t
hepl
aceofor
igi
nandpl
aceofdest
inat
ionget
schanged
becauseofmov
ementofpeopl
ebet
weent
heset
wopl
aces.Becauseof
t
his mov
ementsev
eralf
act
orsr
elat
ed t
o demogr
aphi
cfeat
ures get
s
af
fect
edi
.e.di
str
ibut
ionofpopul
ati
on,
growt
h,age,
sex,
li
ter
acy
,occupat
ion,
f
ert
il
it
yandmor
tal
i
tyofpeopl
e.Pr
opor
ti
onofwor
kingf
orceget
schange
becauseofmi
grat
ionpr
opor
ti
onofwor
kingf
orcei
ncr
easesatt
hepl
aceof
dest
inat
ionaspeopl
emov
etour
banar
easf
orbet
tereconomi
cst
atus.I
n
addi
ti
ont
othi
s,occupat
ionalst
ruct
ureal
sochanges.Nat
ureofj
obatt
he
pl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
smai
nlyr
esponsi
blef
ort
hechangei
noccupat
ional
st
ruct
ure.Mi
grat
ion al
so l
eads t
o occupat
ionalmobi
l
ity.
i.
e.v
eryf
ew
mi
grant
swi
l
lfol
l
owt
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onaloccupat
ionalpat
ter
nsi
ntowns.I
nfact
,
t
heyadoptsuchoccupat
ionswhi
chpr
ovi
det
hem soci
alposi
ti
onaswel
las
hi
gherear
ning.Changesoft
hiski
ndcangener
all
ybeseeni
nthepeopl
eof
backwar
dcommuni
tyast
heywantt
ohi
det
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
occupat
ion.

(
f)I
mpactonur
bani
zat
ion:-mi
grat
ioni
scl
osel
yrel
atedt
our
bani
zat
ion.
I
mpor
tantel
ement
sinur
bandy
nami
csar
econst
it
utedbybot
hint
ernaland
ext
ernalmi
grat
ion.Mi
grat
ionassuchi
sapr
econdi
ti
onoft
hepr
ocessof
ur
bani
zat
ion.I
nit
ial
l
y,mi
grant
sint
heur
banhandsar
erawbutt
heybecome
ski
l
led ov
era per
iod oft
ime.And byobt
aini
ng ski
l
ls,t
echni
quesand
r
equi
redknowl
edget
heyf
iti
ntoanumberofur
banj
obs.Mi
grat
ioni
snot
onl
y a pr
erequi
sit
e condi
ti
on ofur
bani
zat
ion butal
so a concomi
tant
pr
ocess of i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion and subsequent expansi
on as wel
las
pr
oli
fer
ati
onoft
heci
ti
es.

Al
so,
migr
ati
onaf
fect
spubl
i
cut
il
it
yser
vicesv
erywor
st.Lar
gescal
ear
ri
val
ofmi
grant
sleadst
oincr
easei
ndemandsoff
aci
l
iti
esoft
ranspor
tat
ion,
heal
thcar
e,educat
ionali
nst
it
uti
ons,r
ecr
eat
ionalcent
erssuchasci
nema
hal
l
,cl
ubet
c.,wat
ersuppl
y,sani
tat
ionandpowersuppl
y.Thi
scondi
ti
on
canbeav
oidedi
ftownsar
epl
annedwel
l
.

(
g)I
mpactonpol
it
icalact
ivi
ti
es:
-ev
eryspher
eofl
i
feanddayt
oday
act
ivi
ti
es has been cov
ered by pol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.Al
lbug and smal
l
communi
ti
esar
ebei
ngcont
rol
l
edbypol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.Pol
i
ticali
mpactof
mi
grat
ion i
sdi
sti
ncti
nlocal
,int
ra-
nat
ionaland i
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion.
Nat
ionalsol
i
dar
it
yandi
ntegr
ati
onhasbeenconsol
i
dat
edbyr
egi
onal
,int
er
st
ate or i
ntr
a nat
ionalmi
grat
ion and f
eel
i
ng of r
egi
onal
i
sm get
s
di
scour
aged.Peopl
eofdi
ff
erentr
eli
giousandcul
tur
esar
ebr
oughtt
oget
her
by r
egi
onalmov
ementoft
he peopl
e.Thi
sfur
therl
eads t
o nat
ional
i
ntegr
ati
onasi
tincl
udescul
tur
ali
nter
act
ion,adapt
ati
on,accul
tur
ati
onand
assi
mil
ati
on.Localadmi
nist
rat
ionofbot
hthepl
acesi
.e.pl
aceofor
igi
nand
t
hatofdest
inat
ionget
saf
fect
edduet
orur
alur
banmi
grat
ion.Lackof
pol
i
ticalpar
ti
cipat
ionofmi
granti
sbecauseofsev
eralf
act
orsi
.e.i
l
li
ter
acy
,
communi
tyadj
ust
ment
set
c.Theexodusofr
uralpeopl
etot
het
owns
cr
eat
espr
obl
emsf
orl
ocal
admi
nist
rat
ion.I
fpeopl
emi
grat
efr
om keyst
rat
a
ofpopul
ati
on,i
ttendst
odi
stur
bthest
ruct
ureanddi
str
ibut
ionofpoweri
n
bot
hthesoci
eti
es.Mi
grant
sgener
all
ybeganpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
esf
rom hi
s
pl
aceofwor
k;t
her
ehet
ri
est
oest
abl
i
shhi
srel
ati
onshi
pwi
thhi
sfel
l
ow
per
sonsont
hebasi
sofhi
sabi
l
ityandapt
it
ude.Theybecomemember
sof
or
gani
zat
ions r
elat
ed t
othei
r pr
ofessi
on and such par
ti
ci
pat
ion i
n
pr
ofessi
onaland occupat
ionalassoci
ati
on pav
es wayf
orhi
s pol
i
tical
act
ivi
ti
es and par
ti
cipat
ion. Al
lthe pr
ofessi
onal and occupat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionsar
edi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyassoci
atedwi
thpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es.
Mi
grant
s who wor
k i
n gov
ernment or
gani
zat
ions do not accept
member
shi
p ofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es wher
eas peopl
e who do notwor
kin
gov
ernmentor
gani
zat
ioneasi
l
ybecomemember
sofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esof
t
hei
rchoi
ce.At
ti
tude and out
look ofmi
grant
s aboutpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es
dependsupont
hedur
ati
onoft
hei
rst
ayi
nthatar
ea.Newmi
grant
swi
l
lbe
l
eastbot
her
edt
oent
eri
ntopol
i
ticsbutt
hosewhoar
est
ayi
ngf
rom al
ong
t
imewi
l
lbemor
eincl
i
nedt
oent
eri
ntopol
i
tics.Mor
eov
er,t
hel
evelof
par
ti
cipat
ionofmi
granti
ntopol
i
ticscanbeseeni
nthepat
ter
noft
hei
r
r
egi
str
ati
on i
nvot
ersl
i
stf
orci
vi
c,st
ate and nat
ionalpol
l
s.Pol
i
tical
awakeni
ngofami
granti
sinf
luencedbyt
hei
rlev
elofeducat
ion.i
.e.hi
ghl
y
qual
i
fiedi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
emor
eint
erest
edi
nget
ti
ngt
hemsel
vesr
egi
ster
ed
ascompar
edt
o ani
l
li
ter
ateandl
esseducat
edmi
grantwho ar
eleast
bot
her
edaboutt
hesemat
ter
s.Ther
uralpol
i
ticalst
ruct
urei
saf
fect
edby
al
ter
ingage-
sexbal
ance,andbecauseoft
hisi
tof
tenaf
fect
sthesoci
al
t
askswhi
char
eat
tri
but
edt
ovar
ious.Somemi
grant
stakepar
tint
he
pol
i
tical
act
ivi
ti
esofar
eofor
igi
nli
kepanchay
atel
ect
ions.

(
h)I
mpactonbi
ologi
calchar
act
ers:
-thr
eemosti
mpor
tantel
ement
sof
ecol
ogyar
eman,ani
malandpl
ant
s,whi
char
eaf
fect
edbymi
grat
ion.Al
l
t
heset
hreeel
ement
sar
ecl
osel
yrel
atedt
oenv
ironmentandanychangei
n
env
ironmentl
eadst
ochangei
nthem.Ther
eisaconsi
der
abl
echangei
n
env
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsofanyt
wor
egi
ons.Mi
grat
ionofpeopl
eisal
so
i
nfl
uenced by t
he env
ironment
al condi
ti
ons. Al
so, mi
grant
s br
ing
modi
fi
cat
ion i
nthe exi
sti
ng env
ironment
alcondi
ti
ons by expl
oit
ing
r
esour
ces,def
orest
ati
on,dev
elopmentofi
ndust
ri
eset
c.Andbecauseof
t
heseact
ivi
ti
esl
andandwat
ergetaf
fect
edv
erymuch.Twomai
nfact
ors
t
hatar
eresponsi
blef
orpol
l
uti
on ofwat
erar
eindust
ri
ali
zat
ion and
ur
bani
zat
ion.Chi
mney
s ofbi
gindust
ri
es ej
ecthar
mfulgas and al
so
di
schar
gepol
l
utedwat
erf
rom f
act
ori
es.Heal
thofur
banpeopl
eal
soget
s
af
fect
edbecauseofsewageanddr
ainagesy
stem ofur
banar
eas.Ev
ery
r
egi
onhasi
tsownt
ypeofdi
seaseandwhenmi
grant
smi
grat
etheyal
so
br
ingv
ari
ousdi
seasesal
ongwi
tht
hem andi
tget
sspr
eadi
ntheur
ban
ar
eas.Var
iousdi
seaseshav
ebeencar
ri
edbymi
grant
’snamel
ytr
opi
cal
di
seasesi
.
e.smal
lpox,
yel
l
owf
everet
c.Thati
swhyt
heyar
econsi
der
edt
o
becar
ri
ersofdi
sease.Al
so,changesar
ebr
oughti
npsy
chol
ogi
calt
rai
tsof
peopl
eduet
oint
err
aci
almi
xi
ng.

(
i)I
mpactondi
scov
eryandexpl
oit
ati
on:
-Mi
grat
ionofhumanbei
ngsand
t
hei
rexpl
orat
ionar
etot
all
yint
erdependent
.Inanci
entt
imes,mai
nmot
ive
behi
ndmi
grat
ionwasr
ati
onofnewar
eas,t
hingset
c.al
sodur
ingpr
imi
ti
ve
t
imes peopl
e use t
o wanderf
rom one pl
ace t
o anot
heri
n sear
ch of
l
i
vel
i
hood,
thenst
art
eddi
scov
eryf
orl
andandnat
ural
resour
ces,
thi
sfur
ther
mot
ivat
edpeopl
etomov
efr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her
.Int
hiswaypr
ocess
ofmi
grat
iongoti
nfl
uencedduet
oongoi
ngexpl
orat
ions.Thi
squestl
eads
t
othe di
scov
eryofnew cont
inent
s,al
ong wi
tht
he di
scov
eryofnew
r
esour
cesatt
henewl
yfoundpl
ace.I
nthi
swaymi
grant
sfoundnew l
and
andr
esour
cest
oli
veon.

