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Department of Mechanical Engg

III B.Tech I Semester
DMM-I
 Topics to be covered

Stress Concentration

Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Notch Sensitivity

Design for Fluctuating Stresses

Endurance Limit

Estimation of Endurance Strength

Goodman’s Line

Soderberg’s Line

Modified Goodman’s Line

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UNIT 2
Day 9
1. What is stress concentration?
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes in the cross
section. In developing a machine it is
impossible to avoid changes in
cross-section, holes, notches, shoulders
etc.Any such discontinuity in a member
affects the stress distribution in the
neighborhood and the discontinuity
acts as a stress raiser.Consider a plate
with a centrally located hole and the
plate is subjected to uniform tensile
load at the ends. Stress distribution at a
section A-A passing through the hole
and another section BB away from the
hole are shown in figure.
Figure 2.1 Stress concentration
2. What is stress concentration factor and how canit be predicted?
In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out
localized stresses, a factor called stress concentration factor is used. It is
denoted by K​t and
​ defined as
K​t​ = σ​max /​ σ​0
Where σ​max =
​ Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity
σ​0 =
​ Nominal stress for minimum cross section.
It is possible to predict the stress concentration factors for certain
geometricshapes using theory of elasticity approach. For example, for an
elliptical hole in an infinite plate, subjected to a uniform tensile stress σ1,
stress distribution around the discontinuity is disturbed and at points remote
from the discontinuity the effect is insignificant. According to such an analysis
σ 3 = σ 1 (1 + 2b
a )

W here σ 3 = σ max and σ 1 = σ o If a = b the hole

reduces to a circular one and therefore σ​3 =
3σ​1 which gives K​t​=3. If, however ‘b’ is large
when compared to ‘a’, then the stress at the
edge of transverse crack is very large and
consequently k​t is also very large. If ‘b’ is small

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when compared to a then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does
not rise and k​t​ = 1. Figure 2.2 Stress concentration
Stress concentration factors may also be obtained using any one of the
following experimental techniques:
1. Strain gage method
2. Photoelasticity method
3. Brittle coating technique
4. Grid method
For more accurate estimation numerical methods like Finite element analysis
may be employed. Theoretical stress concentration factors for different
configurations are availablein handbooks.
Homework:
1) A non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 KN is shown in figure. The
shaft is made of brittle material, with an ultimate tensile strength of 300
N/mm​2​. The factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of the shaft.
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) Describe the methods to determine stress concentration
factor.[November – 2015, SET - 2[4M]
2) Describe the stress concentration factor and its significance.November –
2015, SET – 4 [4M]
DAY 10
1. What are the causes of stress concentration?
The causes of stress concentration are as follows
1) Variation in properties of materials such as the internal cracks and
flaws like blow holes, cavities in welds, and non-metallic or foreign
inclusions.
2) Load application: If the forces act either at a point or over a small
area on the component, the pressure at these points is excessive
resulting in stress concentration.
3) Abrupt changes in cross section like cutting of steps on the
transmission shaft and shoulders are provided from assembly
considerations.
4) Discontinuities in the component such as keyways and splines, and
screw threads.
5) Machining Scratches, inspection marks are surface irregularities,
which cause stress concentration.
2. How can the stress concentration be reduced?
In practice, reduction of stress concentration can be reduced by the following
methods:
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1) By providing additional notches and holes in tension member.
2) Fillet radius, Undercutting and Notch for member in tension.
3) Drilling additional holes for a transmission shaft with a key way.
4) Stress concentration can be reduced in threaded members by a small
undercut taken between the shank and the threaded portion of the
component and a fillet radius is provided for this undercut. An ideal
method to reduce the stress concentration is to reduce the shank
diameter and make equal to the core diameter of the thread.
Day-11
3. Explain different types of fluctuating stresses.
In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which are not
static, but vary in magnitude with respect to time. The stresses induced
due to such forces are called fluctuating stresses. There are three types of
cyclic stresses
1. Fluctuating or Alternating stresses
2. Repeated stresses
3. Completely reversed stresses

Figure 2.3 D​ifferent types of fluctuating stresses

A typical stress cycle is shown in figure, where the maximum, minimum, mean
stresses and stress amplitudes are indicated. The mean stresses and stress
amplitudes are given by

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Important and previous JNTUK Questions

1) Describe the causes of stress concentration? November – 2015, SET –2,
[4M].
2) Explain the types of fluctuating stresses. November – 2014, SET – 1,
[4M].
Day 12
1. Explain Fatigue, Endurance limit and low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue.
Fatigue: A component subjected to fluctuating loads fails at a stress much
below its ultimate tensile strength. Sometimes the magnitude is even
lower than the yield strength. This phenomenon is called fatigue.
Endurance Limit: It is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure. Since the fatigue test cannot be
conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 10​6 cycles is
considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.
The complete S-N curve is shown in figure below. There are two regions of
this curve namely, low-cycle fatigue and high-cycle fatigue.
● Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000,
it is called low-cycle fatigue. However in many applications, the
designers simply ignore the fatigue effect when the number of stress
cycles are less than 1000. A greater factor of safety is used to account
for this effect.
● Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are more than
1000, it is called high-cycle fatigue. Components subjected to high-cycle
fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance limit stress. S-N curves,
Soderberg lines, Gerber lines or Goodman Diagrams are used in the
design of such components.

