Unit II

Principles of Learning
CHAPTER 1 “The ability to learn is the most significant activity of man.”

Focus Quesitons:
 What is meant by learning?
 What are the principles of learning?
 What are the implications of these principles of learning to teaching?

Introduction
The learning of our students is our foremost concern.how do we define learning? Learning
is the acquisition of a knowledge-base used with fluency to make sense of the of the world, solve
problems annd make decisions.
Let us break the long definition for analysis. The key words are: 1) acquisition of
knowledge-base, 2) fluency, and 3) make sense of the world, 4) solve problems and 5) make
decisions. The definition implies that learning begins with knowledge acquisition. This knowledge
learned must be used with ease or fluency because it has been mastered. This knowledge is applied
in problem solving, in decision-making and in making meaning of this world. Knowledge that is just
acquired without being utilized is what Americans philosopher North Whitehead reffered to as
“inert ideas”. These are “ideas that are merely received into the mind without being utilised, or
tested, or thrown into fresh combination.”

Questions for Discussion:

1. Is memorizing without understanding considered learning?
2. Is memorizing for the test and forgetting what you memorized after the test
considered learning?
3. This knowledge base should be used with fluency. What does this mean?
4. What does the term inert mean? How can thay prevented from becoming inert?

Principles of Learning
By knowing some principles on how learning takes place, we will be guided on how to teach.
Below are some principles of learning from Horne and Pine (1990):
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activitated by the
learner.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.
3. Learning (behavioral achange) is a consepuence of experience.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process. Cooperation fosters learning.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learing is sometimes a painful process.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and individual.
Laws of Learning
It is worth including other principles / laws of learning by Thorndike (1932). Give the
teaching implications of the following laws of Thondike:

Law of Effect
 Learning is strengthen when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling.
 Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
 Learning takes places properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives
pleasure out of it.

The Law of Exercise

 Things most often repeated are best remembered.
 Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session.

The Law of Readiness

Individuals learn best when they are phiysically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn,
and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.

Additional Laws (Principles)

The Law of Primacy

 Things learned first create a strong impression.
 What is taught must be right the first time.

The Law of Recency

Things most recently learned are best remebered.

The Law of Intensity

The more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned.

The Law of Freedom

 Things freely learned are best learned.
 The greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the class, the greater the intellectual
and moral advancement enjoyed by them.

Summary
We teach effectively when we consider how learning takes place as stated in the following
principles of learning.
 Only the learner can learn for himself. It is wise to make him/her do the learning activity
himdelf/herself.
 Learning is discovering the meaning and relevance of ideas. Let’s relate what we teach to
the life experiences and needs of the learners.
  Learning (behavioral change) comes as reult of experience. Let us make learners go through
the experience of learning , if fesible. If not, learning from the other people’s experiences as
recorded in history will suffice.
 Cooperative and collaborative learning are enabling. Let us use more collaborative and
cooperative approaches in the classroom.
 Learning does not take place overnight. Like the process of evolution, it is gradual. Let us be
patient. Learning takes time.
 Learning poses inconvenience, discomfort, giving up our old ways of thinking and doing
things because something new is far better.
 Very much forgotten is the fact that the learner is one of the riches resources of learning.
Consult him/her.
 Learning is not only a cerebral process. It is not only thinking but also feeling. It involves the
heart. In fact, learning takes place best when our hearts are stricken.
 No two individuals learn in the same way. Each person has a unique way of learning. Ley us
not impose our way of learning on others. Let us give considerations to multiple intelligence
and varied learning styles.

Thordike’s laws/principles of learning are still relevant. The primary laws include 1) the
law of exercise, 2) the law of effect, 3) the law of readiness. Other laws are the: 1) law of primacy, 2)
law of recency, 3) law of intensity and the 4) law oif freedom.

Unit MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION

III
Introduction
The material as well as the non-material resources in the teaching-learning process must be
well-managed in order to reap optimum learning. To ensure results, the management of the
resources must be grounded on time-tested principles.

Focus Questions
 What are some guiding principles on:
 the identification and formulation of goals and objectives,
 selection and organization of content.
 Identification of appropriate teaching approaches, mathodologies, techniques and
activities,
 Assessment of learning and on
 Classroom management.
 What are the implications of these principles to classroom instruction?
Unit III Objective-Related Principles of Teaching
CHAPTER 1 “Goals are our guiding stars.”

Focus Questions:
 What are objective-related principles and their implications to teaching?
 What are the three domains of learning objectives?
 How do we write good lesson objectives?

Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Learning Objectives

1. “Begin with the end in mind.”
2. Share lesson objective with students.
3. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains – knowledge (cognitive), skill
(psychomotor), and values (affective).
4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives.
5. Lesson objective must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine
Constitution and other laws and on the vision-mission statements of the educational
institution of which you are a part.
6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking.
7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART, i.e., Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Result-oriented and Relevant, Time-bounded and Terminal.

