Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29

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Renewable Energy
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Review

Resource potential and scope of utilization of renewable energy in Jammu

and Kashmir, India
Shiv Kumar Lohan*, Jagvir Dixit, Sheikh Modasir, Mohd. Ishaq
Division of Agricultural Engineering, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar 191121, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Jammu and Kashmir the northern most state of India is blessed with immense potential for utilization of
Received 24 June 2011 renewable energy. The state at present is fairly untapped in terms of energy utilization and thus
Accepted 14 August 2011 venturing into this region would definitely prove to be profitable. The natural energy sources like
Available online 16 September 2011
sunshine, wind, vegetation, water flow, biomass and other biological wastes though abundantly available
in the state yet are not being potentially harnessed resulting in very low per capita energy availability,
Keywords:
deforestation and poor health. Renewable energy acquires a promising option not only for energy
Renewable energy
availability next view and of environment protection but also the socio-economic conditions of the
Solar
Biogas
people residing in these areas can be improved to a great extent. The hydroelectric power has
Hydroelectric power tremendous potential for generation of electricity in the state because the topography of the state
Jammu and Kashmir provides extensive network of canals and streams. This paper describes the resource potential and
opportunity to enter the market and bring more renewable energy projects in the form of solar, biomass
derived fuels, biogas and hydroelectric in the state.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Energy has always been a major component in day-to-day
human life. More than a billion people in the industrialized coun-
tries (about 20% of the world’s population) consume nearly 60% of
the total energy supply whereas about five billion people in devel-
oping countries consume the other 40% of the total energy supply
[1]. India’s primary commercial energy consumption accounts for
4% of the world’s primary energy consumption while we have one-
sixth of the world’s population [2]. The growing population and
small-scale industries are pushing the use of traditional sources of
energy (forest and agricultural waste) beyond the sustainable
generation capacity of the existing forest and farm lands. The Indian
economy is fully dependent on imports for all of its chemical
fertilizer, petroleum and coal requirements. India has a very large
potential for harnessing renewable energy sources like wind energy,
Abbreviations: DST, Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India;
SKUAST-K, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Sciences & Technology of Kashmir, Srina-
gar (J&K); MNRE, Ministry of Nonconventional Renewable Energy, Govt. of India;
CERC, Central Electricity Regulatory Commission; JKEDA, Jammu & Kashmir Energy
Development Agency; LREDA, Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Agency.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 9469786729, þ91 9416169422.
E-mail addresses: shivkumarlohan@rediffmail.com (S.K. Lohan), jagvirdixit@
yahoo.com (J. Dixit), sheikhmudasir@gmail.com (S. Modasir), king_isaq@yahoo.co.
in (Mohd. Ishaq).
solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, biomass energy and
fuel cell technology which can be used to overcome energy
shortage. However, there is a large gap between the estimated
potential and the cumulative achievements made so far [3].
The Jammu & Kashmir state, which has the immense potential for
the application of renewable energy projects, is situated in the
northern region of the Great Himalayan range, spreading over
33e37
N latitude and 72e80
E longitude (Fig. 1). The state comprises
6.7% of the total geographical area of the country, covering over
2.22 lakh square km, of which about 30% is under cultivation. Despite
small geographical area, the state is blessed with diverse agro-
climatic conditions, topography and natural resources for cultiva-
tion of a wide range of agro-horticultural crops [4]. As per the census
2011, the total population of the state stands 1,25,48,000 (Table 2)
while it was 1,10,43,700 in 2001 [5]. The state comprises three distinct
regions of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh which are diverse in culture,
geography and climate. Agro-climatic conditions vary from subtrop-
ical in outer plains and outer hills of Jammu division; subtropical to
temperate in mid to high altitude zone including major parts of
district Udhampur, Poonch, Rajori and Doda; temperate to cold
temperate in Kashmir valley and cold arid in Ladakh-Kargil area
(Table 1). The state has a vast varied range of temperatures in the
different regions (Fig. 2). The mean ambient temperature throughout
the year ranges from 13 to 28
C in the state, 25.75
C in Jammu region,
16.32
C in Kashmir region and 6.37
C Leh region [6].

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.08.033
 S.K. Lohan et al. / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29 25

Table 2
District wise population and density status of J&K state.