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Figure 2.4 Goodman diagram

2. Explain the endurance limit modifying factors.

The endurance limits are obtained from standard rotating beam experiments
carried out under certain specific conditions. They need be corrected using
a number of factors. In general the modified endurance limit S​e ​is given by
S​e​ = K​a​ K​b​ K​c​K​d​ S​e​’
Where, K​a​ = Surface finish factor
K​b​ = Size Factor
K​c​ = Reliability factor
K​d​ = Stress concentration modifying factor
Surface finish factor:

Size Factor:

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Reliability factor:

Stress concentration modifying factor

1
Kd = Kf

K f = 1 + q (K t − 1)

Q) Explain about fatigue stress concentration factor and notch sensitivity.

Stress concentration has been discussed in earlier lessons. However, it is
important to realize that stress concentration affects the fatigue strength of
machine parts severely and therefore it is extremely important that this effect
to be considered in designing machine parts subjected to fatigue loading. This
is done by using fatigue stress concentration factor defined as
Endurance limit of a notch f ree specimen
K f = Endurance limit of a notched specimen

The notch sensitivity ‘q’ for fatigue loading can now be defined in terms of K​f
and the theoretical stress concentration factor K​t​ and this is given by

K​f =
​ 1+q (K​t -1)
​
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1. Describe fatigue stress concentration factor.November – 2014, SET –3,
[4M].
2. Explain the endurance limit modifying factors.November – 2015, SET2,
[4M].
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Day 13
1. Briefly explain design for finite and infinite life.
The design problems for completely reversed stresses are divided into two
groups
1) Design for infinite life 2) Design for finite life
Design for infinite life: When the component is to be designed for infinite life,
the endurance limit becomes the criterion of failure. The amplitude stress
induced in such components should be lower than the endurance limit in
order to withstand the infinite number of cycles. Such components are
designed with the help of the following equations:
S
σ a = (f s)e
S se
τa = (f s)

Where σ​a and τ​a are ​ stress amplitudes in the component and S​e and S​se are
corrected endurance limits in reversed bending and torsion respectively.
Design for finite life: When the component is to be designed for finite life, the
S-N curve as shown in figure can be used. The curve is valid for steels. It
consists of a straight line AB drawn from (0.9 S​ut​) at 10​3 cycles to (S​e​) at 10​6
cycles on a log-log paper.

Figure 2.5 S-N curve for finite life problems

Day-14
2. Explain about Cumulative Damage in Fatigue.
In certain applications, the mechanical component is subjected to different
stress levels for different parts of the work cycle. The life of such a
component is determined by Miner’s equation. Suppose that a component
is subjected to completely reversed stresses σ​1 for n​1 cycles, σ​2 for n​2
cycles, and so on. Let N​1 be the number of stress cycles before fatigue

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failure, if only the alternating stress σ​1 is acting. One stress cycle will
consume 1/N​1​ of the fatigue life.
Life completed in n​1​ cycles at stress σ​1 is(n​
​ 1​/N​1​)
Similarly life completed in n​2​ cycles at stress σ​2 is(n​​ 2​/N​2​)
By adding these quantities
n1 n2 nx
N + N + … + Nx = 1
1 2

Suppose that α​1, α​2 are proportions of the total life that will be consumed
by the stress levels σ​1,​σ​2 ……. etc. Let N be the total life if the
component. α1 + α2 + α3 + …αx = 1

Homework:
1) A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 20C8 (S ut = 540N /mm2 ) is
subjected to a completely reversed load of 1000N as shown in figure.
The notch sensitivity factor q at the fillet can be taken as 0.85 and the
expected reliability is 90%. Determine the diameter d of the beam for a
life of 10000 cycles.

