INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC GUIDED WAVES

ASHLEY JOLLEY
Acoustic Spectrum
Piezoelectric Effect

When exposed to an alternating current a

Piezoelectric crystal expands and
contracts. This process converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
-+
The reverse of this is also true; mechanical
deformation of the crystal generates an
electric potential.

-
+
The Ultrasonic Beam

An ultrasonic beam is made up of many point sources that form a conical beam. This beam is formed by the
constructive and destructive interferences of the waves emitted from the point sources.

The piezoelectric crystal in the probe converts electrical pulses into ultrasonic sound waves that are
transmitted into the material. Returning sound from a reflector is converted into electrical pulses by the
piezoelectric crystal and returned to be displayed in various formats on the screen.
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam
The Ultrasonic Beam

Near Zone or
Fresnell Zone
The Ultrasonic Beam

Near Zone or
Fresnell Zone

NZ = D2f = D2
4V 4λ
 The Sound Beam

Dead Zone
(Pulse Echo – Cannot receive signals whilst transmitting)

Near or Fresnel Zone

Irregular sound intensity’s exist

Far or Fraunhofer Zone.

Sound obeys the inverse square law in this region
Basic Principles of NDT

IN ULTRASONIC NDT SOUND IS MADE TO TRAVEL AS A

BEAM. THIS BEAM WILL BE REFLECTED BY ANY
DISCONTINUITY POSITIONED WITHIN THE BEAM PATH.

DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE PLANAR WILL NEED TO BE

ALMOST PERPENDICULAR TO THE BEAM IF THEY ARE TO
BE DETECTED.
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic NDT
Characteristics of Ultrasound in Solids

Pulses can be used to calculate the range of a discontinuity by measuring the time of
flight of the reflected pulse travelling at a constant velocity.

Ultrasonic testing will only detect discontinuities that occur within the sound beam.

The amplitude of a received echo will depend on the nature of the reflecting surface
and the distance to the discontinuity.
Characteristics of Ultrasound in Solids

Compression waves are otherwise known as Longitudinal waves.

If a Compression wave strikes an interface between two media at any angle other than 0° they split into
Compression and Shear (or Transverse) wave components.
This is the method in which Shear waves are generated for conventional ultrasonic NDT using
Compression wave piezoelectric transducers.
The transducers are set on angled wedges of Perspex. Usually, the wedges are cut to refract Shear
waves at angles of 45°, 60° and 70°.
Shear waves propagate at approximately 1Τ2 the velocity of Compression waves.
Bulk Wave Modes in Solids

Test surface

Direction of
propagation

Shear Wave
(Transverse)
Compression Wave
(Longitudinal)
Compression Waves

Particle displacements are in the same direction as wave propagation.

Propagates in solids, liquids and gases.

Propagation

Particle displacements
Compression Waves
Shear Waves

Particle displacements are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Propagates in solids only.

Velocity ≈ 1Τ2 compression (for the same material).

Shear Waves

Direction of propagation
Other useful Ultrasonic wave modes

Creep waves are generated just below the surface and can be used, for example, in detecting
undercut in an otherwise inaccessible weld cap.
Surface waves follow the test surface contours and find application in the detection of surface
cracks in smooth machined components.

Creep Wave Surface Wave

Surfac Surface
Characteristics of Ultrasound in Solids

Wavelength (λ) Velocity (v)

How far a sound wave How quickly a sound wave
advances in completing one travels
cycle

Frequency (f)
How many vibrations per
second
Characteristics of Ultrasound in Solids

Wavelength = 𝒗/𝒇 Velocity = λ*𝒇

V
=
f
V Frequency 𝒗/λ

 ƒ
Comparison of Ultrasonic Velocities

COMPRESSION WAVES SHEAR WAVES

Steel 5960 ms-1 Steel 3245 ms-1

Water 1490 ms-1 Water N/A ms-1
Air 344 ms-1 Air N/A ms-1
Copper 4700 ms-1 Copper 2330 ms-1

Wave mode velocity varies according to the material

Incident Angles
Incident Angles
Incident Angles
Incident Angles
Incident Angles
Incident Angles
Incident Angles
 First Critical Angle

Critical angles vary with sound velocity in the material.

28° is the first critical angle for steel. 28º 28º

The Compression wave inside the wedge is reflected and refracted.

Reflected sound is absorbed inside the wedge.

Some of the sound is mode converted into a Creep wave.

The remainder is mode converted to a Shear wave at the refracted angle.

Second Critical Angle

At the second critical angle the compression component

is totally reflected inside the wedge.

The Shear component is refracted through 90° as a

Surface wave.
Plate Waves
Plate Waves
Plate Waves
Plate Waves – Asymmetric
Plate Waves - Symmetric
Plate Waves

If the Creep waves on the two surfaces are in phase, Asymmetric plate waves are produced. If the
Creep waves are in anti-phase, symmetric plate waves will be produced.

