Shape Dynamics: Concepts and Results

Julian Barbour

Saig Summer School, Black Forest, July 17-22, 2017

JB, Tim Koslowski, and Flavio Mercati,“Identification of a

gravitational arrow of time”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 181101 (2014)
“Entropy and the typicality of universes”, arXiv: 1507.06498v2.
ETH Zurich, September 2015: video link at platonia.com
F Mercati, A Shape Dynamics Tutorial, arXiv:1409.0105
To be published by OUP as Shape Dynamics.
Diagrams by Flavio Mercati.
 Space, Congruence and Similarity

Leibniz 1716: Space is the order of coexisting things.

Better: Space is the order of coexisting facts.

Euclidean Group: Translations and Rotations

Similarity Group: Translations, Rotations and Dilatations

Discrete Group: Inversions

The similarity group has a generalization in Riemannian geometry.

The N-body configuration space has 3N degrees of freedom (dofs):

3 for centre of mass, 3 for orientation, 1 for scale, 3N − 7 shape dofs.

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 The Unity of the Universe

Ernst Mach 1883: “Nature does not begin with elements, as we are obliged
to begin with them. It is certainly fortunate for us that we can, from time to
time, turn aside our eyes from the overpowering unity of the All and allow
them to rest on individual details. But we should not omit ultimately to
complete and correct our views by a thorough consideration of the things
which for the time being we left out of account.”

Bell 1990: “To restrict quantum mechanics to be exclusively about

piddling laboratory operations is to betray the great enterprise.
A serious formulation will not exclude the big world outside the laboratory.”

The gaucho and the dance.

N-body island universes and spatially closed Einsteinian universes.

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 The Nature of Time

Leibniz 1716: “Time is the order of succesive things.”

N-particle configurations or shapes as instants of time: Nows.

Mach 1883: “It is utterly impossible to measure the changes of things by time.
Quite the contrary, time is an abstraction
at which we arrive by means of the changes of things.”

Einstein 1948: “Rods and clocks should be represented as solutions of the

basic equations (objects consisting of moving atomic configurations),
not, as it were, as theoretically self-sufficient entities.”

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 Einstein and Mach’s Principle

Mach 1883: “The universe is given once only,

with its relative motions alone determinable.”

Mach’s critique prime stimulus to indirect creation of general relativity.

Einstein’s contingent discovery of relativity of simultaneity in 1905.

Consistent development of Mach’s intuition with

universal simultaneity could have led to Shape Dynamics.

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 Relativity of Scale and Simultaneity

Relativity of Scale: Riemann 1854, Weyl 1917

Relativity of Simultaneity: James Thomson 1884,

Poincaré 1898, Poincaré and Einstein 1905

Initial-Value Problem in General Relativity: York 1971/1972 leads to

distinguished foliation of spacetime by surfaces of
constant-mean-(extrinsic)-curvature (CMC surfaces,
analogous to soap bubbles in 3D, define universal simultaneity
and essential for numerical relativity; also seen in cosmology but
black holes an as yet unresolved critical issue).

However, if relativity of scale is more fundamental,

Newtonian N-body problem offers interesting insights.

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 Jacobi’s Principle: Time from Change

Z 2 X ma dra
q dra
AJacobi = 2 dλ (E − V )TJ, TJ = ·
1 a 2 dλ dλ
s  s
d  E−V dra  T ∂V
ma =−
dλ T dλ E − V ∂ra

Choose λ s.t T = E − V. Then

d2ra
s
∂V madra · dra
Newton’s 2nd Law =− and dt =
dλ2 ∂ra 2(E − V )

The N -body universe tells its own ephemeris time.

But dt is not scale invariant. Also, no ticking clocks.
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 The Relativity of Motion

Mach 1883: “The universe is given once only,

with its relative motions alone determinable.”

Poincaré 1902: Given Newton’s laws, mass ratios and rab, ṙab
is rab(t) determined? No: angular momentum L not known.

JB 2012: In 3-body problem for known mi and only ratios (shapes)

observable, do internal-angle data α, β, dα/dβ fix α(β)?

No: L, V /T, Tdil/T not encoded in α, β, dα/dβ . In general

d7 α dα d2α d3α d4α d5α d6α

!
=f α, β, , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
dβ 7 dβ dβ dβ dβ dβ dβ

d3 α d2α
!
V dα
If L = 0 and = −1, then = f α, β, ,
T dβ 3 dβ dβ 2

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 Best Matching

Mass-weighted intrinsic difference of ra and ra + dra:

s
min X ma
dsbm = (dra − b − ra × dc) · (dra − b − ra × dc)
Euc a 2
Z 2q
AbmJ = 2 (E − V (rab) dsbm
1
Constraints:
X X
P= pa = ra × pa = 0, V = V (rab)
a
With dilational best matching also

ra · pa = E = 0, V (crab) = c−2V (rab)

X

a
a ra · pa is the dilatational momentum.
P
D=

Best matching wrt similarity group incompatible with VNew.

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Equilocality & Newtonian Spacetime

Horizontal and vertical stacking.