S.No. Districts Population Population density

1 Anantnag 1070144 375
2 Badgam 735753 537
3 Bandipore 385099 1117
4 Baramula 1015503 305
5 Doda 409576 79
6 Ganderbal 297003 1151
7 Jammu 1526406 596
8 Kargil 143388 10
9 Kathua 615711 232
10 Kishtwar 231037 125
11 Kulgam 422786 925
12 Kupwara 875564 368
13 Leh 147104 3
14 Pulwama 570060 598
15 Punch 476820 285
16 Rajouri 619266 235
17 Ramban 283313 213
18 Reasi 314714 184
19 Samba 318611 318
20 Shupiyan 265960 852
21 Srinagar 1269751 703
Fig. 1. Political map of J&K state, India.
22 Udhampur 555357 211

Though, the state government has provided electricity to almost Total 12548926 124

all the villages for lighting but due to inadequate supply of elec- Source: Censes of India 2011 [5].
tricity and severe cold particularly in Kashmir and Ladakh region,
the energy requirement is usually met by fuel wood/coal and diesel sources account for a share of just 8% of the total energy generation
sets, resulting in deforestation and degradation of land. In the case and 4% in total electricity generation in India [7]. If only 10% of solar
of diesel sets, the fuel has to be transported from the plains. Due to radiation (1 kW/m2 surface) is harnessed in the state at 10%
the region’s remoteness, the cost of transportation maintenance as conversion efficiency, 0.01% surface area of total geographical area
well as the cost of generation per unit is very high. In the state, has the potential to generate 2.22  109 MW energy, which will be
more than 300 days in a year are sunny and dry, increasing demand sufficient for domestic energy requirement of the farmers in the
for energy provides both the need as well as opportunity to use state. Solar energy has the potential for meeting and supplementing
renewable sources of solar energy. It has the added advantage of various energy requirements. Being modular in nature solar energy
widespread use, non-polluting nature and inexhaustible supply can be installed in any capacity [8]. The solar energy can be effec-
over other fuels. There is an urgent need to shift from utilization tively adopted for heating, cooking, lighting, refrigeration, drying of
based on fossil fuels, which not only are carbon intensive but also grain and farm produce etc.
are not sustainable. Hence, it is important that the region moves to Solar power systems usually yield an initial return on investment
clean and sustainable energy. Therefore the MNRE, CERC, JKEDA of 7e11%. Solar energy is also an investment which is inflation-
and LREDA are devising action plans for application of renewable protected because it offsets electricity costs at the current prevail-
energy projects in the state. ing retail rate. As utility rates increase, with an ever increasing
demand for electricity, returns will also increase. In fact, the hot
2. Resource potential of renewable energy weather in most of India (including J&K) has recently led to
a significant increase in electricity prices on the Indian Energy
2.1. Solar energy Exchange (IEX) and Power Exchange India (PXI). These are between
Rs 6 and Rs 8 per unit and in the near future the cost of solar power
The percent share of electricity for agricultural consumption is generation in India is said to come down to Rs 5e6 per kW h/unit [9].
21.97% in India and 3.48% in J&K state (Table 3) Renewable energy Solar Power Systems usually have a payback period of between 6
and 12 years. The payback period will depend on electrical usage,
Table 1 electric rate schedule, and cost of the system. In most cases, larger
Agro climatic zones and livelihood production system in J&K State.
the electricity bill, the greater the return on investment and the
Zones Districts and parts of Climate Livelihood production faster the payback. The state needs to implement more incentives
the State ealtitude system and tariffs to drive the demand for solar energy generation.
(m, amsl)
Solar thermal systems such as solar driers, solar water heaters,
Zone I Jammu and plains of Subtropical Agriculture livestock steam and dish cookers, and solar greenhouses have been promoted
Sub-mountain Udhampur Districts 200e800 m fish horticulture
and low hills
in the state. Presently there are 389 street lighting system, 15317
Zone II Hilly area of Sub humid Agri-horti-livestock home lighting systems, 9202 solar lantern, 115 solar water heating
Mid hills Doda, Udhampur, 801e1800 m fish system in the state [10]. The J&K Bank also intends to set up
Rajauri and Punch 200e300 solar powered ATMs in J&K. The Government has sanc-
Districts
tioned setting up of 10 Akshay Urja shops in the districts of Jammu,
Zone III Srinagar, Budgam, Temperate Agri-horti-livestock-