Taxonomy of Objectives
With educational taxonomy, learning is classified into three domains namely: (1) cognitive,
(2) affective, (3) psychomotor or behavioral.
Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. Benjamin Bloom (1956) led his group in coming
up with the list of instrucyional objectives in the cognitive domain. Arranged from lowest to the
highest level, they are as follows:
Knowledge or recall – knowledge of terminology and connventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories, criteria and methodologies, principles, theories, and structure; e.g to
identify the capital of the Philippines.
Comprehension – relate to translation, interpretation, and extrapolation; e.g. to interpret a table
showing the population density of the world.
Application – use pf abstractions in particular situations; e.g to predict the probable effect of a
change in temperature on a chemical.
Analysis – objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts; e.g to deduce facts from a hypothesis.
Synthesis – puttingparts together in a new form such as a unique communication, a plan of
operation, and a set of abstract relations; e.g to produce an original piece of art.
Evaluation – judging in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency and external evidence or
consistency with facts developed elsewhere; e.g to recognize fallacies in an argument.
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, ranging from simple recall or
recognition of facts as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental
levels, to the highest level which was identified as evaluation. See Figure 3-a and 3-b.
Figure 3-a Bloom’s Taxonomy
Figure 3-b Anderson’s Taxonomy

Eval.
Creating
Synthesis
Evaluating
Analysis Analysing

Application Applying

Comprehension Understanding

Knowledge Remembering

Figure 3-a Figure 3-b

Anderson’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. In the 1990’s, Anderson, Bloom’s former
student, together with a team of cognitive psychologists revisited Bloom’s taxonomy in the light of
the 21st century skills. This led to Anderson’s taxonomy in 2001. Study figure 3-b. Determine for
yourselves the differences between the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom and that of Anderson.

Table 1a Definitions of Anderson’s Revised Taxonomy

Definition Verbs

Remembering: Can the student recall or Define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, repeat,
remember the information? reproduce, state

Classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify,

Understanding: Can the student explain ideas or
locate, recognize, report, select, translate,
concepts?
paraphrase

Choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,

Applying: Can the student use the information in
illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch,
a new way?
solve, use, write

Appraise, compare, contrast, criticize,

Analysing: Can the student distinguish between
diffirentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine,
the different parts?
experiment, question, test
Evaluating: Can the student justify a stand or Appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support,
decision? value, evaluate

Creating: Can the student create new product or Assemble, construct, create, develop, formulate,
point of view? write
Schultz, L. (2005). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Accessed on September, 2006.
http://www.odu.edu/educ/llschult/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domain.
Figure 4 Krathwohl’s Taxonomy

Characterization
by Value Set

Organization

Valuing

Responding

Receiving

Table 1b Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Objectives in the Affective Domain

Learning Sample
Level What it is Verbs
Outcome/s Objective
Receiving Refers to the learner’s Learning Differentiates, Listens
sensitivity to the outcomes in this accepts, listens attentively,
existence of certain area range from (for), to shows sensitivity
ideas, material, or the simple reponds to. to social
phenomena and awareness that a problems.
willingness to thing exists to asks, chooses,
particular phenomena selective identifies,
of stimuli such as attention on the locates, points
classroom activities, part of the to, sits erect,
textbook, music, etc. learner etc.
Reponding Is not only being Answers, Examples of
aware of the stimulus assists, objectives in the
but reacting and complies, responding level
responding to the discusses, e.g. to contribute
stimulus. helps, to group
performs, discussions by
practices, asking questions,
presents, to listen
reads, reports, attentively
writes, etc. during group
presentation, to
complete
homework, to
read beyond
assignment, to
obey rules, to
participate in
class discussion,
to show interest
 in subject, to
enjoy helping
others, to read
for enjoyment.
Valuing Is concerned with the This ranges in Desiresto
worth or value of a degree from the improve group
student attaches to a simpler skills
particular object, acceptance of a
phenomenon, or value to the Assumes
behavior. more complex responsibility for
level of the effective
Willing to be commitment functioning of the
perceived by others as group
valuing certain ideas,
materials, or Appreciates the
phenomena. Examples role of science in
include: the daily life,
To increase measured shows concern
proficiency in, to for others’
relinquish, to welfare,
subsidize, to support, demonstrates a
to debate. problem-solving
e.g to argue over an approach, etc.
issue involving health
care

Organizing Organization is to : recognizes the

relate the value to need for balance
those already held and between freedom
bring it into a and
harmonious and responsibility in
internally consistent a democracy
value system or Understands the
philosophy. role of systematic
planning in
Bringing together solving problems,
different values, accepts
resolving conflicts responsibility for
among them, and own behavior.
starting to build an
internally consistent
value system –
comparing, relating
and synthesizing
values and developing
a philosophy of life.
Characterization At this level, the Displays self
person has held a reliance in
value system that has working
controlled his independently,
behavior for a cooperates in
sufficiently long time group activities,
that a characteristic maintains good
“life style” has been health habits,
developed. Behavior is
pervasive, consistent Uses an objective
and predictable. approach in
Objectives are problem solving,
concerned with
personal, social, and Displays a
emotional adjustment. professional
commitment to
ethical practice
on a daily basis

Revises
judgments and
changes
Source: Krathwohl, D.r., Bloom, B.S., and Masia, B.B. (1964).
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II”:
Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co.