Af
terhav
ing a det
aildi
scussi
on on t
he di
ff
erentpat
ter
ns,t
ypes and
concept
sofmi
grat
ion,
ithasbecomequi
teunder
stoodt
hatt
her
ear
emany
f
act
orswhi
char
ewebbedt
oget
hert
hatl
eadst
omi
grat
ion.Consequent
ly,
it
al
sobecomescl
eart
hatt
her
ear
esev
eralunder
lyi
ngdesi
resoft
heper
sons
t
hatmot
ivat
ehi
m/hert
omi
grat
eoutoft
hei
rbi
rt
hpl
aceorper
manent
set
ti
ng.Asf
arasouruni
ver
seofst
udyi
sconcer
ned,bykeepi
ngal
lthese
f
act
orsi
npl
acewewi
l
ltr
ytoanal
yzet
hei
runder
lyi
ngdesi
res/wi
shes
webbedi
ntot
hei
rowncompl
exst
ruct
ure.Mor
especi
fi
cal
l
yint
hismi
l
ieu,
wewi
l
lbet
hef
ocusi
ngont
hei
rreasonst
omi
grat
einconj
unct
ionwi
tht
hei
r
phy
sicalef
fect
,andsoci
o-economi
ccondi
ti
ons.I
nnextchapt
erwewi
l
lbe
abl
etost
udyal
ltheseper
cept
ions,r
easonset
cthr
ought
hedat
athatwi
l
l
becol
l
ect
edt
odev
elopabet
terunder
standi
ngoft
heconceptofmi
grat
ion.

2.
2 THEORETI
CALFRAMEWORK

Thet
heor
eti
calf
ramewor
kthatwi
l
lbeempl
oyedi
nthi
sst
udyi
stheTheor
y
ofMi
grat
ionZone.Thi
stheor
ywaspr
opoundedbyGr
if
fi
thTay
lori
n1949.
Mi
grat
ion zonet
heor
yiscl
assi
fi
ed undert
heSy
stem Appr
oach wher
e
someschol
arsl
i
keMabogunj
e,hav
econcei
vedmi
grat
ionasasy
stem i
n
whi
chmi
grat
ioni
svi
ewedasci
rcul
ari
nter-
dependentandsel
f-modi
fyi
ng
sy
stem i
nwhi
cht
heef
fect
sofchangesi
nonepar
thasar
ippl
eef
fect
t
hrought
hewhol
esy
stem.Accor
dingt
oSt
ouf
fer(
1940,p.845)
,mi
grat
ion
ZoneTheor
yisbasedondi
ff
usi
onofpopul
ati
on(
ital
lst
art
edf
rom t
he
cr
adl
elandofCent
ralAsi
a,whi
chl
i
esneart
heCaspi
anandAr
alseaswi
th
t
heNegr
o-Negr
it
owhi
chcausedsev
eralr
acest
oev
olv
edandmi
grat
edal
l
ov
ert
hewor
ld)
.

Fur
ther
mor
e,t
het
heor
yshowst
hesuccessi
vemov
ementofpeopl
etot
he
per
ipher
alar
easoft
hewor
ld,sev
eralr
aci
alzonesi
neachcont
inent
,whi
ch
gi
ve cl
ear
-cutev
idences ofmi
grat
ions ofpeopl
ein ev
ery cont
inent
.
Ther
efor
e,t
hist
heor
y was pr
efer
red amongstot
hert
heor
ies f
ort
his
r
esear
chsoast
oascer
tai
nthesoci
al,
economi
calandphy
sicali
mpl
i
cat
ion
ofmi
grat
ion.

2.
3 RESEARCHHYPOTHESI
S:

Bef
oreweout
li
net
hisst
udy
'sr
esear
chhy
pot
hesi
s,weseei
tessent
ialt
o
f
ir
stl
yanswert
her
esear
chquest
ionsst
ipul
atedi
nchapt
eroneoft
hiswor
k,
whi
chwasder
ivedf
rom t
hest
udyobj
ect
ives.

Resear
chQuest
ion1seekt
oinv
est
igat
e"i
fmi
grat
ionhasanyphy
sical
ef
fectori
mpact
"andweobser
vedt
hatt
hepr
ocessofmov
ementhas
phy
sicalef
fect
s,andt
hecr
uxcov
erhumanmi
grant
s,t
hesoci
etyr
elocat
ed
f
rom andt
henewpl
aceofabode;
andt
othi
s,t
heanswer
(s)t
oquest
ion1i
s
di
scussedasf
oll
ows:
1.
)Mi
grat
ion has adv
erse i
mpl
icat
ion on humans:Thi
s answeri
sin
consonancewi
thEv
eret
t(1975:195)
,al
so,Ley
play(
1970:17&117)i
nthi
s
connect
iont
heypoi
ntoutt
hatmi
grat
ioncr
eat
esmanysoci
alpr
obl
ems
such as pr
obl
em of seeki
ng new af
fi
li
ati
ons and bases of soci
al
r
elat
ionshi
ps,
redef
ini
ti
onoft
hei
rst
atus,
rol
es,
groupsv
aluesandpr
act
ices
andr
eadj
ust
mentoft
hei
rfami
l
yrel
ati
onsandr
oles.Af
termi
grat
ionpeopl
e
t
ryt
ofor
m agr
oupatt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ion,t
heyest
abl
i
shr
elat
ionshi
p
ont
hebasi
sofcast
e,nei
ghbour
hoodandst
atus.Theyf
aceal
otofsoci
al
pr
obl
ems because t
hey bel
ong t
o di
ff
erentcast
e,cl
ass and f
ami
l
y
backgr
ound.Theyusual
l
yfi
nddi
ff
icul
tyt
oadj
usti
nthesoci
all
i
fei
.e.soci
al
adj
ust
mentwi
tht
hemi
grant
sofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
alr
egi
onsaswel
laswi
th
or
igi
nali
nhabi
tant
s.Mi
grant
shav
etosuf
feral
oti
nit
ial
l
ybecauset
heyt
ry
t
oadj
ustt
hemsel
vesatt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionandst
ruggl
etomake
f
ri
endst
her
e.Soci
ali
nter
act
ionofmi
grant
sisal
soaf
fect
edbyt
hel
evelof
educat
ion.I
tisbel
i
evedt
hatpeopl
ewhoar
ehi
ghl
yeducat
edi
nter
actmor
e
wi
thl
ocalpeopl
eascompar
edt
oil
l
iter
atepeopl
e.Fr
om t
heabov
efacti
t
canbeconcl
udedt
hathi
ghert
hel
evelofeducat
ionofmi
grant
sgr
eat
eri
s
t
hei
rint
eract
ionwi
thot
herpeopl
ehav
inghi
gheducat
ion.Bef
oreget
ti
ng
segr
egat
edatt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionmi
grant
sfacepr
obl
em ofsoci
al
adj
ust
ment
.Her
eadj
ust
menthasr
efer
redt
oper
sonaladj
ust
mentandal
so
t
otheabi
l
iti
esoft
hemi
grantt
o per
for
m t
her
oleswi
thoutexcessi
ve
psy
chol
ogi
calst
ress.Sev
eralpr
obl
emsar
efaced byr
uralmi
grant
sto
adj
ustt
otheur
bansoci
etybecauseoft
hei
rlesseducat
ion,i
l
li
ter
acy
,and
l
ow i
ncomegr
oup.Theyf
acepr
obl
emsr
elat
ed t
olanguage,cust
oms,
housi
ng,mar
ri
age,r
ecr
eat
ionand cer
emoni
eset
c.soci
ali
ntegr
ati
oni
s
anot
herf
act
orwhi
chi
sinf
luencedbymi
grat
ion.Peopl
enotonl
ymov
eint
o
anew pl
acebutt
heyal
sobr
ingwi
tht
hem t
hei
rowncul
tur
eandt
ryt
o
mai
ntai
nthesamei
nthei
rnewenv
ironment
.Andi
nthi
swhol
epr
ocesst
he
cul
tur
eoft
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionst
art
schangi
ng.Thesechangescanbe
obser
vedi
ndi
ff
erentel
ement
sofcul
tur
esuchascust
oms,
manner
s,dr
ess,
l
anguage,v
alues,et
c.I
tisduet
othi
spr
obl
em ofi
ntegr
ati
onsev
eralsoci
al
gr
oupsar
efor
med.Whenpeopl
ecomef
rom r
uralar
east
heyf
indt
he
set
ti
ngdi
ff
erentandt
heyf
ormt
hei
rowngr
oupwhi
chi
sbasedoncommon
l
anguage,
cust
omsandpr
act
ices.

Anot
heref
fectofmi
grat
ioni
sthati
tcoul
dcauset
hel
ossofaf
ami
l
y
memberandpr
oper
ty,t
hisconnect
swi
tht
hewor
kofSav
aniandSaxena
whoi
nthei
rst
udyhav
eemphasi
zedont
hecondi
ti
onoft
hemi
grant
s.
Accor
dingt
othem bot
hri
chandpoorar
eequal
l
ypr
onet
omi
grat
ion.I
nthe
caseofr
ichpeopl
e,t
heymi
grat
etour
banar
easf
orbet
tercomf
ort
abl
e
l
i
fest
ylewhi
l
easf
araspoorpeopl
ear
econcer
nedt
heymi
grat
etour
ban
ar
easowi
ngt
othei
reconomi
char
dshi
ps.I
nrel
ati
ont
othi
sGupt
ahasgi
ven
hi
spoi
nts,hest
atest
hat“
per
sonsbel
ongi
ngt
oupperst
rat
um hav
ehi
gher
i
ncl
i
nat
iont
omi
grat
efr
om r
uralt
our
banar
easbecauset
heyhav
ehi
gher
l
evelofeducat
ionandeconomi
ccondi
ti
ons”
.Sexf
act
orhasal
sobeena
det
ermi
ningf
act
orf
ordi
stancesofmobi
l
ity
.Incaseofr
ichpeopl
e,t
hey
pr
efert
omov
etoci
ti
esal
ongwi
tht
hei
rfemal
emember
sbutasf
araspoor
peopl
ear
econcer
nedt
heyar
ecompel
l
edt
omov
etoci
ti
eswi
thoutt
hei
r
f
emal
epar
tner
sast
heycannotmeett
hei
rnor
mal
expenses.