High hills Anantnag, Pulwama, 1801e2200 m pasture-fish Kishtwar, Srinagar, Anantnag, Bandipora, Baramullah, Ganderbal,
Baramula, Kupwara, Shopian, Kupwara and Budgam to sell and repair renewable energy
Leh and Kargil districts and energy saving devices and also provide the information about
Zone IV Leh-Ladakh and Kargil Temperate/ Livestock-silvipasture- different renewable energy sources [11].
Very high hills districts Cold arid agriculture
>2200 m
In Ladakh, solar radiation is one of the most abundant natural
resources, with annual solar radiation of 2149 kW h/m2 [12]. The
26 S.K. Lohan et al. / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29
Fig. 2. Mean ambient temperature of three different regions i.e. Jammu, Kashmir and Leh of J&K state. Source: Division of Agronomy, SKUAST-K, 2011 [6].
mean daytime ambient temperatures of Ladakh, even in the
middle of summer, rarely exceed 27
C, which means solar PV
modules are at their most efficient in producing electricity from
the sun. The solar parabolic concentrators are used for solar
cooking at Army mess, Ladakh having capacity of 4 t/day of steam
food for 15000 people (Fig. 3). In Markha Valley of Leh District one
solar power plant was installed (Fig. 4). A 40 kW solar power plant
has been installed in Ladakh through which 500 households are
being provided electricity. MNRE has funded Rs. 500 crores
(approximately US$110 million) for Ladakh to implement the
renewable energy systems (4500 Solar dish cookers, 15 Steam
cooking systems, 2500 Domestic solar greenhouses, 250
Commercial solar greenhouses, 500 Solar dryers, 5 Ground source
heat pumps, 19 Small hydro projects, 40 SPV power plants for
villages, 60 SPV power plants for health centers, education insti-
tutions, religious institutions and 5 SPV power plants in defense
establishments) in 2010e13 [13]. Solar water heating system with
a collector area of 15000 m2 will be covered under the programme
Ladakh renewable energy initiative, which has been sanctioned by
MNRE in 2010 [14]. The state has also set targets to electrify the
remaining un-electrified villages by non-conventional energy
mode.
2.2. Wind energy
The wind energy industry is one of the fastest growing sectors.
India has excellent wind speed suitable for micro wind turbines
across several parts of the country and stands at the fifth in terms of
installed wind energy plants. Jammu and Kashmir state is fairly
untapped in the field of wind energy however according to E-hands
Energy [15], which is a professional managed enterprise in the field
of renewable energy, there may be significant wind energy
potential in the different districts of the state, i.e. Leh (7000 kW h),
Udhampur (5000 kW h), Anantnag (5000 kW h), Baramulla
(5000 kW h), Kupwara (5500).
Table 3
Consumption of electricity for agricultural purposes [27] and [28].
Jammu & Kashmir
Electricity consumption for agricultural 145.90
purposes (KW h)
Total electricity consumption (KW h) 4188.54
Percent share of agricultural consumption, % 3.48
Source: Agricultural statistics at a glance, GOI, 2007.
2.3. Biomass and biogas technology
The potential for application of biomass as an alternative source
of energy in the state is extremely high. The plenty of agricultural
and forest resources for production of biomass is abundantly
available in the state. Biomass is the source of energy in the form of
wood, agricultural residues, etc. It is produced in nature through
photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion. The potential
of agricultural residues alone is estimated as 480 metric ton with
residues from food grains contributing about 100 metric ton.
Biomass may be burnt directly to generate steam and the gas used
in an internal combustion engines for generating power generation
in various agricultural purposes.
About 70% of the population in J&K state derives its livelihood
from the agriculture sector and use firewood and cattle dung cakes
for cooking as fuel (Fig. 5), The burning of cattle dung is a wasteful
practice and hardly 9e12% of the fuel value is harnessed. This
practice has not only led to National wastage of organic manures
but has also health hazards. The cost of providing kerosene, LPG or
even firewood in J&K is 20e25% more than what it is in other parts
of the country, and high transportation costs is one of the prime
reasons for the differential.
India
90292.40
417886.9
21.97
Fig. 3. Solar heating system for cooking at army mess, Ladakh.
 S.K. Lohan et al. / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29 27

Fig. 6. Principal livestock population (lakh) in J&K state. Source: 17th Indian Livestock
Census, 2003 [29].

