As a simple illustration of the concepts introduced in the previous subsections, let us examine the

following problem. Suppose that a projectile is launched upward from ground level, with speed v0,
making an angle θ with the horizontal. Neglecting the effect of air resistance, what is the subsequent
trajectory of the projectile?

Our first task is to set up a suitable Cartesian coordinate system. A convenient system is illustrated in
Fig. 16. The z-axis points vertically upwards (this is a standard convention), whereas the x-axis points
along the projectile’s initial direction of horizontal motion. Furthermore, the origin of our coordinate
system corresponds to the launch point. Thus, z = 0 corresponds to ground level. Neglecting air
resistance, the projectile is subject to a constant acceleration g = 9.81 m s −1 , due to gravity, which is
directed vertically downwards. Thus, the projectile’s vector acceleration is written

a = (0, 0, −g). (3.41)

Here, the minus sign indicates that the acceleration is in the minus z-direction (i.e., downwards), as
opposed to the plus z-direction (i.e., upwards). What is the initial vector velocity v0 with which the
projectile is launched into the air at (say) t = 0? As illustrated in Fig. 16, given that the magnitude of this
velocity is v0, its horizontal component is directed along the x-axis, and its direction subtends an angle θ
with this axis, the components of v0 take the form

v0 = (v0 cos θ, 0, v0 sin θ). (3.42)

Note that v0 has zero component along the y-axis, which points into the paper in Fig. 16. Since the
projectile moves with constant acceleration, its vector displacement

s = (x, y, z) from its launch point satisfies [see Eq. (3.35)] s = v0 t + 1 2 a t 2 . (3.43)

Making use of Eqs. (3.41) and (3.42), the x-, y-, and z-components of the above equation are written

x = v0 cos θ t, (3.44)

y = 0, (3.45) z = v0 sin θ t − 1 2 g t 2 , (3.46) respectively.

Note that the projectile moves with constant velocity, vx = dx/dt = v0 cos θ, in the x-direction (i.e.,
horizontally). This is hardly surprising, since there is zero component of the projectile’s acceleration
along the x-axis. Note, further, that since there is zero component of the projectile’s acceleration along
the y-axis, and the projectile’s initial velocity also has zero component along this axis, the projectile
never moves in the y-direction. In other words, the projectile’s trajectory is 2-dimensional, lying entirely
within the x-z plane. Note, finally, that the projectile’s vertical motion is entirely decoupled from its
horizontal motion. In other words, the projectile’s vertical motion is identical to that of a second
projectile launched vertically upwards, at t = 0, with the initial velocity v0 sin θ (i.e., the initial vertical
velocity component of the first projectile)—both projectiles will reach the same maximum altitude at
the same time, and will subsequently strike the ground simultaneously. Equations (3.44) and (3.46) can
be rearranged to give

z = x tan θ − 1 2 g x 2 v 2 0 sec2 θ. (3.47)

As was first pointed out by Galileo, and is illustrated in Fig. 17, this is the equation of a parabola. The
horizontal range R of the projectile corresponds to its x-coordinate when it strikes the ground (i.e., when
z = 0). It follows from the above expression (neglecting the trivial result x = 0) that
R = 2 v 2 0 g sin θ cos θ = v 2 0 g sin 2θ. (3.48)

Note that the range attains its maximum value,

Rmax = v 2 0 g , (3.49)

when θ = 45◦ .

In other words, neglecting air resistance, a projectile travels furthest when it is launched into the air at
45◦ to the horizontal. The maximum altitude h of the projectile is attained when vz = dz/dt = 0 (i.e.,
when the projectile has just stopped rising and is about to start falling). It follows from Eq. (3.46) that
the maximum altitude occurs at time t0 = v0 sin θ/g.

Hence, h = z(t0) = v 2 0 2 g sin2 θ. (3.50) Obviously, the largest value of h

, hmax = v 2 0 2 g , (3.51)

is obtained when the projectile is launched vertically upwards (i.e., θ = 90◦ ).