Tr
adi
ti
onalj
ointf
ami
l
ybaseonr
esear
chandobser
vat
ion,di
si
ntegr
ates
becauseofpeopl
e'
smi
grat
ionf
rom anypl
aceexampl
eNi
ger
ia,
leadi
ngt
oa
numberofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
,soci
alandeconomi
cpr
obl
ems.Si
zeoff
ami
l
y
exper
iencedchangesduemi
grat
ioncomposi
ti
on.Ab-
bini
ti
o,f
ami
l
iesar
e
compr
ised ofmor
ethan one gener
ati
on i
.e.f
ather
,gr
andf
ather
,and
associ
atedmember
s,al
lli
vet
oget
her
.Buti
nwhenmov
ementoccurf
or
ot
herr
easonsexceptwar
,fami
l
iesar
ecompr
isedofonl
yhusband,
wif
eand
t
hei
rchi
l
dren.Mi
grant
swhenmov
ingt
oadi
ff
erentpl
acewi
l
lnotbeshi
ft
ing
t
her
eal
onebutwi
tht
hei
rwhol
efami
l
iesandi
fthemov
ementwoul
dbet
o
anot
hercount
ryl
i
ket
heEur
opeanci
ti
es,
themal
especi
esar
emor
eli
kel
yto
mov
ewi
thoutot
herf
ami
l
ymember
ssuchaswi
feandchi
l
drenbecause
t
her
eismucht
endencyt
hatt
hechi
l
dwoul
dbeaf
fect
edheal
thwi
se,i
nthe
aspectofi
l
legalmov
ementt
hroughj
ungl
es,mount
ainanddeser
t.Buton
ot
hercase, t
heymi
ghthav
emi
grat
edal
onebutl
ateronaf
terset
tl
ing
t
hingsi
nthenewar
eat
heycal
lthei
rfami
l
iest
othenewabode.Somet
imes
apar
tofabi
gfami
l
yi.
e.husband,wi
feandki
dsmov
etot
heci
tyandst
art
l
i
vingsepar
atel
yli
keanucl
earf
ami
l
y.Ov
eraper
iodoft
imet
hesef
ami
l
ies
l
oosecont
actwi
tht
hei
rnat
iveandt
hisl
eadst
odi
si
ntegr
ati
onofj
oint
f
ami
l
y.Hence,mi
grat
ionhasi
tsi
mpactont
hesoci
alcont
actofpeopl
e,
ext
entofr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thf
ami
l
y,f
ri
endsandr
elat
ivesdecr
eases.I
tisnot
becauset
heydonotwantt
obei
ntouchwi
tht
hem buti
tisbecauseoft
he
di
stanceamongt
hem.

Al
so,t
hesy
stem ofmar
ri
ageunder
goeschangesduet
omi
grat
ion.Peopl
e
comi
ngf
rom hi
ghersoci
o-economi
cst
rat
ast
artadopt
ingnew met
hods
t
hant
hoseofl
owerst
rat
a.Cr
it
eri
onf
orsel
ect
ionofmat
esal
sochanges.
Peopl
ewoul
dst
artemphasi
zi
ngoneducat
ionalbackgr
ound,occupat
ional
st
atus as t
he basi
cforsel
ect
ing a mat
eformar
ri
age r
athert
han
concent
rat
ingoncast
e,cl
ass,
clan,
hor
oscope.
I
nconcl
usi
on,Sel
ect
ionofgoodhabi
tabl
eandagr
icul
tur
all
andi
nfl
uence
human bei
ngs t
o mov
efr
om one pl
ace t
o anot
hernotmi
ndi
ng t
he
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsanddangert
hatcanoccuront
hewayorexper
iencedatt
he
dest
inat
ionpoi
nt.Fori
nst
ance,r
esear
chhasshownt
hati
l
legalMi
grant
s
f
rom Ni
ger
iat
oEur
opeancount
ri
esmakeuseoft
heSahar
aDeser
tast
hei
r
r
out
e,att
hissi
tuat
iont
hei
rli
vesar
eendanger
edandmanydeat
hshav
e
beenr
ecor
dedduet
onat
uralcal
ami
ti
es,bef
oreandaf
terar
ri
valt
othe
dest
inat
ion.

2.Phy
sicalef
fectonPl
ace: Becauseofpeopl
esshi
ftf
rom anunder
dev
elopedr
egi
ont
oadev
elopi
ngoradev
elopedr
egi
on,
thei
rpl
aceofor
igi
n
aswel
lasdest
inat
ionhav
ebeenadv
ersel
yaf
fect
ed;
migr
ati
onbr
ingsabout
soci
o-economi
c,cul
tur
aland pol
i
ticalchanges i
n a gi
ven soci
ety
,
par
ti
cul
arl
yint
hegr
oup ofmi
grant
s.I
tcr
eat
est
hepr
obl
em ofsoci
o-
cul
tur
aladj
ust
ment
stot
hepl
aceofhi
smi
grat
ionbypl
aci
nghi
mint
oqui
te
newsoci
alsi
tuat
ioni
nvol
vi
ngt
wocul
tur
es.

When peopl
e mi
grat
efr
om a par
ti
cul
arunderdev
eloped r
egi
on t
oa
dev
eloped r
egi
on,t
hei
rpl
ace ofor
igi
n under
goes posi
ti
ve as wel
las
negat
ive ef
fect
s. Posi
ti
ve ef
fect
sincl
ude i
ncr
ease ofshar
e ofl
and
hol
dings,i
mpr
ovementi
ntheeconomi
ccondi
ti
onandl
i
vingcondi
ti
onby
t
heconst
ruct
ionofgoodhouseet
c.Ther
egi
onwhi
chdonat
esmi
grant
s
exper
iences some set
backs i
.e.shor
tage of l
abour i
s exper
ienced,
somet
imes mov
ementofy
oung orwor
king f
orce r
est
ri
ctst
he pr
oper
gr
owt
hoft
her
egi
on.I
thasbeenobser
vedmost
lyt
hatpeopl
erecei
vet
hei
r
basi
ceducat
ion(
techni
calorgener
al)att
hepl
aceoft
hei
ror
igi
nbutt
hey
r
arel
yser
vet
he pl
ace oft
hei
ror
igi
n,t
his congl
omer
ates wi
th Saf
a's
f
indi
ngs(
1975:
l).

Thepl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
sal
soaf
fect
edbymi
grat
ion.So,t
heef
fectof
mi
grat
ionont
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ioncanbegr
oupedi
ntot
wopar
tsi
.e.
posi
ti
veandnegat
ive.Posi
ti
veaspect
:pl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
sconsi
der
ed
asadev
elopedar
eabecauseofwhi
cheducat
edy
oungpeopl
emi
grat
eto
t
hesear
eas,
ther
ebypr
ovi
dingal
argenumberofl
abour
erst
othi
sar
ea.But
ascompar
edt
oposi
ti
veaspect
s,i
thasmor
enumberofnegat
iveaspect
s.
Becauseoft
hismobi
l
ity
,thepopul
ati
onsi
zeoft
hear
eai
ncr
easesata
muchf
ast
err
ate.Thi
sunexpect
edi
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
onl
eadst
othe
cr
eat
ionofsl
ums,unaut
hor
izedconst
ruct
ion,haphazar
dgr
owt
hoft
owns,
t
ranspor
tpr
obl
ems,shor
tageofpubl
i
cut
il
it
yser
vicesand educat
ional
f
aci
l
iti
es.Becausemi
grant
sbel
ongt
odi
ff
erentcul
tur
es,t
heyf
inddi
ff
icul
ty
i
nsoci
ali
zi
ngwi
tht
hel
ocalmasses,
sot
heyst
artdi
vor
cingt
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
way
sofl
i
feandst
artadopt
ingadv
ancedcust
omsoft
henew l
ocat
ion.
Fur
ther
mor
e,i
mbal
ancehasbeencr
eat
edbot
hindemogr
aphi
caswel
las
r
egi
onaldev
elopmentbecauseofmobi
l
ityofpeopl
e.Thedemogr
aphi
c
st
ruct
ureofbot
hthepl
acesi
.e.t
hepl
aceofor
igi
nandpl
aceofdest
inat
ion
get
schangedbecauseofmov
ementofpeopl
ebet
weent
heset
wopl
aces.
Becauseoft
hismov
ementsev
eralf
act
orsr
elat
edt
odemogr
aphi
cfeat
ures
get
s af
fect
ed i
.e.di
str
ibut
ion ofpopul
ati
on,gr
owt
h,age,sex,l
i
ter
acy
,
occupat
ion,f
ert
il
it
yandmor
tal
i
tyofpeopl
e.Pr
opor
ti
onofwor
kingf
orce
get
schangebecauseofmi
grat
ionpr
opor
ti
onofwor
kingf
orcei
ncr
easesat
t
hepl
aceofdest
inat
ionaspeopl
emov
etomor
edev
elopedar
easf
orbet
ter
economi
cst
atus.
Peopl
eofdi
ff
erentr
eli
giousandcul
tur
esar
ebr
oughtt
oget
herbyr
egi
onal
mov
ementoft
hepeopl
e.Thi
sfur
therl
eadst
onat
ionali
ntegr
ati
onasi
t
i
ncl
udescul
tur
ali
nter
act
ion,adapt
ati
on,accul
tur
ati
on and assi
mil
ati
on.
Theexodusofmi
grat
iont
oadi
ff
erentpl
acecr
eat
espr
obl
emsf
orl
ocal
admi
nist
rat
ion;I
fpeopl
emi
grat
efr
om keyst
rat
aofpopul
ati
on,i
ttendst
o
di
stur
bthest
ruct
ureanddi
str
ibut
ionofpoweri
nbot
hthesoci
eti
es.

Thr
eemosti
mpor
tantel
ement
sofecol
ogyar
eman,ani
malandpl
ant
s,
whi
ch ar
eaf
fect
ed bymi
grat
ion.Al
ltheset
hreeel
ement
sar
ecl
osel
y
r
elat
edt
oenv
ironmentandanychangei
nenv
ironmentl
eadst
ochangei
n
t
hem.Ther
eisaconsi
der
abl
echangei
nenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsofany
t
wor
egi
ons.Mi
grat
ionofpeopl
eisal
soi
nfl
uencedbyt
heenv
ironment
al
condi
ti
ons.Al
so,mi
grant
sbr
ingmodi
fi
cat
ioni
ntheexi
sti
ngenv
ironment
al
condi
ti
ons by expl
oit
ing r
esour
ces, def
orest
ati
on, dev
elopment of
i
ndust
ri
eset
c.Andbecauseoft
heseact
ivi
ti
esl
andandwat
ergetaf
fect
ed
v
erymuch.Themai
nfact
orst
hatar
eresponsi
blef
orpol
l
uti
onofwat
erar
e
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion. Ev
eryr
egi
on hasi
tsown t
ypeofdi
seaseand when
mi
grant
smi
grat
etheyal
sobr
ingv
ari
ousdi
seasesal
ongwi
tht
hem andi
t
get
sspr
eadi
nthear
ea.Var
iousdi
seaseshav
ebeencar
ri
edbymi
grant
's
namel
ytr
opi
caldi
seasesi
.e.smal
lpox,
yel
l
owf
everet
c.Hence,
thati
swhy
mi
grant
sar
econsi
der
edt
obecar
ri
ersofdi
seaseandt
hiscanber
ecor
ded
asoneoft
hedi
sadv
ant
agesofmi
grat
ion.