Asymmetrical wave (A)

Direction of propagation

Symmetrical wave (S)

Types of Plate Wave
Plate Wave Characteristics
The wavelength – plate thickness combination can be changed to propagate various orders of A-waves and
S-waves. No matter what the order of the wave, the plate centre is flexed in an A-wave and remains
stationary in an S-wave.
Particle Movement in a Symmetric Plate Wave

The principle distinction between plate waves and bulk waves, is that they are affected by displacement of the
boundary of the medium through which they are propagating. The particle displacement at this boundary is complex.
This gives rise to many of the properties of plate waves. Plate waves are dispersive; their velocity varies with
frequency.
Lamb Waves

LAMB WAVES ARE A RESULT OF PARTICLE INTERACTION BETWEEN

PARALLEL SURFACES OF THE SOLID THROUGH WHICH THEY ARE
PROPAGATING.

THE SURFACES MUST BE NO MORE THAN A FEW WAVELENGTHS APART.

THE FREQUENCY AND/OR THICKNESS OF THE SECTION DETERMINES THE

WAVE MODE(S).
Lamb Waves

LAMB WAVES ARE DISPERSIVE, I.E. THEIR VELOCITY DEPENDS UPON

THE PRODUCT OF THEIR FREQUENCY AND THE THICKNESS OF THE
MEDIUM.

VFXT

WHERE V IS SOUND VELOCITY, F IS FREQUENCY AND T IS CROSS

SECTIONAL THICKNESS.
Lamb Waves Dispersion Curves
Wave Modes in Pipes

Longitudinal

Torsional

Flexural
Longitudinal L(0,1) Mode
Longitudinal L(0,1) Mode
Longitudinal L(0,2) Mode
Longitudinal L(0,2) Mode
Torsional T(0,1) Mode
Torsional T(0,1) Mode
Flexural Wave Modes – 1st Order F(1,1)
Flexural Wave Modes – 1st Order F(1,2)
Flexural Wave Modes – 5th Order F(5,1)
Pipe Wall displacements
Dispersion Curves - Pipes

6.0

6000

L(0,1) L(0,2)
Group velocity (m/s)

4.0
Vgr (m/s)

F(1,3)
4000
2.0
T(0,1)
F(1,2)

0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
2000 Frequency (MHz)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Frequency (kHz)
Transducer Arrangement

Transducers are mounted in a ring around the pipe.

Each transducer oscillating individually will generate a flexural wave.

If they oscillate in unison an axi-symmetric wave is produced.

The number of transducers in the ring has to be carefully chosen.

Shear Wave Transducer in Contact with Test Surface
Propagation of axi-symmetric Waves
Propagation of axi-symmetric Waves

Axi-symmetric waves, Longitudinal or Torsional, will propagate in both directions from a single ring.

To prevent the wave from propagating in both directions a second ring is introduced. This ring will be phase delayed
with respect to the first one.

When using the Longitudinal wave mode it is necessary to dampen the unwanted L(0,1) wave mode. This
necessitates a third ring.

For optimum cancellation of L(0,1) the spacing between the rings must be equal to the L(0,1) wavelength, so the test
frequency needs to be adjusted accordingly.

The delay between the signals applied to the rings is equal to the spacing divided by the wave velocity.
Transducers Oscillating in Anti-Phase
Acoustic Impedance

DEFINITION:

RESISTANCE TO TRAVEL OF SOUND

WAVES WITHIN A MATERIAL

Different Reflected Waves

TO DETERMINE WHETHER A REFLECTED WAVE IS AXI-

SYMMETRIC OR FLEXURAL, THE TRANSDUCER RING IS
DIVIDED INTO OCTANTS OR QUADRANTS.

THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THE REFLECTED PULSE IS

RECEIVED INDICATES ITS MODE OF VIBRATION.
Tooling Arrangement Example

Forward Forward

Side View Side View

L(0,1)
L(0,2) T(0,1)
A H A H
F(1,3) B G F(1,2) B G
C F C F
D E D E

End View (Behind Tool) End View (Behind Tool)

Different Reflected Waves
Reflectivity with reflector Cross Section – constant
depth
Suppose a pipe with a known size
defect is scanned and the amplitude of
the reflector is recorded.
If the defect size is continuously
increased by increasing its
circumferential extent and it is re-
scanned, the amplitude of the reflector
also increases
It can be seen that there is a linear
relationship between defect size and the
amplitude of its reflection.
Reflectivity with reflector Cross Section – constant
circumferential extent
However, this is not the only
way this experiment could be
run.
The defect could be increased
in size by increasing its depth
instead.
It can now be seen that there
is an exponential relationship
between defect size and the
amplitude of its reflection.
Reflectivity with reflector Cross Section

The relationship between a defect of known size and

its amplitude can be ascertained.

The problem is that in reality the amplitude of the

defect is known and we are trying to ascertain its
size.
As information about the defects aspect ratio is not
know, an error is introduced into the estimation of the
defects true size.

The real size of the defect could be anywhere

between X and Y, depending on whether it is shallow
and wide or deep and narrow.
X Y