Anita Harlow’s taxonomy of the psychomotor domain.

Figure 5 Harlows’s Taxonomy of Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain

Non-
discursive
Communication
Skilled
Movement

Physical Activities

Perceptual

Basic Fundamental
Movement

Reflex Movements
 Level
Reflex Movement Actions
elicited without
Basic fundamental movement
Perceptual Abilities
Physical Activities
Skilled Movements
Non-discursive communication
Moore (1998) also gave three levels of learning in the psychomotor domain. They are as
follows:
Description
Learning in response to some
stimuli.
Inherent movement patterns
which are formed by
combining of reflex
Perceptual refers to
interpretation of various
stimuli that enable one to make
adjustments to the
environment. Visual, auditory,
kenisthetic, or tactile
discrimination. Suggests
cognitive as well as
psychomotor behavior.
Require endurance, strength,
vigor, and agility which
produces a sound, efficiently
functioning body
The result of the acquisition of
a degree of efficiency when
performing a complex task.
Is communication through
bodily movements ranging
from posture to gestures,
creative movements facial
expression, act a part in a play
through sophisticated
choreographics. (Harlow,
1972)
Precision
Manipulation
Imitation
Examples
Flexion, extension, strech,
postural adjustments
Pushing, pulling, manipulating,
e.g. to run a 100-yard dash
Coordinated movements such
as jumping ope, punting, or
catching.
Examples are: all activities
which require a) strenuous
effort for longer periods of
time; b) muscular exertion; c) a
quick, wide range of motion at
the hip joints; and d) quick,
precise movements.
Skilled Examples are: all skilled
activities obvious in sports,
recreation, and dance.
Examples include: body
postures, gestures, and facial
expressions efficiently
executed in skilled dance
movement and choreographics.
 Level Performance
Imitation Model skills
Manipulation Performs skills indepedently
Precision Exhibits skills effortlessly and automatically
Source: K.D Moore and C. Quinn. Classroom Teaching Skills. McGraw-Hill Companies, 1998.

Table 2a Key Words for the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:

Cognitive Domain Examples of infinitives Examples of direct objects
Taxonomy Classification

1.0 Knowledge

1.1 Knowledge of specifies to To define, to distinguish, Vocabulary terms, terminology

acquire, to identify, to recall, to
recognize
meaning(s), definitions, ,
referents, elements, facts,
factual information, (sources),
(names), (dates), (events),
(persons), (places), (time
periods), properties, examples,
phenomena

1.2 Knowledge of ways and
means of dealing with sprcifics
To acquire, to identify, to recall, Forms, conventions, uses,
to recognize usage, rules, ways, devices,
symbols, representaions,
Styles, formats,actions,
processes, movements,
continuity, developments,
trends, sequences, causes,
relationships, forces,
influences, areas, types,
features, classes, sets, divisions,
arrangements, classifications,
categories, criteria, basics,
elements, methods, techniques,
approaches, uses, procedures,
treatments

1.3 Knowledge of universals To acquire, to identify, to recall, Principles, generalizations,

and abstractions in a field
2.0 Comprehension
to recognize propositions, fundamentals,
Implications, theories, bases, laws, pricipal elements,
interrelations, structures,
organizations, formulations

2.1 Translation To translate, to trnsform, to Meanings, samples, definitions,

 Transform, to give in own abstractions, representations,
words, to illustrate, to words, phrases
prepare, to read, to
represent, to change, to
rephrase, to restate

2.2 Interpretation To interpret, to reorder, to Relevancies, relationships,

Rearrange, to differentiate, essentials, aspects, new views,
to distinguish, to make, to qualifications, conclusions,
draw, to explain, to methods, theories, abstractions
demonstrate

2.3 Extrapolation to write, to tell, to relate, to Consequences, implications

To conclude, to predict, to produce, to constitute, to
differentiate, to determine, transmit, to originate, to
to extend, to interpolate modify, to document

3.0 Application to propose, to plan, to Priciples, laws, conclusions,

product/to design, to modify, effects, methods, theories,
to specify abstractions, situations,
generalizations, processes,
phenomena, procedures

4.0 Analysis

4.1 Analysis of elements Elements, hypotheses,

To estimate, to infer,
conclusions, assumptions,
conclusions, factors,
statments of fact, statements of
ramifications, meanings,
intents, arguments, particulars
corollaries, effects, posibilities