I
nconcl
usi
on,pl
aceofor
igi
nanddest
inat
ionbot
har
eaf
fect
eddi
sti
nct
ly
due t
o per
manentmi
grat
ion.Donor soci
etyl
oses a ski
l
led per
son
per
manent
lyi
nthef
orm of“
brai
ndr
ain”
.Butt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
iongai
ns
i
nthe f
orm ofski
l
led l
abour
.Al
so,somet
imes t
hese per
sons whi
l
e
mi
grat
ingbr
ingt
hei
rweal
tht
othepl
aceofdest
inat
ionandi
nvesti
t,whi
ch
f
urt
heraddst
oit
sdev
elopment
.Ther
efor
e,I
tisdeducedt
hatmi
grat
ioni
s
i
nfl
uencedbynumberofphy
sicalf
act
orssuchasgeogr
aphi
calcondi
ti
ons,
economi
c hazar
ds,non-
avai
l
abi
l
ity ofr
egul
arand r
eli
abl
e occupat
ion,
educat
ionaloppor
tuni
ti
es and achi
evement
s and sev
eralot
hersoci
o-
psy
chol
ogi
calcondi
ti
ons,andt
hisaf
fect
smanki
ndandhi
senv
ironmenti
n
bot
hposi
ti
veandnegat
iveway
s.

Resear
chQuest
ion2possesswhet
herpoornat
ionbui
l
dingaccount
sfor
br
aindr
ainandci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion.Fi
rst
ly,t
hepr
ocessi
nwhi
chacount
ry
l
osesi
tsmosteducat
edandt
alent
edwor
ker
stoot
hercount
ri
est
hrough
mi
grat
ioni
sascr
ibedt
obeBr
ainDr
ain.Thi
str
endi
sconsi
der
edapr
obl
em,
because t
he mosthi
ghl
yski
l
led and compet
enti
ndi
vi
dual
sleav
ethe
count
ry,andcont
ri
but
ethei
rexper
ti
set
otheeconomyofot
hercount
ri
es.
Thecount
ryt
heyl
eav
ecansuf
fereconomi
char
dshi
psbecauset
hosewho
r
emai
ndon'
thav
ethe'
know-
how'
tomakeadi
ff
erence.Br
aindr
aincanal
so
bedef
inedast
hel
ossoft
heacademi
candt
echnol
ogi
call
aborf
orce
t
hrough t
he mov
ing ofhuman capi
talt
o mor
efav
orabl
e geogr
aphi
c,
economi
c,or pr
ofessi
onalenv
ironment
s.Mor
e of
ten t
han not
,the
mov
ementoccur
sfr
om dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
est
odev
elopedcount
ri
esor
ar
eas.(
Ret
ri
evedf
rom:ht
tps:
//st
udy
.com/
academy
/lesson/
what
-i
s-br
ain-
dr
ain-
in-
economi
cs-
def
ini
ti
on-
causes-
eff
ect
s-exampl
es.
html
)

Ther
ear
evar
iouscausesofbr
aindr
ain.Themai
ncausesi
ncl
udeseeki
ng
empl
oymentorhi
gherpay
ingj
obs,pol
i
ticali
nst
abi
l
ity
,andt
oseekabet
ter
qual
i
tyofl
i
fe.Meanwhi
l
ethi
siswhatanat
ionshoul
dbeendowedwi
thas
anent
it
y-anat
ioni
sasoci
etyhav
ingpeopl
ewi
thdi
ver
sel
anguage,and
goal
sbutunderauni
fi
edaut
hor
it
yorgov
ernance.Thef
ir
st-
orderpr
ior
it
ies
f
orany nat
ion-
bui
l
ding mi
ssi
on ar
e publ
i
c secur
it
y and humani
tar
ian
assi
stance.I
fthemostbasi
chumanneedsf
orsaf
ety
,food,
andshel
terar
e
notbei
ngmet
,thensomeci
ti
zenswoul
drel
ocat
e.I
nessence,t
hef
act
ors
t
hatmakesanat
iondev
elopedar
e:

a)Secur
it
y:peacekeepi
ng,l
aw enf
orcement
,rul
eofl
aw,andsecur
it
y
sect
orr
efor
m.

b)Humani
tar
ianr
eli
ef:r
etur
nofr
efugeesand r
esponset
o pot
ent
ial
epi
demi
cs,
hunger
,andl
ackofshel
ter
.

c)Gov
ernance: r
esumi
ng publ
i
c ser
vices and r
est
ori
ng publ
i
c
admi
nist
rat
ion.

d)Economi
cst
abi
l
izat
ion:
est
abl
i
shi
ngast
abl
ecur
rencyandpr
ovi
dinga
l
egaland r
egul
ator
yfr
amewor
kin whi
ch l
ocaland i
nter
nat
ional
commer
cecanr
esume.

e)Democr
ati
zat
ion:bui
l
dingpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es,f
reepr
ess,ci
vi
lsoci
ety
,
andal
egal
andconst
it
uti
onal
framewor
kforel
ect
ions.

f
)Dev
elopment
:fost
eri
ng economi
c gr
owt
h,pov
ert
yreduct
ion,and
i
nfr
ast
ruct
urei
mpr
ovement
s.

Whenbr
aindr
aini
spr
eval
enti
nadev
elopi
ngcount
ry,t
her
emaybesome
negat
iver
eper
cussi
onst
hatcanaf
fectt
heeconomy
.Theseef
fect
sincl
ude
butar
e notl
i
mit
ed t
o:Loss oft
ax r
evenue,Loss ofpot
ent
ialf
utur
e
ent
repr
eneur
s,ashor
tageofi
mpor
tant
,ski
l
ledwor
ker
sLossofi
nnov
ati
ve
i
deas,Lossoft
hecount
ry'
sinv
est
menti
neducat
ion,t
hel
ossofcr
it
ical
heal
thandeducat
ionser
vices;
fur
ther
mor
e,t
heexodusmayl
eadt
olossof
conf
idencei
ntheeconomy
,whi
chwi
l
lcauseper
sonst
odesi
ret
oleav
e
r
athert
hanst
ay.

Af
teranal
yzi
ngwhatbr
aindr
ainandnat
ionbui
l
dingcoul
dsi
mpl
ymean,
we
t
her
efor
est
atet
hatpoornat
ionbui
l
dingcoul
daccountf
orbr
aindr
ainand
ci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ionbecausei
nit
ial
l
yaci
ti
zenwoul
dn’
tleav
ehi
scount
ryt
o
gosuf
feri
nanot
herman'
slandexceptt
hecondi
ti
onhef
indshi
msel
finhi
s
count
ryi
smor
ethanhecanbearasahumanwi
thnat
uralr
esi
stance
abi
l
iti
es.Meani
ngt
hatt
henegat
ivechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hehomecount
ry
f
ormst
hei
mpet
usf
ori
ntel
l
igentpeopl
etomi
grat
efr
om LesserDev
eloped
Count
ri
es l
i
ke Ni
ger
ia,when t
her
eis absence ofr
esear
ch f
aci
l
iti
es,
empl
oymentdi
scr
imi
nat
ion,economi
cunder
dev
elopment
,lackoff
reedom,
andpoorwor
kingcondi
ti
onsandi
nsur
genci
es.

Baseontheabover
esear
chquest
ions,
ther
esear
chhy
pot
hesi
sfor
mul
ated
fort
hisst
udyisasf
oll
ows:

1.I
sther
eanysi
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
p bet
weenhumanmov
ementand
nat
ionbui
l
ding?

2.I
sther
eanysi
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenbr
aindr
ainandci
ti
zenr
y
r
elocat
ion?

2.
4.RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY

Thi
schapt
erhasbeendesi
gnedt
odescr
ibet
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hodsusedt
o
ensur
eacompl
etesuccessoft
hisr
esear
ch,suchas:Resear
chDesi
gn,
Popul
ati
onSi
ze,
Sampl
i
ngSi
ze,
Inst
rument
sforDat
aCol
l
ect
ion,
Sour
cesof
Dat
aCol
l
ect
ionandMet
hodofDat
aPr
esent
ati
onandAnal
ysi
s.

3.
2.1 RESEARCHDESI
GN

Ther
esear
chdesi
gnadopt
edf
ort
hiswor
kwast
heSur
veyDesi
gn.Thi
s
desi
gnwi
l
lai
dtoascer
tai
nthephy
sicalef
fect
,andi
mpl
i
cat
ionofmi
grat
ion
asaphenomenon.

Sur
veydesi
gni
sconsi
der
edappr
opr
iat
efort
hisst
udybecausei
tident
if
ies
t
hepr
esentcondi
ti
onsandpoi
ntst
opr
esentneeds.I
tfocusesonpeopl
e,
t
he v
italf
act
s about peopl
e and t
hei
r bel
i
efs,opi
nions,at
ti
tudes,
mot
ivat
ionsandbehav
iorwhi
l
egi
vi
ngt
hei
nvest
igat
orani
nsi
ghtwi
tht
he
r
elat
ionshi
pamongphenomenaandi
nter
rel
ati
onsamongsoci
ologi
caland
psy
chol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
ons.

POPULATI
ON:
Thet
ypeofpopul
ati
ont
hatwi
l
lbeusedf
ort
hisst
udyi
sInf
ini
tepopul
ati
on.
Agba(
2014,p.
107)v
iewsan i
nfi
nit
epopul
ati
on asonei
n whi
ch i
tis
t
heor
eti
cal
l
yimpossi
blet
onumberorobser
veal
lthenumberofi
tem asa
t
otaluni
twhi
chi
nfor
mat
ioni
sdesi
redort
o becol
l
ect
ed.Hence,i
tis
t
heor
eti
cal
l
yimpossi
blet
ohav
eat
otalnumberofpeopl
ewhomi
grat
esas
ar
esul
toft
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofmi
grat
ion ormov
ement
. Ther
efor
e,
ci
ti
zensofNi
ger
iawi
l
lbeourf
ocus,ast
het
argetpopul
ati
onf
ort
his
r
esear
ch.