Figure 2.6 Cantilever beam

Ans: (17 mm)

Day 15
1. Explain Gerber, Soderberg and Goodman lines.
Gerber Line​: A parabolic curve joining S​e on the ordinate to S​ut on the
abscissa is called the Gerber line. The equation of theGerber line is given by
2
Sa
Se + ( )
Sm
S ut =1

Soderberg Line​: A straight line joining S​e on the ordinate to S​yt on the abscissa
is called the Soderberg line.
σm σa
S
+ Se
=1
yt

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Goodman Line​: A straight line joining S​e on the ordinate to S​ut on the abscissa
is called the Goodman line.
σm σa
S
+ Se
=1
ut

Figure 2.7 Combined mean and variable​stress

2. Explain modified Goodman’s line.

The components subjected to fluctuating stresses, are designed by
constructing the modified Goodman diagram. The modified Goodman
diagram for fluctuating axial or bending stresses is shown in figure. In this
diagram, the Goodman line is modified by combining fatigue failure by
yielding. The region OABC shown in figure is called modified Goodman
diagram.

Figure 2.8 Modified Goodman diagram for axial stress

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While solving problem, a line OE with a slope of tan θ is constructed in such
a way that,

The permissible stresses are as follows

The modified Goodman diagram for fluctuating torsional shear stresses is

shown in below figure

Figure 2.9 Modified Goodman diagram for torsional stress

S se
τa = (f s)

S sy
τ max = (f s)

​ ay-16
D
Problems on different stress factors and previous questions
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) Explain the modified Goodman diagram for bending stresses. November
- 2016, SET – 1, [6M]
2) A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (Sut = 500 N/mm2 and
Syt = 300N/mm2 ) is subjected to a fluctuating torque which varies from

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-100 N-m to +400 N-m. The factor of safety is 2 and the expected
reliability is 90%. Neglecting the effect of stress concentration,
determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume the distortion energy
theory of failure. November - 2016, SET – 1, [10M]
Ans: (30.83 mm)
3) Explain briefly about Soderberg and Goodman lines with neat sketches.
November - 2016, SET – 2, [6M]

4) A circular bar of 500 mm length is supported freely at its two ends. It is acted
upon by a central concentrated cyclic load having a minimum value of 20 KN
and a maximum value of 50 KN. Determine the diameter of bar by taking a
factor of safety of 1.5, size effect of 0.85, surface finish factor of 0.9.The
material properties of bar are given by: Ultimate strength of 650 MPa, yield
strength of 500 MPa and endurance strength of 350 MPa. November - 2016,
SET – 2, [10M]
Ans (​d = 62.1 mm)
JNTUK2017
Explain the effect of the following factors on the
1) type of fatigue failure
i) Range of imposed stress
ii) Surface treatment [SET1 10M]

2) Explain the influence of stress concentration in the

design of machine elements?[8M] SET2
3)What are the principal causes of stress
concentration? Explain with suitable
sketches?
4)Explain the significance of Goodman’s line,
Soderberg line and modified
Goodman line in design of members subjected to
reversal of stresses?[SET 3 10M]

A cold drawn steel rod of circular cross-section is

5 subjected to a variable

bending moment of 565 N-m to 1130 N-m as the axial

load varies from 4500 N
to 13500N. The maximum bending moment occurs at
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the same instant that the
axial load is maximum. Determine the required diameter
of the rod for a factor
of safety 2. Neglect any stress concentration and
column effect. Assuming
ultimate strength =550 Mpa, yield strength =470Mpa,
size factor=0.85, surface
finish factor = 0.89. Correlation factors = 0.1 for bending
and 0.7 for axial
load. The endurance limit is reversed bending may be
taken as one half the
ultimate strength.
[SET 4 ,16M]
A steel rod is subjected to a reversed axial load of 180
6 kN. Find the diameter of [16M]
the rod for a factor of safety of 2. Neglect column action.
The material has an
ultimate tensile strength of 1070 Mpa and yield
strength of 910 Mpa. The

endurance limit is reversed bending may be assumed to be one half

of the ultimate tensile strength. The correction factors are as
follows.
Load factor = 0.7; surface finish factor = 0.8
Size factor = 0.85; stress concentration factor = 1.[SET1, 16M
7) fly wheel weighing ‘W’. The allowable bending stress for
a the shaft material

and the maximum deflection are limited to 100MPa and 2 mm

respectively. The young’s modulus for the shaft material is
210GPa. Determine the Maximum permissible weight of the
flywheel.
8)A hot rolled steel shaft is subjected to a torsional
moment that varies from
330N-m clockwise to 110 N-m counter clock wise
and an applied bending
moment at a critical section varies from 440 N-m to 220
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N-m. The shaft is of
uniform cross-section and no key is present at the critical
section. Determine
the required shaft diameter. The material has an
ultimate strength of 550 M
N/m​2 and yield strength of 410MN/m​2​. Take the
endurance limit as half the
ultimate strength, factor of safety of 2, size factor of 0.85
and surface finish
factor of
0.62.[set1,16M]

Raghu Engineering College Dept. of MECH DMM I Unit - 1