digester failure [18]. As the biogas plants did not have heating
provision and automatic control of temperature all the operational
biogas plants in Kashmir valley are reported non functional and out
of order in winter. The maximum gas yield is obtained when the
temperature is between 30
C and 35
C [19]. Development of
Fig. 4. Solar power plant in Markha valley in Leh district. appropriate designs of biogas plant to suit the hilly conditions and
minimization of low temperature problem are of more concern to
the Engineers and Scientists working in the field of renewable
There is a large potential for the application of biogas technolo-
energy. Therefore with the financial support of DST, SKUAST-K has
gies to provide sustainable power supplies for distributed genera-
developed and modified the floating drum type biogas plant to suite
tion. Biogas technology though having numerous advantages yet the
the temperate climate of Kashmir region for round the year
potential has not been fully tapped [16]. As estimate from [17] shows
production of biogas (Fig. 7). Four model biogas plants have been
availability of 104.73 lakh livestock in the state, which reflects vast
installed and in operation at the four villages of Kashmir region, i.e.
potential for biogas generation (Fig. 6). If 60% of the livestock @ 5 kg
Village Chak-i-Safapora, District Ganderbal, Village Chralpora
dung/livestock/day is utilized for this purpose, about 12.56 lakh
Rohama, Rafiabad, District Baramulla, Village Athena, District
family size biogas plants of size 2 cubic meter could be run in the
Budgam, Village Mulnar New Theed, Harwan, District Srinagar [20].
state. Consequently, the biogas generated will suffice needs of more
than 104.67 lakh persons. Energy for cooking alone contributes fifty
2.4. Geo-thermal energy
percent of the total energy budget of the state. The energy produc-
tion will also save more than 4188.84 million tons of fuel wood and
The state has a high potential for geothermal energy. It is esti-
the huge amount of biogas digested manure will be available for use
mated that around 40 MW of power can be obtained from this
in the crops. Thus, biogas itself will be a milestone in self-reliance on
source and exploitation of the same can ease the power situation in
energy with saving forest. Presently there are 2128 biogas plants
the region. The feasibility of geothermal energy was assessed by
installed in J&K state [10]. The majority falling in the Jammu region
a governmental committee and identified a geothermal resource at
since the Kashmir region is under temperate climatic condition and
depths suitable for exploration and development [21]. Some esti-
the feasibility of biogas plant is very less during the severe winter
mates suggest potential of as much as 40 MW in Puga Valley of
conditions.
Southeast Ladakh [22]. This resource could be developed to provide
For temperate regions, the use of biogas technology is totally
grid-connected power to small settlements and army bases sited on
different from that of plains since low temperature has a deleterious
the national highway, using the existing road infrastructure to site
effect on methanogenesis and can cause decreased gas yields and
an extension to the existing Leh-Srinagar 220 kW line.