SAMPLEPROCEDUREANDSI
ZE:
Thesampl
i
ngt
echni
quet
hatwi
l
lbeusedf
ort
hiswor
kist
heMul
ti
-st
age
sampl
i
ngt
echni
que.Accor
dingt
oOdu(
2007,p.
32)Mul
ti
-st
agesampl
i
ng
i
nvol
vesmanyst
ages,i
tisusedwhensampl
eisl
i
kel
ytobedr
awnon
geogr
aphi
cal
,economi
c orpol
i
ticalbasi
s.Thi
s sampl
i
ng pr
ocedur
eis
consi
der
ed bestf
ort
hisr
esear
chasi
twi
l
lai
dther
esear
chert
o gi
ve
answer
stot
her
esear
chquest
ionsandhy
pot
hesi
s.

Si
ncemi
grat
ioni
sagl
obalphenomenonandanev
er-
endi
ngoper
ati
onf
rom
ab-
ini
ti
o;t
hesampl
esi
zeoft
hisst
udywi
l
lbecent
eredonNi
ger
ianci
ti
zens
whohav
erel
ocat
edf
rom 2010t
o2018t
oEur
ope.

3.
2.4 I
NSTRUMENTSFORDATACOLLECTI
ON

Thei
nst
rument
sthatwi
l
lbeusedf
ort
hecol
l
ect
ionofdat
aint
hisst
udy
wer
e: penandnot
epad.Thesei
temsorequi
pmentment
ionedwi
l
lbe
usef
uldur
ingt
her
esear
chobser
vat
ion.

3.
2.5 SOURCESOFDATACOLLECTI
ON

Thesour
cesofdat
acol
l
ect
iont
hatwi
l
lbeusedf
ort
hisr
esear
chi
s:The
Secondar
ySour
ce:
whi
char
ejour
nal
art
icl
esandi
nter
netmat
eri
als.
3.
2.6 METHODOFDATAPRESENTATI
ONANDANALYSI
S

Themet
hodofdat
apr
esent
ati
oni
nthi
sst
udywi
l
lbe‘
TextMet
hod’
.Byt
his
met
hod,dat
aar
epr
esent
edi
ntextf
orm -wr
it
tenr
epor
t.Wher
east
he
met
hodofdat
aanal
ysi
swi
l
lbe‘
Qual
i
tat
iveAnal
ysi
s’
.Thi
sanal
ysi
sinv
olv
es
t
heassessment
,anal
ysi
sandel
uci
dat
ionofdat
awi
tht
heai
m ofgat
her
ing
ani
n-dept
hunder
standi
ngofhumanbehav
ior
sandt
hei
runder
lyi
ngcauses.
These met
hods wer
e consi
der
ed because i
t pr
ovi
des i
nsi
ght
s and
under
standi
ngofanyphenomenonbei
ngst
udi
ed.
 CHAPTERTHREE:

TESTI
NGOFHYPOTHESI
SI

Thi
schapt
eri
sconcer
nedwi
tht
est
inghy
pot
hesi
sI.

A hy
pot
hesi
scanbedef
inedasat
ent
ati
veexpl
anat
ionoft
her
esear
ch
pr
obl
em,apossi
bleout
comeoft
her
esear
ch,oraneducat
edguessabout
t
her
esear
ch out
come.(
Sar
ant
akos,1993:1991)
.Iti
sa st
atementor
expl
anat
iont
hati
ssuggest
edbyknowl
edgeorobser
vat
ionbuthasnot
,yet
,
beenpr
ovedordi
spr
oved(
Macl
eod&Hockey1981)
.

Ty
pesofHy
pot
heses

1.NULLHYPOTHESES--Desi
gnat
edby
:H0orHN

2.ALTERNATI
VEHYPOTHESES--Desi
gnat
edby
:H1orHA

Thenul
lhy
pot
hesi
srepr
esent
sat
heor
ythathasbeenputf
orwar
d,ei
ther
becausei
tisbel
i
evedt
obet
rueorbecausei
tist
obeusedasabasi
sfor
ar
gument
,buthasnotbeenpr
oved.Whi
l
etheal
ter
nat
ivehy
pot
hesi
sisa
st
atementofwhatahy
pot
hesi
stesti
ssetupt
oest
abl
i
sh:opposi
teofNul
l
Hy
pot
hesi
s,onl
yreachedi
fH0(
nul
lhy
pot
hesi
s)i
srej
ect
ed,andf
requent
ly
“
alt
ernat
ive”i
sact
ualdesi
red concl
usi
on oft
he r
esear
cher
.Ther
efor
e,
hy
pot
hesi
sisacl
earst
atementofwhati
sint
endedt
obei
nvest
igat
ed.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
her
ulesofhy
pot
heseswhi
chst
ateshy
pot
hesesmustbei
n
ei
thernul
loral
ter
nat
ivef
orm -whi
char
ethet
wot
ypesofhy
pot
heses;t
his
r
equi
rest
heanal
ystt
ost
ateanul
lhy
pot
hesi
sandanal
ter
nat
ivehy
pot
hesi
s.
Thehy
pot
hesesar
est
atedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
heyar
emut
ual
l
yexcl
usi
ve.
Thati
s,i
fonei
str
ue,
theot
hermustbef
alse;
andv
icev
ersa.

Fort
hischapt
er,wewi
l
linv
est
igat
ethev
ari
abl
esi
nresear
chhy
pot
hesi
s
one:
-'
isanyr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhumanmi
grat
ionandnat
ionbui
l
ding?
'.

The r
esul
t(
s)wi
l
lbe i
n"TEXT FORM / QUALI
TATI
VE METHOD OF
ANALYSI
S".Baseont
her
ulesofQual
i
tat
iver
esear
ch,asKl
eini
ngof
fer
s
f
our r
ules f
or a sci
ent
if
ic and qual
i
tat
ive pr
ocess of appr
oachi
ng
under
standi
ngt
oreal
i
ty.

Rul
e1(
ref
erst
o subj
ect/r
esear
cher
)"Pr
iorunder
standi
ngs oft
he
phenomenont
ober
esear
chedshoul
dbeseenaspr
ovi
si
onal
andshoul
dbe
t
ranscendedwi
th[
thedi
scov
eryof
]new i
nfor
mat
ionwi
thwhi
cht
heyar
e
notconsi
stent
."(
1982:
231)

Rul
e2(
ref
erst
otheobj
ectofst
udy
)"Theobj
ecti
spr
ovi
si
onal
;iti
sonl
y
f
ull
yknownaf
tert
hesuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onoft
hepr
ocessofdi
scov
ery
."
(
1982:
233)

Rul
e3(
ref
erst
oact
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
othesubj
ectofr
esear
ch,
hencet
odat
a
col
l
ect
ion)"
Theobj
ectshoul
dbeappr
oachedf
rom "
all
"si
des;r
uleoft
he
maxi
mum v
ari
ati
onofper
spect
ives.
"(1982:
234)

Rul
e4(
ref
erst
otheev
aluat
ionofi
nfor
mat
iongat
her
ed,hencet
odat
a
anal
ysi
s)"
Anal
ysi
soft
hedat
aforcommonel
ement
s."(
1982:
237)
Thus,
thehy
pot
hesi
sonewi
l
lbeconcer
tedt
onul
lhy
pot
hesi
sty
pe,
inor
der
t
o pr
ovei
t'
sval
i
dit
y.Hence,HO -t
her
eis no si
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weenhumanmov
ementandnat
ionbui
l
ding.Thepr
edi
cat
orv
ari
abl
ein
t
hishy
pot
hesi
sishumanmov
ementwher
east
hedependentv
ari
abl
eis
nat
ionbui
l
ding.

Wi
tht
hisout
come(
whi
chi
stheanswer
stot
her
esear
chquest
ion1:'
Does
humanmov
ementhav
etr
aceabl
ephy
sicalef
fect
'?
.Andobj
ect
ive1:'
To
ascer
tai
nwhet
herhumanmov
ementhav
ephy
sicalef
fectont
henat
ion
bui
l
dingoft
hecount
rymi
grat
edf
rom,andt
henewpl
aceofabode,al
sot
o
exami
nei
fther
eisanyr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhumanmi
grat
ionandnat
ion
bui
l
ding'
;st
ipul
atedi
nthechapt
er1,sub-
1.4andchapt
er2,sub-
2.3,pg.
*30
oft
hest
udy
),t
henul
lhy
pot
heseswhi
chst
atedt
hatt
her
eisnosi
gni
fi
cant
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhumanmov
ementandnat
ionbui
l
dingwasr
eject
ed.I
t
wasal
ter
nat
ely(
H1)accept
edt
hatt
her
eissi
gni
fi
cantassoci
ati
onbet
ween
humanmov
ementandnat
ionbui
l
ding.Thedat
acol
l
ect
edf
rom booksand
r
esear
chmat
eri
alsi
ndi
cat
ethatnat
ionbui
l
dingi
sadev
elopment
alpr
ocess
whi
chanchoronhumanexi
stence.Thi
simpl
i
est
hatwher
ether
eismor
e
f
orceofhumanbei
ng,t
her
eisboundt
ober
api
ddev
elopmentandgr
owt
h
i
nsuchl
ocat
ion.
 CHAPTERFOUR:

TESTI
NGOFHYPOTHESI
SII

Thi
schapt
erdeal
swi
tht
est
ingofhy
pot
hesi
sII
.Asdi
ff
erentschol
arsl
i
ke
Macl
eodandHockey(
1981)def
inedwhathy
pot
heseswasal
laboutasone
coul
dvi
ewi
nchapt
er3oft
hiswor
k,i
tcoul
dal
sobenot
edt
hathy
pot
heses
ar
esi
ngl
etent
ati
veguesses,goodhunches–assumedf
orusei
ndev
isi
ng
t
heor
yorpl
anni
ngexper
iment
sint
endedt
obegi
venadi
rectexper
iment
al
t
estwhenpossi
ble(
Roger
s,1966)
.Iti
saconj
ect
uralst
atementoft
he
r
elat
ionbet
weent
woormor
evar
iabl
es(
Ker
li
nger
,1956)
.Al
so,Hy
pot
hesi
s
i
saf
ormalst
atementt
hatpr
esent
stheexpect
edr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenan
i
ndependentanddependentv
ari
abl
e.(
Creswel
l
,1994)
.

Her
e,i
nvest
igat
ingt
hev
ari
abl
esandt
est
ingr
esear
chhy
pot
hesi
stwoi
sour
mai
nconcer
nasst
atedabov
e.Hy
pot
hesi
sIIquest
iont
her
efor
est
ates:

:i
sther
eisanysi
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween poornat
ionbui
l
dingand
br
aindr
ain(
cit
izenr
yrel
ocat
ion)
?.