4.2 Analysis of relationships relationships, interrelations,

to apply, to generalize, torelate,
relevance, relevances, themes,
to choose, to develop, to
evidences, fallacies, arguments,
organize, to use, to employ, to
cause-effects, consistency,
transfer, to restructure, to
consistencies, parts, ideas,
classify
assumptions,

4.3 Analysis of organizational forms, patterns, purposes,

to distinguish, to detect, to
principles points of view, techniques,
identify, to classify, to
biases, structures, themes,
discriminate, to recognize, to
arrangements, organizations,
categorize
5.0 Synthesis

5.1 Production of a unique structures, patterns, products,

to analyze, to contrast, to
communication performances, designs, works,
compare, to distinguish, to
communications, efforts,
deduce
specifics, compositions
5.2 Production of a plan or
proposed set of operations
5.3 Derivation of a set of
abstract relations
6.0 Evaluation
6.1 Judgment in terms of
internal evidence
6.2 Judgments in terms of
external criteria
Source: Newton D. Metfessel, William B. Michael, and Donald A. Kersner, “Instrumentation of
Bloom’s and Krathhwohl’s Taxonomies for the Writing of Educational Objectives,
“Psychology in the Schools, July 1969, pp. 227-231 as quoted by Allan C. Ornstein, Strategies
for Effective Teaching.
Table 3 Key Words for the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain
Taxonomy Classification
1.0 Reflex Movements
2.0 Fundamental
Movements
3.0 Perceptual Abilities
to analyze, to distinguish, to
detect, to deduce
to produce, to derive, to
develop, to combine, to
organize, to synthesize, to
classify, to deduce, to develop,
to formulate, to modify
to judge, to argue, to validate,
to assess, to decide
To judge, to argue, to consider,
to compare, to contrast, to
standardize, to appraise
Examples of infinitives Examples of direct objects
To flex, to stretch, to
straighten, to extend, to
inhibit, to lengthen, to
shorten, to tense, to stiffen,
to relax
To crawl, to creep, to slide,
to walk, to run, to jump, to
gasp, to reach, to tighten, to
support, to handle
To catch, to bounce, to eat,
to write, to balance, to bend,
to draw from memory, to
distinguish by touching, to
explore
Plans, objectives specifications,
schematics, operations, ways,
solutions, means
Phenomena, taxonomies,
concepts, schemes, theories,
relationships, abstraxtions,
generalizations, hypotheses,
perceptions, ways, discoveries
Accuracies, consistencies,
fallacies, reliability, flaws,
errors, precision, exactness
Ends, means, efficiency,
econimies, utility, alternatives,
courses of action, standarnds,
theories, geberalizations
reflexes
Changes location, moves in
space while remaining in one
place, move extremities in
coordinated fashion
Discrimination visually,
discriminates auditory,
discriminates kinesthetically,
discriminates tactually,
coordinates two or more
 perceptual abilities

4.0 Physical Abilities To endure, to improve, to Exerts tension, moves

increase, to stop, to start, to quickly, stops immediately,
move precisely, to touch, to endures fatigue
bend

5.0 Skilled To waltz, to type, to play the Changes or modifies basic

piano, to file, to skate, to body movement patterns,
juggle, to paint, to dive, to uses a tool or implement in
fence, to golf, to change adaptive or skilled manner

6.0 Nondiscursive To gesture, to stand, to sit, Moves expressively, moves

Communication to express facially, to dance interpretatively,
skillfully, to perform communicates emotions,
skillfully, to paint skillfully, communicates esthetically,
to play skillfully expresses joy

Source: Adapted from Anita J. Harlow, A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain (New York: McKay,
1972) pp. 246, quoted by Allan C. Ornstein, Strategies for Effective Teaching .

How to write Lesson Objectives

Mager (1998) cites the following characteristics of objectives:
1) It describes student performance.
2) An objective is about ends rather than means.
3) An objective describes the conditions under which the performance occurs on the job.
4) An objective describes the standard of acceptable performance.

Standards and Competencies in the K to 12 Curriculum

define what students should know and be able to do.
Performance Standards describe how well students need to achieve in order to meet content
standards.
Competencies are more specific versions of the standards.

Here is a sample of content and performance standards and competencies for Health subject
lifted from the draft of the Curriculum Guide for K to 12 of the Deapartment of Education:
Content Standard: The learner demonstrates understanding of the importance of good eating
habits.
Performance Standard: The learner observes healthy eating habits daily.
Competencies: The learner ...
 Distinguishes healthful from unhealthful foods.
 Relates the consequences of eating unhealthful foods.
 Practices good eating habits that can help one grow healthy.
 Eats regular meals without skipping breakfast.
 Chooses healthful foods
 Unit III Selection and Organization of Content
“There are dull teachers, dull textbooks,
CHAPTER 2 dull films, but no dull sybjects.”

Focus Questions:
 What guiding principles must be observed in the selection and organization of content?
 What is the structure of the subject matter that we teach?
 How can students be helped in the construction of a more enriched knowledge-base?
 What strategies can be empoyed for teaching conceptual understanding, thinking skills
in the different levels, and values?