2.5. Hydroelectric power (hydel power)

Surface water because of its potential energy in certain areas,

provides the cheapest, neat and clean resource of energy. Electricity
produced from water represents hydroelectric power. With the
limited resources of coal, lignite and oil, growing reliance is being
placed on hydroelectric and nuclear power. Hydropower also has
the highest potential among the energy resources in the state. The
major rivers and their perennial tributaries can be effectively
utilized for domestic energy requirements through water mills and
small-scale hydroelectric units. At present, the age-old techniques
of water mill operating are prevailing in the state which has a long
history of Hydropower projects as early as 1905. According to the
available data there are about 2000 un-electrified villages/hamlets
in the state [23]. The role of such hydro projects has been well
identified and accepted to supplement energy generation as short/
medium term measure particularly in this state. The estimated
hydropower potential in the state is more than 20000 MW, of
Fig. 5. Conventional practices of cooking food by direct burning of wood and dung which projects for 16200 MW have already been identified and able
cakes. to develop a power 1474.65 MW (Table 4).
28 S.K. Lohan et al. / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29
Fig. 7. A modified Biogas plant for temperate climate, at SKUAST-K, Srinagar.
The major hydroelectric power plants in the state are Uri
Hydroelectric Dam (480 MW), Dulhasti (390 MW), Salal (690 MW)
and Baglihar (450 MW). The Uri hydroelectric power station is
established on the Jhelum River near Uri in Baramula district. This
station is largely built under a hill with a 10 km tunnel. The Dulhasti
hydroelectric power plant is established in Kishtwar district on the
swift-flowing Chenab River in the Doda region. This project provides
peaking power to the Northern Grid with the neighboring benefi-
ciary states Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarkhand, Rajasthan
and Delhi. The Baglihar hydroelectric power project is a run-of-the-
river power project on the Chenab River in the southern Doda district
with a volume of 1,800,000 m3 and crest elevation of 844.5 m [24].
As per the Central Electricity Authority, the total installed
capacity of diesel and gas-based power plants in India is
1199.75 MW and 17,353.85 MW respectively. Normally the diesel-
based power plants are either operated from remote locations or
operated to cater peak load demands. In J&K state, diesel based
power plants are Bemina (5.00 MW), Kamah (0.06 MW), Leh
(2.18 MW) and Upper Sindh (1.7 MW). Two gas-based power plants
in the state have been installed in Pampore namely Pampore Gas
Turbine Station I&II of 75 and 100 MW capacity respectively [25].
Other micro hydel projects in the state are in the basin of Jhelam
River (Ganderbal, Upper Sindh, Lower Jehlum, Karnah, Upper
Sindh-II and Pahalgam), Chenab Basin (Chenani-I, II&III and
Baderwah), Indus Basin (Stakna, Hunder, Sumoor, Bazgoo and Iqbal
Bridge) and in Ravi Basin (Sewa-III).
Table 4
Hydroelectric power potential in the J&K state.
S.No Name of the basin Hydro potential
Identified (MW) Developed (MW)
1 Jehlum 3560 732.60
2 Chenab 10360 724.50
3 Indus 2060 8.55
4 Ravi 220 9.00
Total 16200 1474.65
Source: JKEDA [11].
Ladakh is not connected to India’s national grid. The extremely
rugged terrain makes it physically impossible to electrify all the
remote villages, quite apart from the prohibitive cost. The main
towns have a diesel generator set, a mini- or micro-hydro scheme,
or both. Running and maintaining the diesel generator sets is
extremely expensive, and they normally supply only 3e4 h of
power in the evenings. The hydropower plants remain closed for
months together during winters due to the extremely low
temperatures in winter, most rivers and streams freeze
completely, and the hydro plant has to be shut down. Inadequate
and erratic supply of electricity through the existing hydroelectric
projects and diesel sets, absence of conventional fuels like coal
and ignite along with the environmental hazards of using energy
based on these resources make the option of solar energy
attractive.
2.6. Energy parks
The Renewable Energy Park Scheme was started in 1994e1995
under the Special Area Demonstration Programme. The main
objective of the Renewable Energy Park Scheme is to create
awareness, publicity and provide an opportunity to the students/
teachers and rural and urban masses about the use and benefits of
the renewable energy by demonstrating new and renewable
energy systems and devices by demonstrating working systems,
cut models, LED models, blow ups etc. Renewable Energy Parks are
being supported under this scheme namely District Level Renew-
able Energy Parks (DLEP) and State Level Renewable Energy Parks
(SLEP). DLEPs are set up at Educational Institutions, Krishi Vigyan
Kendras, Registered Consumer Forums, Registered NGOs with
facilities for Science and Environment Education and public places
where there is large inflow of public. SLEP is set up in a state at
a location where large flow of people and tourists takes place every
day. Out of 30 State level renewable energy parks in the country,
two energy parks has been supported in J&K state i.e. at Sri Mata
Vaishnodevi Shrine, Katra, and Ziyarat Sharif Dargah, Hazratbal,
Srinagar [26].
 S.K. Lohan et al. / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 24e29
3. Conclusion and suggestions
From the ongoing discussion it may be concluded the J&K region
seems a wide gap in the demand and supply of energy. Considering
the region’s vast potential to harness renewable resources and to
promote clean energy, investment in this sector promises high
returns, there is an essential need for encouraging corporate sector to
increase their investment in renewable energy by providing higher
returns on their investments. The government should make it
mandatory for all states in India to enter into such an agreement
which would require every state to purchase a fixed percent of their
energy needs from renewable energy plants. The engineers/scientists
and developmental agencies of government and NGOs should work
on this aspect of non-traditional energy resources for the develop-
ment of eco-friendly, farmers friendly and user friendly power
generation system. It is urged that cooperative and constructive
efforts are required for efficient harnessing of renewable energy.
Acknowledgments
Authors express their deep thanks to the DST, MNRE, CERC,
JKEDA, LREDA and Division of Agronomy and Division of Agricul-
tural Engineering, SKUAST-K for providing necessary information
for preparation of this manuscript.
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