RIVER MORPHOLOGY

BASIC WHITEWATER COURSE

By:
Mazuki Mohd Yasim
Malaysian Board of Canoe Education
 LECTURE OUTLINE
- Morphology
- River Morphology
- River Obstacles
- River Hazard
- River Grading
 Morphology???

• The branch of geology that studies the

characteristics and configuration and
evolution of rocks and land forms.
RIVER MORPHOLOGY
 River Characteristics
- 3 factors have a profound effect on the
intensity and character of whitewater river:
- i) Volume
- Ii) Gradient
- Iii) River width
 Volume
• River volume is measured in cubic units per second.
(cubic meter per second)
• CMS= Measure the amount of water that passes a
specific point each second.
• River volume are categorised into 4 types:
– Low water
– Medium water
– High water
– Flood
 Gradient
• Rule of thumb:
“THE STEEPER THE RIVER THE MORE DIFFICULT THE WHITEWATER”
• Gradient= Steepness of the river.
• Measured in meter per kilometer (mpk).
• Rapid appear where the gradient of one section of river
exceeds the river’s average gradient
• Pool s form where the gradient dips below the overall
average.
 River Width
• In a very general sense, rivers can be
categorised as:
– Small
– Medium
– Large
• Influences by the water volume that passes.
 River Terminology
• Our reference point will always be facing down river
– River Left or River Right
– Up River or Down River

R
Laminar Flow

FASTEST

SLOWEST
Helical Flow
 River Obstacles
• The river is a dynamic medium, so when its features
are described in static terms, don’t forget that they
are moving with constantly renewed energy.
 Eddy
• A mild to powerful swirl forming behind the
obstacles.
• Eddies are assets to river runners as boats can park
in them.
• Boiling eddies are very unstable and not really
suitable for parking.
 Tongues
• At the top of many rapids, the main current enters a
slick, smooth-surfaced ramp called a tongue.
• Typically V shape, with the tip of the V pointing
downstream.
• The most suitable spot to choose when decent a
rapid.
 Stopper, Hole, Hydraulic,
Washing Machine
• Dangerous !!!!!
• A sure sign of a hole is the boil line lying
downstream, where water from deep down
rises and returns upstream.
Stopper
In wash Out wash
Standing Waves
How Standing waves are formed
 Hazards
• Low Head Dams • Stationary Objects
• Strainers • Panicked Swimmer
– Trees & Logs • Hypothermia
– Fences • Debris / Loads
– Vehicles
• Bends
• Undercut Rocks
• Foot Entrapment
Low Head Dams
 Strainer
• Tree, roots or branches, piled flood debris,
wire mesh or industrial scrap will laterally
keep boats and swimmers back like a tea
leaves in a strainer.
Climb over Strainers
Escape Route
 Undercuts & Potholes
• Undercut=Large rocks that are narrower at the
bottom than at the top.
• Potholes=Smooth, eroded depressions in rocks;
sometimes the rock will be worn right through to
form a tunnel.
• Formed by the current which is channeled through
potholes and boulders.
• At higher water, undercut can often be recognised by
the absence of an upstream pillow of water, and
frequently they have water boiling up behind them.
Undercut!!
 Weirs
• A wall built across the width of the river creates a
deep aerated slot below.
• Creating a keeper hydraulic from which it may be
nearly impossible to paddle or swim out.
• Killer…..Do not run them…
 River Grading
• CLASS 1 (Easy)
– Waves small; passages clear; no serious
obstacles.
 • GRADE II (Medium)
• Rapids of moderate difficulty with passages
clear.
• Requires experience plus suitable outfit and
boat.
 • GRADE III (Difficult)
• Waves numerous, high, irregular; rocks;
eddies; rapids with passages clear though
narrow, requiring expertise in maneuvering;
scouting usually needed. Requires good
operator and boat.
 • GRADE IV (Very Difficult)
• Long rapids; waves high, irregular; dangerous
rocks; boiling eddies; best passages difficult
to scout; scouting mandatory first time;
powerful and precise maneuvering required.
Demands expert boatman and excellent boat
and good quality equipment.
 • GRADE V (Extremely Difficult)
• Exceedingly difficult, long and violent rapids,
following each other almost without
interruption; riverbed extremely obstructed;
big drops; violent current; very steep
gradient; close study essential but often
difficult. Requires best person, boat, and
outfit suited to the situation. All possible
precautions must be taken.
 • GRADE VI (Dangerous)
• Formerly classified as unrunnable by any
craft. This classification has now been
redefined as "unraftable" due to people
having recently kayaked multiple Class VI
around the world.
 THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION..ANY
QUESTION???

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