Introduction
What knowledge is truly essential and enduring? What is worth teaching and learning? Our
leaders in the basic education level came up with the Philippine Elementary Learingcompetencies
(PELCs) and Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies (PSLCs) in 2001. The “intended” content
of what we teach is laid down in such document. In the K to 12 Curriculum, standard and
competencies are also spelled out. This means that we are not entirely free in the selection of our
content. They are a “given”. But how they are organized and presented in the classrooom, ultimately
depends on you. Below are some priciples to guide you.

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content

1. One guiding principle related to subject matter content is to objective the following
qualities in the selection and organization of content:
a. Validity
b. Significance
c. Balance
d. Self-sufficiency
e. Interest
f. Utility
g. Feasibility
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts. We can’t do
away facts but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and
more sophisticated knowledge base and by working out a process of conceptual
understanding.
Here are a few ways cited by cognitive psychologists (Ormrod, 2000) by which you can help
your students:
a. Providing opportunities for experimentation
b. Presenting the ideas of others
c. Emphasizing conceptual understanding
Here are some specific strategies that can help you develop conceptual understanding in
your students: (Ormrod, 2000)
  Organize units around a few core ideas and themes.
 Explore each topic in depths.
 Explain how new ideas relate to students’ own experiences and to things they have
previously learned.
 Show studnets – through the things we say, the assginments we give, and the
criteria we use to evaluate laering – that conceptual understanding of subject matter
is far more important than knowledge of isolated facts.
 Ask students to teach to others what they have learned.
 Promote dialogue.
 Use authentic activities.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements.
a. The structure of subject matter content
(1) Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)
a. Fact is an idea or action that can be verified.
b. Concept is a categorization of events, places, people, ideas.
c. Principle is the relationship(s) between ans among facts ans
concpets.
d. Hyphotheses are educated guesses about relationships
(principles).
e. Theories refer to a set of facts, concepts, and principles that
describes
f. Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or
theory.
(2) Skills
a. Manipulative Skills
b. Thinking Skills
- Divergent thinking
a. Fluent thinking
b. Flexible thinking
c. Original thinking
d. Elaborative thinking
- Convergent thinking
- Problem solving
- Metaphoric thinking
- Critical thinking
a. Verbal reasoning
b. Argument analysis
c. Hypothesis testing
d. Decision making
- Creative thinking
a. Awareness
b. Curiosity
c. Imagination
 d. Fluency
e. Flexibility
f. Originality
g. Elaboration
h. Perseverance
(3) Attitudes and Values
Shall we teach values?
Values have a cognitive dimension. When we teach the value of honesty, we ask the
following questions: What is meant by honesty? Why do I have to be honest? The affective
dimension – You have to feel something towards honesty. You have to be moved towards honesty
as preferable to dishonesty. The behavioral dimension – You practice honesty and so lead an
honest life.

How can we teach values?

 By deutero-learning – Your student learns by being exposed to the situation, by
acquainting himself with a setting, by following models, pursuing inspirations and copying
behavior. YOUR CRITICAL ROLE AS MODELS IN AND OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM
CANNOT BE OVEREMPHASIZED.
 By positively reinforcing good behavior.
 By teaching the cognitive component of values in the classroom.

Unit III Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies

CHAPTER 3 “Different folks, different strokes.”

Focus Questions:
 What principles should guide us in the selection and use of teaching strategies?
 What are the implications of these principles to the teaching-learning process?

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Use of teaching Strategies

Here are some guiding principles in the selection and use of appropriate yeaching
strategies:
1. Learning is an active process.
2. The more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the learning.
3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life.
5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.
6. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of
information.
Figure 7 Collecting Classroom Examples
Examples from My
Intelligence Example of Classroom Activities
Classroom
Discussions, debates, journal writing,
conferences, essays, stories, poems,
Verbal-Linguistic
storytelling, listening activities,
reading
Calculations, experimentations,
comparisond, number games, using
Logical-Mathematical evidences, formulating and testing of
hypothesis, deductive and inductive
reasoning
Concept maps, graphs, charts, art
projects, metaphorical thinking,
Spatial
visualization, videos, slides, visual
presentation
Role-playinh, dance, athletic
Bodily-Kinesthetic activities, manipulatives, hands-on
demonstrations, concept miming
Playing music, singing, rapping,
Musical whistling, clapping, analyzing sounds
and music
Community-involvement projects,
discussions, cooperative learning,
Interpersonal
team games, peer tutoring,
conferences, social activities, sharing
Student choice, journal writing, self-
evaluation, personal instruction,
Intrapersonal
independent study, discussing
feelings, reflecting
Ecological field trips, environmental
Naturalist studyu, caring for plants and animals,
outdoor work, pattern recognition
Existentialist Reflection, diary / journal entry
Source: Harvey F. Silver, et al. So Each May Learn, Virginia: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 2000, p. 20) Added by the authors
Figure 8 Collecting Classroom Examples
Learning Style Examples of Classroom Activities Examples of My Classroom
Mastery Direct instruction
Exercise – practice Drill and repitition
Demonstrations
Competitions
Activities that focus on:
 Organizing and managing
information
 Practicing a skill
 Observing
 Describing
 Memorizing
  Categorizing
Interpersonal Team games
Experience – personalize Learning circles
Role playing
Group investigation
Peer tutoring
Activities that focus on:
 Describing feelings
 Emphathizing
 Responding
 Valuing
Understanfing Inquiry
Explain – prove Concept formation
Debate
Problem solving
Independent study
Essays
Logic problems
Activities that focus on:
 Classifying
 Analyzing
 Using evidence
 Applying
 Comparing and contrasting
 Evaluating
Self-Expressive Divergent thinking
Explore – produce Mataphors
Creative art avtivities
Imaging
Open-ended discussion
Imagery
Creative problem solving
Activities that focus on:
 Hypothesizing
 Synthesizing
 Symbolizing
 Creating
 Metaphorical expression
 Self-expression
Source: Harvey F. Silver, et al. So Each May Learn, Virginia: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 2000, p. 37)