Inertial frames without absolute space and time.
But scale assumed and still no ticking clocks.
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 The Lagrange–Jacobi (Virial) Relation

1¨
If V homogeneous, V (αra) = αk V (r a) , then Icm = Ecm − 2(k + 2)V
2

If Ecm ≥ 0 , then because VNew < 0 and k = −1 we have I¨cm > 0

The moment of inertia Icm = a mara · ra is U-shaped upwards,

P

the dilatational momentum D = a ra · pa (= 21 I˙cm)

P

is monotonic and vanishes once.

D=0 is a Janus point.

It exists for all N-body solutions with Ecm ≥ 0.

First qualitative result in dynamics (Lagrange 1772)
but until 2014 never related to ‘arrow-of-time’ problem.
The N-body universe must have an apparent birth in chaos.
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 Solution Determining Data

Away from Janus point in the 3-body problem

d3α d2 α
!
dα
3 = f α, β, , 2
dβ dβ dβ
but at Janus point

d2α
!
dα
f α, β, , 2 =0
dβ dβ
Non-redundant solution-determining data for all solutions:
dα
α, β, , and D = 0.
dβ
Best-matched wrt similarity group.

Quantum gravity observables identified if Janus point in all solutions.

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 Shape Space

Expansion of universe deduced from evolution of ratios:

Galactic Diameters
→0
Inter-Galactic Separations
Only dimensionless ratios have physical meaning.

Shape Space S: all possible (mass-

weighted) shapes of the universe; trian-
gle shapes (2 internal angles) if N = 3.
Shape Sphere for equal-mass case. The
scale-free universe ‘boxes itself’ (compact
space). NB: Vectors not defined in S. In
space of n dimensions, directions defined
by n−1 numbers. Colour coding next slide.

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 A Scale-Invariant Measure of Clustering

Define CS as ratio of the root-mean-square length `rms

and the mean harmonic length: `mhl

v
u X m m r2
u
a b ab
q
`rms := = Icm/mtot,
u
2
t
a<b mtot

1 X mamb 1
`−1
mhl = 2 = − 2 V New.
mtot a<b rab mtot

Shape Complexity CS = `rms/`mhl.

A sensitive measure of clustering

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 The Shape Potential

− a<b mramb
P
VNew = generates forces that:
ab

• Pull all particles toward centre of mass

• Change the shape of the system

√
Multiplication of VNew by Icm gives Shape Potential VS = −CS.

Ratio → ∞ ⇒ VS → −∞.

Newtonian gravity ‘designed’ to create structure!

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 3. The Relational 3-Body Problem (Planar)

The conditions Ecm = L = 0 exclude absolute elements.

All key effects present in simplest non-trivial case: the 3-body problem.

Hyperbolic–Elliptic Escape: Singleton meets Kepler pair

in 3-body interaction → (new or old) singleton and pair.
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 One-Past–Two-Futures Interpretation

Each diagonal a history: a pair and

singleton emerge from Janus-point
region. Qualitative symmetry of
histories matches exact symmetry
of equation. Time from ‘big-bang’
measured by periods of emergent
Kepler pair, which also defines dis-
tance and direction.

In each history, the ‘universe’ expands and breaks up into clusters.

Free expansion and gravity create structure out of chaos.

Bidirectional arrows of time defined by growth of structure,
information and records (orbital elements stabilize ever better).
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 The 3-Body and 1000-Body Problems

CS
Icm

t
D

As universe evolves from J, clus-

CS
ters form. Intercluster separations
grow relative to Kepler pair major
t axes. Clocks and rods emerge
from basic equation of the universe
(Einstein). Their rate asymptotes to
ephemeris time of the universe.

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 Time and History as the Rocky Mountains
CS

Tralfamadorians can look at all the different moments just that way
we can look at a stretch of the Rocky Mountains, for instance.
They can see how permanent all the moments are,
and they can look at any moment that interests them.
Kurt Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse Five.

In Shape Dynamics moments of time are Shapes.

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 Inexorable Asymptotics

Wherever the Janus point and whatever the direction at it,

all solutions ‘fall down’ wells of the shape potential.
If Ecm > 0 solutions may terminate at other shapes.
The Ecm = 0 condition is relationally natural and very predictive.

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 Liouville’s Theorem and Attractors on Shape Space

Liouville’s theorem holds in extended phase space. If scale part of Gibbs

phase expands, shape part must contract. Attractors + gravity ⇒
isolated clusters form ⇒ emergent Second Law in all solutions.
Virialization already seen in 3-body problem.

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 Maximal Variety and Time Capsules

“This is the means of obtaining as much variety as possible

but with the greatest order possible.” Leibniz, Monadology, Article 57.

Either timeless or achieved in the fullness of time.

Time Capsule: “Any static configuration that appears to contain mutually

consistent records of processes that took place in a past in accordance with
certain laws may be called a time capsule.” JB, The End of Time.

Are increasing variety and ever more informative time capsules

inevitable consequences of an expanding universe?

Previous slide shows no interesting structure formation in geodesic theory.

All secular structure formation due to gravity and
epoch-dependent role of η = Tdil/T .
Relational Newtonian universe not like a clockwork.
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 NASA’s Half-Truth?