Thei
ndependentv
ari
abl
eint
hiscont
exi
sbr
aindr
ainwhi
l
ethedependent
v
ari
abl
eispoornat
ionbui
l
ding.Qual
i
tat
ivemet
hodwasappl
i
eddur
ing
anal
ysi
stot
estt
hishy
pot
hesi
s.I
nor
dert
otestt
hehy
pot
hesesst
ated,we
hav
etof
oll
owt
her
ulesofhy
pot
heseswhi
chst
ateshy
pot
hesesmustbei
n
ei
thernul
loral
ter
nat
ive-whi
char
ethet
wot
ypesofhy
pot
heses.Ev
ery
hy
pot
hesi
stestr
equi
rest
heanal
ystt
ost
ateanul
lhy
pot
hesi
sandan
al
ter
nat
ivehy
pot
hesi
s.Thehy
pot
hesesar
est
atedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hey
ar
emut
ual
l
yexcl
usi
ve.Thati
s,i
fonei
str
ue,t
heot
hermustbef
alse;and
v
icev
ersa.

I
nthel
i
ghtoft
heabov
e,t
henul
lhy
pot
hesesi
sst
atedt
hus:-t
her
eisno
si
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenbr
aindr
ainandpoornat
ionbui
l
ding.

We wantt
ovi
vdl
ypoi
ntoutt
hatdi
ff
erentcount
ri
esoft
he wor
ld ar
e
cl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othei
rlev
elofsoci
alandeconomi
cdev
elopment
.
Lev
els of dev
elopment ar
e dependent on phy
sical
,economi
c and
env
ironment
alf
act
ors.Lev
elsofdev
elopmentar
edet
ermi
nedbysev
eral
f
act
orsandapoornat
ioncanbechar
act
eri
zedby
:

Phy
sicalf
act
ors-somear
eashav
eahost
il
eordi
ff
icul
tlandscape.Thi
s
can make dev
elopmentmor
e di
ff
icul
t.Exampl
es oft
his ar
ever
yhot
cl
i
mat
esorar
id(
alackofwat
er)cl
i
mat
eswhi
chmakei
tdi
ff
icul
ttogr
ow
suf
fi
cientf
ood.

Economi
cfact
ors-somecount
ri
eshav
ever
yhi
ghl
evel
sofdebt
.Thi
s
meanst
hatt
heyhav
etopayal
otofmoneyi
nint
erestandr
epay
ment
sand
t
her
eisv
eryl
i
ttl
elef
tov
erf
ordev
elopmentpr
oject
s.

Env
ironment
alf
act
ors-somepl
acesexper
ienceenv
ironment
ali
ssues,
whi
chcanpr
eventt
hem f
rom dev
elopi
ng.Exampl
esmi
ghtbeext
reme
f
loodi
ngordeser
ti
fi
cat
ion.

Soci
alf
act
ors-somepar
tsoft
hewor
ldhav
eissuest
hatar
ecausedby
peopl
e.Thesei
ncl
udel
owl
evel
sofeducat
ion,poorwat
erqual
i
tyoral
ack
ofdoct
ors.

Pol
it
icalf
act
ors-somecount
ri
esar
eatwarort
hegov
ernmentmaybe
cor
rupt
.Ther
efor
emoneydoesnotr
eacht
hepeopl
ewhoneedi
tmostand
spendi
ngonar
eassuchaseducat
ionandi
nfr
ast
ruct
uremaybei
nsuf
fi
ci
ent
.

Nat
uralr
esour
ces-somecount
ri
eshav
eanabundanceofr
aw mat
eri
als
such asoi
lorpr
eci
ousmi
ner
als.These can be sol
d and t
he money
i
nvest
edi
ntodev
elopi
ngt
hecount
ry.Buti
nsi
tuat
ionswher
etheman-
poweri
snotav
ail
abl
e,t
her
aw mat
eri
alswast
esorar
esol
doutt
oot
her
count
ri
es at cheaper r
ate. (
Ret
ri
ved f
rom:
ht
tpsw.
bbc.
com/
bit
esi
ze/
gui
des/
zxw2cwx/
rev
isi
on/
6).I
n essence, l
ow
i
ncomedev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es(
LIDCs)ar
ecl
assi
edaspoorcount
ryand
manyLI
DCshav
eashor
tageofsaf
e,cl
eanwat
erandhav
elow l
evel
sof
heal
th.Theydonothav
efact
ori
esorpr
ocessi
ngf
aci
l
iti
esandsot
heyhav
e
t
osel
lmat
eri
alsi
nthei
rrawf
orm.Rawmat
eri
alsusual
l
ysel
lformuchl
ess
moneyt
hanf
ini
shedpr
oduct
sandsot
hesecount
ri
esear
nless.

Thecy
cleofpov
ert
y-Thef
act
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngdev
elopmentar
eof
tenl
i
nked
andcount
ri
escanf
indt
hemsel
vesi
nacy
cleofpov
ert
y.Forexampl
e,i
fa
count
ryi
sinal
otofdebt
,itcannotaf
for
dgoodschool
s.I
fpeopl
ear
e
poor
lyeducat
edt
heyar
elessl
i
kel
ytounder
standaboutt
hecausesof
deser
ti
fi
cat
ion.Deser
ti
fi
cat
ionl
eadst
opoorcr
opgr
owt
handl
owi
ncomes.
Thi
sleadsbackt
othecount
ryaccumul
ati
ngdebtandt
hecy
clecont
inues.

Somegov
ernment
sindev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esl
i
keNi
ger
iaar
ecor
rupt
.Thi
s
meanst
hatmoneyear
nedi
snotnecessar
il
yusedt
obenef
itt
hepeopl
ethat
needi
tanddi
spar
it
iesi
nweal
thandheal
thoccur
.SomeLI
DCsal
sohav
e
hi
ghl
evel
sofi
nter
nat
ionalmi
grat
ion,aspeopl
emov
etof
indwor
kanda
bet
terst
andar
dofl
i
ving.Thi
sresul
tsi
nfewerpeopl
eofawor
kingageand
an i
ncr
eased pr
opor
ti
on of dependent peopl
e (
Ret
ri
eved f
rom:
ht
tps:
//www.
bbc.
com/
bit
esi
ze/
gui
des/
zxw2cwx/
rev
isi
on/
6)

Thedat
acol
l
ect
edandsummar
izedf
rom onl
i
nej
our
nal
sandt
extbooks
(
whi
chi
stheanswer
stor
esear
chquest
ion2-'
Doespoornat
ionbui
l
ding
accountf
orhi
gh r
ate ofbr
ain-
drai
n and ci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion?
'.And t
o
det
ermi
nei
fpoornat
ionbui
l
dingaccountf
orhi
ghr
ateofbr
aindr
ainand
ci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion,andi
fther
eisar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenbr
aindr
ainand
i
mmi
grat
ion'
asobj
ect
ive2;st
ipul
atedi
nChapt
er1.Sub-
1.4andchapt
er2,
sub-
2.3, pg.
*34, r
espect
ivel
y) al
so i
ndi
cat
es t
hat t
he negat
ive
char
act
eri
sti
csofanynat
ioncanl
eadorcausesev
eralofi
tsi
ndi
genesor
ci
ti
zenst
orel
ocat
e-wi
tht
hei
rpr
oper
ty(
ies)'
brai
ndr
ain'
toawhatcoul
dbe
v
iewedandt
ermedabet
terandsaf
erpl
aceofhabi
tat
ion”andwi
tht
his,
we
t
her
efor
erej
ectt
henul
lhy
pot
hesesandconcurt
hatal
ter
nat
elyt
her
eis
si
gni
fi
cantassoci
ati
onbet
weenpoornat
ionbui
l
dingandbr
aindr
ainasi
t
r
esul
tst
oci
ti
zenr
yrel
ocat
ion.

CHAPTERFI
VE

Thi
schapt
eri
saboutdi
scussi
onoff
indi
ngs,summar
y,concl
usi
on,al
so
r
ecommendat
ion,
andr
efer
encesoft
hisr
esear
ch.

5.
1 DI
SCUSSI
ONOFFI
NDI
NGS:

I
nthecour
seoft
hisst
udy
,ithasbeen obser
ved t
hati
tisanat
ural
phenomenonf
orhumanst
omi
grat
e;t
hisi
sowi
ngt
othenat
uralt
endency
ofneedsand want
sofl
i
vel
y-
hood,asi
dent
if
ied byAbr
aham Masl
ow.
Humanswantandquestf
orbet
terl
i
fe,cancont
rolt
hei
rfeel
i
ngs,v
isi
on,
r
easoni
ngandmanyat
imesact
ionswhi
chr
esul
tst
omov
ementf
rom one
pl
acet
oanot
her
.

Fi
ndi
ngsr
evealt
hatmi
grat
ioni
nvol
vesbot
hhumansandmat
eri
als,i
nthe
senset
hatpeopl
ewhot
endt
omi
grat
eof
tenmov
ewi
tht
hei
rpossessi
ons
l
i
ket
hei
rint
ell
i
gence,
ski
l
ls,
tal
entandt
hei
rfami
l
ies.Mi
grat
ioni
snotonl
ya
phy
sicalmov
ement of peopl
efr
om one pl
ace t
o anot
her causi
ng,
popul
ati
onr
edi
str
ibut
ion,
butasasoci
alpr
ocess,
ital
sobr
ingsaboutsoci
o
-
economi
c,cul
tur
alandpol
i
tical
changesi
nagi
vensoci
ety
.