An integrated approach incorporates successful, research-based and brain-based

instructional strategies. The following are some research findings cited by Patricia Wolfe in her
book Brain Matters: Translating Research Into Action (2001):
Some research findings about the brain (Wolfe, 2001):
1. Without rehearsal or constant attention, information remains in working memory for
only about 15 to 20 seconds. This implies the need for memory aids.
 2. Learning is a process of building neural networks. This network is formed through
concrete experience, representational or symbolic learning, and abstract learning. The
three levels of learning are concrete, symbolic, and abstract.
3. Our brains have difficulty comprehending very large numbers because we have nothing
in our experience to “hook” then to.
4. The eyes contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s sensory receptors and send millions of
signals every second along the optic nerves to the visual processing of the brain.
5. There is little doubt that when information is embedded in music or rhyme, its recall is
easier than when it is in prose.

Brain-Based Strategies
1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving
2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation
3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers
4. Classroom strategies using visual processing
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS FOR CLASSIFICATION

Figure 9 Figure 10

Categories

Figure 11 For Analogy Figure 12 Hierarchical topical organizer

people as plants

Oxygen in order to carbo dioxide

Figure 13

FACT
FACT

TOPIC
FACT
FACT

FACT
Figure 14

Web

Topic
Concept
Theme

5. Songs, jingles, and raps

6. Mnemonic strategies
7. Writing strategies
8. Active review
9. Hands-on activities

An integrated approach is also interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary.

 An instructional approach is also integrated when it includes the axquisition of
knowledge, skills as well as values.

10. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method is the one that works, the
one that yields results.

Unit III Different Approaches and Methods

CHAPTER 4 “A thousand teachers, a thousand methods”
- Chinese Proverbs

Focus Questions:
 How do teaching approach, method and technique differ?
 Which approaches/mehtods are more direct? What are their characteristic features?
 Which approches are more indirect and exploratory in nature? What are their
distinguishing features?
 How should each method be used ti ebsure its effectiveness?
 What pedagogical advantage do the exploratory approaches have over those of the direct
approaches?

Introduction

Teaching Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique

Teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning which
is translated into the classroom. It springs from a teacher’s own philodophy of education, the nature
of education, the role of the teacher and that of the student.
Teaching strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal.
Strategy applies to many disparate fields such as military strategy, economic strategy, teaching
strategy and the like.
Teaching method is a systematic way of doing somr\ething. It implies an orderly logical
arrangement of steps. It is more procedural.
Teaching technique is a well-defined procedure used to accompish a specific activity or task.
It is a teacher’s particular style or trick used to accomplish an immediate objective. More than one
technique may be available for accomplishing a specific activity or task.

The relationshipa among the three is shown below:

Approach Strategy Method Technique

Table 4 Examples of Teaching Approaches

Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Subject matter-centered Learner-centered
Teacher-dominated Interactive
 “Banking” approach Constructivist
Disciplinal Integrated
Individualistic Collaborative
Indirect, guided Direct

Other teaching approaches cited in education literature are:

1) Research-based approach
2) Whole-child approach
3) Metacognitive approach
4) Proble-solving approach

In summary,

Engagement
Teacher Learner

Focus
Subject Matter Learner

Number
Individual Group

Direct/Expository Approach

1) Direct Instruction / Lecture Method

Steps:

a. Provide the rationale

b. Demonstrate skill
c. Provide guided practice until mastery
d. Check for understanding and provide feedback
e. Provide extended practice and transfer
f. Assess learning at the end

Instructional Characteristics
1. The strategy is teacher-directed.
2. The emphasis is on the teaching of skill.
3. Taught in a step-by-step fashion.
4. Lesson objectives include easily observed behaviors that can be measured accurately.
5. This is a form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed “behavioral modeling”.
 6. This can also be used to teach facts, principles and laws.