CS

NB: Time arrow nominal. Massive symmetry breaking.

Virtually all contemporary cosmologies break

time-reversal symmetry through a past hypothesis.
Janus-point conjecture restores symmetry.

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 Time’s Arrows & Entropy Growth

Clausius 1865:
1. The energy of the universe is constant.
2. The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum.

But how is entropy to be defined for a universe that can expand?

Concepts of the universe and its history very vague until 1917
but plenty of speculation in 19th century.

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 Heat Death and Entropic Creation

W Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1852): “On a Universal Tendency

in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy.”

Hermann von Helmholtz: Heat death of the universe.

If entropy of universe is continually increasing, it must

have been lower in the past ⇒ divine creation of the universe
(Lord Kelvin, Maxwell and others in period 1860 to 1920).

Implications of Liouville’s theorem for evolution of

universe’s shape might overturn current heat death belief.
Spatially closed universe still compatible with observations.

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No Equilibration Without Confinement

Ideal gas in a box

Box permits controlled supply and ex-

traction of heat; measurement of pres-
sure P , volume V and temperature T
in equilibrium; and thus determination
of entropy: dS = dQ/T .

Gibbs: Definition of entropy meaningful only

for a system with compact phase space.

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 Consequences of Confining Box

Free expansion ‘thwarted’ ⇒ equilibrium and infinitely many Poincaré

recurrrences. Solutions are qualitatively time-reversal symmetric.

S
heat death heat death heat death heat death
t t t t t t

Boltzmann: “The universe is, and rests forever, in thermal equilibrium.” Only
near deep entropy dips “are worlds where visible motion and life exist . . . the
direction of time towards the more improbable state [will be called] the past.”
This is a one-past–two-futures interpretation of each improbable state.

Boltzmann: Second Law is due to huge fluctuation in our remote past.

Today: Big Bang must have had an exceptionally low entropy.
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 Unconfined Janus-Point Systems

Every solution splits in two at a unique Janus point J.

Either side of J evolution is time-asymmetric.
Each solution has one past and two futures.
Observers in either half must find an arrow of time.
All solutions similar: no special initial conditions.

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 Entropy of Universe (Entaxy) Decreases

CS

Contours of shape complexity define macrostates.

Their length (resp. volume) measures configurational
entropy(entaxy) of the universe’s microstate.
This and its momentum analogue decrease away from J.
No coarse graining.

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 The Blindfolded Creator & Acausal CMB

Darts land with high probability in low-complexity region. Effect very

pronounced as N → ∞. Flight width of darts defines nominal total energy;
‘Primordial Maxwell–Boltzmann’ distribution expected.
Major problem: N → ∞.

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 Origin of Second Law of Thermodynamics

Universe at Janus point J is ‘thermal’ by statistics, not equilibration

and comes out of primordial equilibrium away from J.

CS
Away from J clusters form and are
boxed by their self-potential & QM.
Normal entropy growth begins in
t
direction away from J in these
isolated subsystems. Entropy-like
quantity for universe (entaxy)
decreases while subsystem entropy
increases.

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Emergence of Scale and Duration from Shape Curve

Newtonian solutions map many-to-one onto Shape Space.

Find autonomous shape-space curve

in terms of point, direction and cur-
vature & specify scale (Icm) at one
point ⇒ scale at all points found by
quadrature. Specify second point to
define unit of time ⇒ duration found as
ephemeris time at all points. Physical
rods and clocks appear as Kepler pairs
but not yet like Bohr atoms.

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Resolution of Newtonian Big-Bang Singularity

Central configurations (forces on all

particles point to common centre of
mass) at extrema of the shape com-
plexity. Fall from rest to total collision.
Are such solutions physical? There ex-
ist solutions that tend to central config-
urations and terminate there in New-
tonian representation but can be ex-
tended on Shape Space.

Work in progress by Paula Reichert and Tim Koslowski.

Doubts about FLRW cosmologies: solutions with

independent variable but no dependent variable.

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 Resolution of Big Bang in General Relativity

Shape-space curve passes smoothly through big-bang ‘singularities’.

T Koslowski, F Mercati, and D Sloan,

“Through the Big Bang”, arXiv: 1607.02460v2.

S3

det E > 0

det E = 0

det E < 0

S3

BKL Conjecture suggests quiescent Bianchi IX at each space point.

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 Tim Koslowski’s Quantum-Gravity Idea

A curve on S possesses only a tangent direction,

no absolute speed encoded.

The N-body problem creates structure because it deviates

from geodesic motion ⇒ curvature of the curve is dynamical.

A wave function Ψ on S has gradient ∇shapeΨ; its direction plays dynamical

role of tangent direction of a curve and its length plays
dynamical role of the curvature of the curve on S.

Tim’s wave equation (PIRSA 17050044 Koslowski):

∂Ψ q
i = (∆shape + IcmVN ew )Ψ
∂t
Tim’s claim: for equal-mass particles, Bohmian trajectories lead to
emergent (gravitational) ‘Bohr atoms’, emergent Planck constant and
asymptotically inflating universe.
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