Thi
sst
udyr
eveal
sthatmi
grat
ionnotonl
ysol
vest
hepr
obl
emsofmi
grant
bymeet
ingeducat
ional
,occupat
ionalandsaf
etyneedsbuti
tal
so!cr
eat
es
t
hepr
obl
em ofsoci
o-cul
tur
aladj
ust
ment
stot
hepl
acebypl
aci
ngnew
soci
alsi
tuat
ioni
nvol
vi
ng t
wo cul
tur
es,i
nessence,i
tcanbesai
dthat
mi
grat
ionhaspsy
chol
ogi
calandphy
sicalef
fectonmi
grant
sandt
hei
r
env
ironmentandl
ocat
ion.Whenpeopl
emi
grat
efr
om apar
ti
cul
arunder
dev
elopedr
egi
ont
oadev
elopedr
egi
on,t
hei
rpl
aceofor
igi
nunder
goes
posi
ti
veaswel
lasnegat
iveef
fect
s.Posi
ti
veef
fect
sincl
udei
ncr
easeof
shar
eofl
andhol
dings,i
mpr
ovementi
ntheeconomi
ccondi
ti
onandl
i
ving
condi
ti
onbyt
heconst
ruct
ionofgoodhouseet
c.Ther
egi
onwhi
chdonat
es
mi
grant
sexper
iencessomeset
backsi
.e.shor
tageofl
abouri
sexper
ienced,
somet
imes mov
ementofy
oung orwor
king f
orce r
est
ri
ctst
he pr
oper
gr
owt
hoft
her
egi
on.I
thasbeenobser
vedmost
lyt
hatpeopl
erecei
vet
hei
r
basi
ceducat
ion(
techni
calorgener
al)att
hepl
aceoft
hei
ror
igi
nbutt
hey
r
arel
yser
vet
hepl
aceoft
hei
ror
igi
n. Thepl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
sal
so
af
fect
ed by mi
grat
ion.So,t
he ef
fectofmi
grat
ion on t
he pl
ace of
dest
inat
ioncanbegr
ouped i
ntot
wo par
tsi
.e. posi
ti
veand negat
ive.
Posi
ti
veaspect
:pl
aceofdest
inat
ioni
sconsi
der
edasadev
elopedar
ea
becauseofwhi
cheducat
edy
oungpeopl
emi
grat
etot
hesear
eas,t
her
eby
pr
ovi
dingal
argenumberofl
abour
erst
othi
sar
ea.Butascompar
edt
o
posi
ti
veaspect
s,i
thasmor
enumberofnegat
iveaspect
s.Becauseoft
his
mobi
l
ity
,thepopul
ati
onsi
zeoft
hear
eai
ncr
easesatamuchf
ast
err
ate.
Thi
sunexpect
edi
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
onl
eadst
othecr
eat
ionofsl
ums,
unaut
hor
izedconst
ruct
ion,
haphazar
dgr
owt
hoft
owns,
transpor
tpr
obl
ems,
shor
tage ofpubl
i
c ut
il
it
y ser
vices and educat
ionalf
aci
l
iti
es.Because
mi
grant
sbel
ongt
odi
ff
erentcul
tur
es,t
heyf
inddi
ff
icul
tyi
nsoci
ali
zi
ngwi
th
t
hel
ocalmasses,sot
heyst
artdi
vor
cingt
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onalway
sofl
i
feand
st
artadopt
ingadv
ancedcust
omsoft
henewl
ocat
ion,t
hiscongl
omer
ates
wi
thSaf
a'sf
indi
ngs(
1975:
l).

Fi
ndi
ngshowst
hatmi
grat
ionhasbeeni
nfl
uencedbynumberoff
act
ors
such asgeogr
aphi
calcondi
ti
ons,economi
chazar
ds,non-
avai
l
abi
l
ityof
r
egul
ar and r
eli
abl
e occupat
ion, educat
ional oppor
tuni
ti
es and
achi
evement
sandsev
eral
othersoci
o-psy
chol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
onssuchast
he
ef
fectofcr
isi
s,i
nter
-t
ri
balwar
,pol
i
ticali
nst
abi
l
ity
,lackadai
si
calbehav
iorof
a gov
ernmentt
owar
ds t
he basi
c needs ofherci
ti
zens,l
ack ofwel
l
st
ipul
atedl
aws(
inr
espectt
ofor
mul
ati
onandi
mpl
ement
ati
onofLaws)f
or
t
hegov
erned,andr
eli
giouswar
;li
kei
nthecaseofNi
ger
iawher
eiti
ssai
d
t
hatt
hePr
esi
dent
,MohammedBuhar
i(Pr
esi
dent2015-2018,and2019
pr
esi
dent
ialwi
nner
,andcommanderwhowoul
dgov
ernf
or4y
ear
sas
st
ipul
atedi
nthe1999Ni
ger
iaconst
it
uti
on asamended)i
nhi
svi
ew want
Ni
ger
iat
obeaMusl
i
m Count
ry.Thi
srumor
sbr
oughtaboutunr
estand
r
ancouri
nNi
ger
iaaspol
i
ticall
eader
soft
hemaj
orpar
ti
esAPC(
AllPeopl
e'
s
Congr
ess)andPDP(
Peopl
e'
sDemocr
ati
cPar
ty)j
oinedandmadepl
edges
t
ofol
l
ow t
hisI
slami
cenact
ment
.Thi
sunr
estput
sfeari
nthehear
tsof
Ni
ger
iaci
ti
zenr
yasev
erymov
efr
om t
heExecut
ivepr
esi
denti
ssuspect
ed
i
ncl
udi
nghi
sappealf
orev
eryst
atei
nNi
ger
iat
ocr
eat
elandspaceand
suppl
ywat
erorcat
tl
erear
ers(
RUDA)
;notmi
ndi
ngt
hatsomeoft
heFul
ani
Her
dsmencoul
dexhi
bitat
ti
tudet
hati
srepugnantt
osoci
alandnat
ural
j
ust
ice.Asi
nthecaseofsomeFul
aniHer
dsmeni
nsomeSt
atel
i
keCr
oss
Ri
verSt
ate,Yal
aLocalGov
ernmentAr
eat
obepr
eci
se.Theact
ionsoft
he
Ful
aniHer
dsmenar
erepugnantt
osoci
alandnat
uralj
ust
icebutchecki
ng
t
hesi
tuat
ion,t
hel
aw di
dn'
ttakei
tscour
seandt
hishasbr
oughtabout
desper
atemi
grat
ioni
nsomel
ocalgov
ernmentar
eas,whi
l
eot
herst
ates
l
i
keRi
ver
sSt
ateGov
ernorseemst
obackoutandr
esi
stt
her
equestf
rom
t
hePr
esi
dent
.Ont
his,someNi
ger
ianswhodonotknow how l
ongsome
gov
ernor
scanr
esi
stt
heof
fer
,theconsequencest
hatf
oll
ows,andi
fthei
r
l
eader
s woul
d accepti
tev
ent
ual
l
y,has desper
atel
y mov
ed t
o ot
her
count
ri
esf
ort
hesaf
etyoft
hei
rli
ves.

Chi
efAuduOgbeh,Mi
nist
erofAgr
icul
tur
eandRur
alDev
elopment
,had
appeal
edf
orsuppor
tfr
om t
heEur
opeanUni
onMi
ssi
ont
oreducet
hespat
e
ofy
out
hs’mi
grat
iont
otheUni
on.Thi
sappealwasmadei
nani
nter
view
wi
thnewsmenatt
heendoft
hemont
hlymeet
ingofHeadsmi
ssi
onsof
Eur
opeanUni
onmembercount
ri
esi
nAbuj
aonTuesday
,May14,2019
(
Sour
ce:NAI
JA.
com onl
i
ne_
news)
.Hef
urt
hersai
dthatt
hecount
rywoul
d
cr
eat
eeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
est
omakesur
ethaty
oungpeopl
est
aybackat
home.I
nessence,
thi
smeanst
hatduet
ounev
en,l
oweconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es,
andcor
ruptpr
act
icesi
ntheeconomi
csect
ormadesomeNi
ger
iaYout
hst
o
mov
etoot
herpl
acesl
i
keEur
opeanUni
onf
orgr
eenerpast
ures.
Basedonf
indi
ngs,
thepr
imeobj
ect
iveofanynat
ion-
bui
l
dingoper
ati
oni
sto
makev
iol
entsoci
eti
espeacef
ul,nott
omakepooronespr
osper
ous,or
aut
hor
it
ari
an onesdemocr
ati
c.Thef
ir
st-
orderpr
ior
it
iesf
oranynat
ion-
bui
l
dingmi
ssi
onar
e:publ
i
csecur
it
yandhumani
tar
ianassi
stance.Ot
her
s
ar
e:peacekeepi
ng,
lawenf
orcement
,rul
eofl
aw,
andsecur
it
ysect
orr
efor
m,
r
esponset
opot
ent
ialepi
demi
cs,hunger
,andl
ackofshel
ter
,resumi
ng
publ
i
cser
vicesandr
est
ori
ngpubl
i
cadmi
nist
rat
ion,
economi
cst
abi
l
izat
ion-
est
abl
i
shi
ng a st
abl
e cur
rency and pr
ovi
ding a l
egaland r
egul
ator
y
f
ramewor
kinwhi
chl
ocalandi
nter
nat
ionalcommer
cecanr
esume,
bui
l
ding
pol
i
ticalpar
ti
esandf
ranchi
se,f
reepr
ess,ci
vi
lsoci
ety
,andal
egaland
const
it
uti
onalf
ramewor
kforel
ect
ions,
fost
eri
ngeconomi
cgr
owt
h,pov
ert
y
r
educt
ion, and i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure i
mpr
ovement
s (
Ret
ri
eved f
rom:
www.
rand.
org)
.Hence,
Ift
hemostbasi
chumanneedsf
orsaf
ety
,food,
and
shel
terar
enotbei
ng met
,anymoneyspenton pol
i
ticaloreconomi
c
dev
elopmenti
sli
kel
yto be wast
ed and t
he peopl
e hav
ing nat
ural
t
endenci
es t
olook outf
oronesel
fwoul
d mi
grat
e ei
thersl
owl
y or
desper
atel
y.

I
twasal
sonot
edt
hatsomepeopl
emov
eawayf
rom t
hei
rcount
ri
esnot
becauseoft
heunder
dev
elopmentoft
hepl
acebutbecauseofonesel
f.For
i
nst
ance,i
nNi
ger
ia,r
ecor
dhasshownt
hatChar
lesTay
lorwassi
ght
edi
n
t
heshor
esofNi
ger
iasomanyt
imest
hati
twasf
oundoutt
hathel
i
vedi
n
Cr
ossRi
verSt
ate.Hel
eftf
orper
sonalr
easonsofsaf
etynott
hatLi
ber
ia
wasexper
ienci
ngi
nsur
gencyasatt
hen.Ther
efor
e,somepeopl
emost
ly
cor
ruptpol
i
tici
ansorl
eader
stendt
orun-
awayt
oot
herci
ti
esbecauseof
t
hei
rbadr
ecor
dwi
tht
hegov
ernmentandpeopl
eoft
hei
rpl
aceofbi
rt
hor
habi
tat
ion.
Mi
grat
ioni
sper
cei
vednegat
ivel
y,wi
thf
ear
ingl
ossofj
obst
omi
grant
sand
i
ncr
eased costofser
vices.St
udi
es,howev
er,suggestot
her
wise,and
mi
grant
s cont
ri
but
eto al
llev
els ofpr
oduct
ivi
ty att
hei
rdest
inat
ions.
Mi
grat
ioni
smost
lyposi
ti
ve.Yet
,bynotpl
anni
ngf
ormi
grant
sorpr
ovi
ding
f
aci
l
iti
esf
ort
hem,gov
ernment
smer
elyi
ncr
easet
her
isksandcost
sof
mi
grat
ionandr
educei
tsdev
elopmentpot
ent
ial
.Fi
ndi
ngr
eveal
sthatal
l
t
hese can ai
dto nat
ion dev
elopmentand can const
it
ute a bar
ri
ert
o
mi
grat
ionofanyt
ype.Thesear
einconsonancewi
tht
hef
indi
ngsofSaf
a,
(
1941) & McKi
nsey
,(2016)
.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
he I
mpor
tant st
imul
ati
ng
condi
ti
onsf
ormi
grat
ioni
ncl
udegr
aduat
ion,mar
ri
age,l
ackofmar
ri
age,
mi
grat
orywor
k,speci
alski
l
ls,
transf
erofempl
oyees,
busi
ness,
lossoff
arm,
di
schar
ge f
rom empl
oyment
,low wages,r
eti
rement
,mi
l
itar
y ser
vices,
pol
i
tical
,raci
alorr
eli
giousoppr
essi
on,nat
uraldi
sast
er,i
nher
it
ance,mal
adj
ust
mentofcommuni
ty,soci
alr
eject
ion and f
orced mov
ementet
c.
mor
eov
ert
her
e ar
evar
ious f
act
orsf
orchoosi
ng a dest
inat
ion.These
f
act
orsi
ncl
udecostofmov
ement
,pr
esenceofr
elat
ivesandf
ri
ends,l
i
ving
wi
tht
hem,ameni
ti
es,soci
alf
aci
l
iti
es,knowl
edge aboutt
he pl
ace of
dest
inat
ion,subsi
dies,speci
alassi
stance,r
eput
ati
on,l
ackofal
ter
nat
ive
dest
inat
ion.
5.2 SUMMARY:

Looki
ngatwhatmi
grat
ionent
ail
s,andt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionofmov
ementf
rom
onepl
acet
oanot
heri
swhatt
hisr
esear
chseekt
oinv
est
igat
e.Mi
grat
ioni
s
achangeofr
esi
denceandneednotnecessar
il
yinv
olv
eanychangeof
occupat
ion,
buti
tiscl
osel
yassoci
atedwi
thoccupat
ionalshi
ft
sofoneki
nd
oranot
her
.Thepr
inci
paldi
rect
ionsofmi
grat
ionar
eil
l
ust
rat
edbymor
eor
l
esscont
inuousmov
ement
sfr
om r
uralar
east
owar
dst
heci
ty,f
rom ar
eas
of st
abl
e popul
ati
on t
owar
ds cent
ers of i
ndust
ri
al or commer
cial
oppor
tuni
ty,f
rom densel
y set
tl
ed count
ri
es t
oless densel
y set
tl
ed
count
ri
esandf
rom t
hecent
ersoft
heci
ti
est
othei
rsubur
bs.

Accor
dingt
othi
sresear
ch,mi
grat
ioni
sinf
luencedbynumberoff
act
ors
such asgeogr
aphi
calcondi
ti
ons,economi
chazar
ds,non-
avai
l
abi
l
ityof
r
egul
ar and r
eli
abl
e occupat
ion, educat
ional oppor
tuni
ti
es and
achi
evement
s,war
,andsev
eralot
hersoci
o-psy
chol
ogi
calcondi
ti
onsl
i
ke
sel
f-
dev
elopment
.Iti
saphy
sicalmov
ementofpeopl
efr
om onepl
acet
o
anot
hercausi
ng,popul
ati
onr
edi
str
ibut
ionandbr
aindr
ainoni
ndi
vi
dual
mi
grant
s and r
educt
ion ofman-
poweri
nthe pl
ace ofr
elocat
ion and
i
mpr
ovedmul
ti
plepopul
ati
onandwor
kfor
cei
nar
eaofabode.

I
nthef
ir
stchapt
er,wehav
ethei
ntr
oduct
ion-backgr
oundt
othest
udy
,
st
atementoft
hepr
obl
em,t
her
esear
chobj
ect
ivesandquest
ions,scope,
si
gni
fi
cance,oper
ati
onal
i
zat
ionofconceptandal
sot
hel
i
mit
ati
onoft
he
st
udy
.Int
he second chapt
erwhi
ch al
so i
s a cor
e chapt
er,per
ti
nent
l
i
ter
atur
eswer
edi
scussedl
i
ket
het
ypesofmi
grat
ion,causesofmi
grat
ion,
cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofmi
grat
ionandt
hei
mpactofmi
grat
iononpl
aces.Al
so,
the
r
esear
ch hy
pot
heses, t
heor
eti
cal f
ramewor
k, r
esear
ch met
hodol
ogy
compr
isi
ngoft
her
esear
chdesi
gn,
inst
rument
sfordat
acol
l
ect
ion,
sour
ces
of dat
a col
l
ect
ion,met
hod of dat
a col
l
ect
ion and anal
ysi
s,i
nfi
nit
e
popul
ati
onsi
zeandsampl
e.Wher
easi
nthet
hir
dchapt
erweembar
kedon
t
est
ingt
hest
ipul
atedr
esear
chhy
pot
hesi
sone,
andal
soi
nchapt
erf
our
,we
t
est
ed r
esear
ch hy
pot
heses t
wo r
espect
ivel
y.I
nthi
slastconcl
udi
ng
chapt
er,al
lthemai
nfi
ndi
ngsper
tai
ningt
othest
udyar
erepor
ted.I
tal
so
pr
ovi
desanaccountoft
hedi
scussi
onofsuchf
indi
ngsi
nli
ghtofex
ist
ing
soci
ologi
cal
li
ter
atur
e.
5.
3 CONCLUSI
ON:

I
nconcussi
on,
humanmi
grat
ioni
sauni
ver
salsoci
alphenomenon,
andt
he
f
act
orst
hatmi
l
itat
esnat
ionbui
l
ding,dev
elopmentandgr
owt
hisl
ackof
cooper
ati
on and pr
oduct
ive act
ions and ef
for
tsf
rom t
he ci
ti
zens and
gov
ernmentt
obet
tert
hei
rcount
ry-soci
ety-nat
ion.Mor
eso,poornat
ion
bui
l
dingcoul
d(asf
indi
ngr
eveal
s)account
sforbr
aindr
ainandci
ti
zenr
y
r
elocat
ionbecausei
nit
ial
l
yaci
ti
zenwoul
dn’
tleav
ehi
s/hert
ogosuf
feri
n
anot
herman'
slandexceptt
hecondi
ti
onhe/
shef
indshi
msel
f/
her
sel
fin
hi
s/hercount
ryi
smor
ethanhe/
shecanbearasahumanev
enwi
thnat
ural
r
esi
stanceabi
l
iti
es.Meani
ngt
hatt
henegat
ivechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hehome
count
ryf
ormst
hei
mpet
usf
ori
ntel
l
igentpeopl
etomi
grat
efr
om Lesser
Dev
elopedCount
ri
es.

Humanwant
sandneedspav
ewayf
orsel
ect
ionofgoodhabi
tabl
eand
agr
icul
tur
all
and;
thesei
nfl
uenceshumanbei
ngst
omov
efr
om onepl
acet
o
anot
hernotmi
ndi
ngt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsanddangert
hatcoul
doccuront
he
wayorexper
iencedatt
hedest
inat
ionpoi
ntdur
ingr
elocat
ionpr
ocess.
Mi
grat
ion hasadv
erse i
mpl
i
cat
ion on humans.I
tcr
eat
esmanysoci
al
pr
obl
emssuchaspr
obl
em ofseeki
ngnewaf
fi
li
ati
onsandbasesofsoci
al
r
elat
ionshi
ps,r
edef
ini
ti
onofst
atus,r
oles,gr
oupsv
aluesandpr
act
icesand
r
eadj
ust
mentoff
ami
l
yrel
ati
onsandr
oles.Thus,mi
grat
ionbr
ingsabout
soci
o-economi
c,cul
tur
aland pol
i
ticalchangesi
n a gi
ven soci
ety
,and
i
mpact
sonbot
hthepl
acel
eftbehi
nd,andont
hepl
acewher
emi
grant
s
set
tl
e,-t
heDonorsoci
etyl
osesaski
l
ledper
sonper
manent
lyi
nthef
orm of
“
brai
ndr
ain”
.Butt
hepl
aceofdest
inat
iongai
nsi
nthef
orm ofski
l
ledl
abour
.
Peopl
ehav
emanyr
easonswhyt
heymi
ghtwantt
omov
efr
om onepl
acet
o
anot
her
.Theser
easonsmaybeeconomi
c,soci
al,
pol
i
ticalorenv
ironment
al
andbot
hri
chandpoorar
epr
onet
omi
grat
ewhi
chcoul
dbeobser
vedt
o
occur
,notonl
yinNi
ger
ia,buti
nmost
lyunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
esi
nthe
wor
ld.

5.
4 RECOMMENDATI
ON:

Baseont
hef
indi
ngsoft
hisr
esear
ch,
wet
her
efor
erecommendt
hatbef
ore
mi
grat
ingpeopl
ehav
ecer
tai
nthi
ngsi
nthei
rmi
ndast
hei
rmot
ivest
o
mi
grat
ebuti
fani
ndi
vi
duali
ssat
isf
iedathi
s/herpl
aceofor
igi
n,he/
shewi
l
l
nev
ert
hinkofmi
grat
ingev
eni
fthej
oboppor
tuni
ti
esar
egoodatt
hepl
ace
ofdest
inat
ion.Ther
e can be many f
act
ors combi
ned t
oget
hert
hat
det
ermi
net
hemi
grant
’sdeci
siont
omov
efr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her
,hence,
t
hegov
ernment(
bot
htheexecut
ive,l
egi
sl
ati
ve,and j
udi
ci
ary
),and t
he
masses /ci
ti
zens shoul
d come up wi
th dev
elopment
alpol
i
cies and
pr
ogr
ammest
hatwoul
denhancet
hegr
owt
handdev
elopmentoft
hei
r
soci
etyorcount
ry.Al
so,t
heeconomi
c,soci
alorpol
i
ticalr
easonsasa
cause f
ormi
grat
ion shoul
d be addr
essed,t
o av
oidt
he i
mpl
i
cat
ion of
mi
grat
ion.

REFERENCES

Agba,M.S.( .Fundament
2014) alsofResear
ch Met
hodol
ogy.Cal
abar
:
Uni
ver
sit
yofCal
abarPr
ess.

Baker
,-Googl
eschol
ar n:ConceptandTheor
.I iesofMi
grat
ion:Ani
n-dept
h
under
standi
ng. pg.
116-
118. Ret
ri
eved f
rom:
ht
tps:
//www.
googl
e.com/
url
?sa=t
&sour
ce=web&r
ct=j
&ur
l=ht
tps:
//sho
dhganga.
inf
li
bnet
.ac.
in/
bit
str
eam/
10603/
37372/
9/09_
chapt
er%25203.
pdf
&ved=2ahUKEwi
02pSe3_
XjAhX0unEKHTZABDI
QFj
AAegQI
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