Guidelines for Effective Use

Teaching Skill

1. The students must be given ample time for practice.

2. They must be included in the planning stage since this technique is highly task-oriented
and aimed at mastery of every step. The lesson objectives are student-based.
3. Describe the testing situation and specify the level of performance expected.
4. Divide complex skills and understanding into subskills or into its component steps so
they can be taught easily and with precision.
5. Design own strategy in teaching each skill which will eventually contribute tio the
learning of the entire skill.
6. Before the demonstration, carefully rehearse all steps. The steps should be observed
and followed.
7. Assign practice for short periods of time, then continue learning by imitating others.
8. Provide feedback and encouragement through praises. Positively motivated, the
students will never get tired praticing.
9. Be able to construct good performance-based tests.

Teaching declarative knowledge – facts, principles and laws

1. Be sure the facts, principles and laws are correctly, clearly and adequately explained.
2. Use visual aids to concretize abstract principles and laws.
3. Illustrate laws and principles with concrete examples.
4. Present facts meaningfully by citing their significance and by connecting them with
everyday life.

2) Demonstration Method

Indirect/Guided / Exporatory Approach

1) Inquiry Method
2) Problem Solving Method
3) Project Method

Cooperative Learning

Table 5 Overview of Selected Structures in Coopeartive Learning

Structure Brief Description Academic & Social Functions

 Teambuilding
Rounrobin Each student in turn shares Expressing ideas and opinions,
something with his or her creation of stories. Equal
temamates participation, getting acqauinted
with teammates.

Classbuilding
Corners Each student moves to a corner of
the room representing a
teacher0determined alternative.
Students discuss within corners,
then listen to and paraphrase ideas
from other corners.
Seeing alternative hypotheses,
values, problem-solving,
approaches. Knowing and
respecting different points of view,
meeting classmates

Communication Building
Match Mine Students attempt to match the
arrangement of object on a grid of
another student using oral
communication only
Vocabulary development.
Communication skills, role-taking
ability.

Mastery
Numbered Heads The teacher asks a question, Review, checking for knowledge,
Together students consult to make sure comprehension. Tutoring
everyone knows the answer, then
one student is called upon to
answer.
Memorizing facts. Helping,
Color-coded Co-op Students memorize facts using a praising.
Cards flash card game. The game is
structured so that there is a
maximum probability of success at
each step, moving from short-term
to long-term memory. Scoring is
based on improvement.

Praise Check Students work in pairs within Practicing skills. Helping, praising.
groups of four. Within pairs students
alternate – one solves a problem
while the ohter coaches. After every
two problems the pair checks to see
if they have the same answer as the
other pair.

Concept Development
Three-Step Interview Students interview each ohter in
pairs, first one way, then the other.
Students each share with the group
information they learned in the
Think-Pair Share interview.
Sharing personal information such
as hypotheses, reactions to a poem,
conclusions from a unit.
Participation, listening.
 Students think to themselves on a
topic provided by the teacher; they
pair up with another student to
discuss it; they then share their
Team Word-Webbing thoughts with the class.
Students write simultaneously on a
piece of chart paper, drawing main
concepts, supporting elements, and
bridges representing the relation of
ideas in a concept.
Roundtable Multifunctional
Each student in turn writes one
answer as a paper and a pencil are
passed aroung the group. With
Simultaneous Roundtable more than
one pencil and paper are used at
Inside-Outside Circle once.
Students stand in pairs in two
concentric circles. The inside circle
faces out; the outside circle faces in.
Students use flash cards or respond
Partners to teacher questions as they rotate
to each new partner.
Students work in pairs to create or
master content. They consult with
partners from other teeams. They
then share their products or
understanding with the other
Jigsaw partner in their team.
Each student on the team becomes
an “expert” on one topic by working
with members from other teams
assigned the corresponding expert
topic. Upon returning to their teams,
each one in turn teaches the group;
and students are all assessed on all
Co-op Co-op aspects of the topic.
Students work in groups to produce
a particular froup product to share
with the whole class; each student
makes a particularm contribution to
the group.
Generating and revising
hypotheses, inductive reasoning,
deductive reasoning, application.
Participation, involvement.
Analysis of concepts into
components, understanidng
multiple relations among ideas,
differentiating concpets, Role-
taking.
Assessing prior knowledge,
praciticing skills, recalling
information, creating cooperative
art. Team building, participation of
all.
Checking for understanding,
review, processing, helping.
Tutoring, sharing, meeting
classmates.
Mastery and presentation of new
material, concept development.
Presentation and communication
skills.
Acquisition and presentation of
new material, review, informed
debate. Interdependence, status
equalization.
Learning and sharing complex
material, often with multiple
sources; evaluation; application,
analysis, synthesis. Conflict
 resolution, presentation skills.

Peer Tutoring/Peer Teaching

Partner Learning

Deductive Method versus the Inductive Method

Other Approaches

1) Blended Learning
2) Reflective Teaching
3) Metacognitive Approach
4) Constructivist Approach
5) Integrated Approach

Unit III Understanding by Design (UbD),

A Curriculum Model
CHAPTER 5 “Understanding by design is teaching for understading.”

Focus Questions:
 What is UbD? As a curriculum model, what are its elements.stages?
 What is/are done in each stage?
 How does this model enhance deeper understanding of the most essential things that
ought to be taught and learned?

Introduction
This is a curriculum model advocated primarily by Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins in their
book. Understandnig by Design (2005).
The 3 Elements/ Stages of UbD:
 Stage 1 has something to do with results/desired outcomes.results and desired outcomes are
what students should be able to know and do at the end of the course or unit. They are
expressed in terms of overall goals and speicfically defined in terms of content and
performance standards.
 Stage 2 is on assessment. Assessment refers to the acceptable evidence that the desired goal
has been attained. This evidence may be in the form of products and performances. These
products and performances are the demonstration of conceptual undrstanding,content skill,
and attitudes students learned.
 Stage 3 spells out the details of the instructional actovotoes that students will go through to
attain the standards.
Below are an outline and some additional details on the 3 stages:
Stage 1 – Set Targets.
A. Intended Results/Desired Outcomes
A.1. Content Standards
A.2. Performance Standards
B. Essential Understanding
C. Essential Questions
D. Curriculum Objectives
Stage 2 – Determine Evidence of Understanding
6 Facets of Understanding

1) EXPLAIN  Solve
 Demonstrate, Model, Predict,  Produce
Prove, Synthesize Teach  Design
 Describe, Predict, Prove, 4) PERSPECTIVE
Synthesized Teach  Analyze
 Describe  Argue
 Design  Criticize
 Exhibit  Infer
 Instrcuct  Contrast
2) INTERPRET 5) EMPATHY
 Create analogies  Assume the role of
 Critique  Be like
 Document  Consider
 Evaluate  Imagine
 Illustrate  Role-play
 Judge 6) SELF-KNOWLEDGE
 Create metaphors  Be aware of
3) APPLY  Realize
 Adapt  Recognize
 Propose  Reflect
 Invent  Self-assess

Stage 3 – Plan Instruction

This stage follows the following steps:
 Explore – find out what your students know and not know about the lesson.
 Firm up – affirm the correct concepts or skills that they know. Correct what is
errneous. Teach what they do not know.
 Deepen – the following strategies suggested by Wiggins and McTighe (2005) may be
of great help:
o Remember Wait Time I and II –at least 5 seconds of thinking time after a
qurstion and after a response.
o Call on students randomly
o Ose probes and follow ups
o Ask students to “unpak their thinking”
o Periodically ask for summaries
o Play the devil’s advocate
o Surveythe class.
 o Pose metacognitive/reflective questions
o Encourage student questioning
o Use Think-Pair-Share.
 Apply/Transfer – application of concepts, skills and attitudes learned in real life.

WHERETO Framework (J. McTighe and G. Wiggins, 2005)

W – How will I help learners know WHAT they will be learning? WHY is this worth
learning? WHAT
evidence will show their learning?
H – How will I HOOK the learners?
E – How will I EQUIP students to master identified standards? What learning EXPERIENCES
will help
deepen understanding?
R – How will I encourage learners to RETHINK previous learning? How will I encourage
ongoing
REVISION and REFINEMENT?
E – How will I promote self-EVALUATION and reflection?
T – How will I TAILOR my learning activities to address the different readiness levels,
learning profiles of
students?
O – How will the learning experiences be ORGANIZED to maximize engaging and effective
learning?

Unit III
Selection and Use of Instructional Materials
CHAPTER 6 “We learn by example and by direct experience because there are
limits to the adequacy of verbal instruction.”

Focus Questions:
 What are some guiding principles in the selection and use of instructional
materials?
 How should these materials be used for learning to the maximum and
optimum?

Introduction
There is no drab lesson if appropriate media is used in its presentation. Properly selected
and used, its impact on the attention, sustained interest, participication of students has long been
recognized to a point that this wide collection of teaching tools earned the title “sub-strategies”. It is
not surprising to see these materials, devices, and instruments accumulated in every teacher’s
storehouse. Of late, more teaching technologies such as recordings, projectors and computers, CD-
ROMS, videos have been available in some schools.
There are two subjects in Educational Technology of three unit each, where the use and
selection of instructional materials will be exhaustively discussed.
Principles
For optimum learning, let us observe the following general principles in the use of
instructional materials (IMs).
1. All instructional materials are aide to instruction. They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional material the best suits your instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working
properly.
5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use media given below:
 Learn how to use the instructional material. Before using it, make sure you know
how to manipulate it to obtain the desired product. Listen to the record or view the
film ahead. Check the correct size and complete parts of real objects, photgraphs or
models to be presented.
 Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.
 Provide a conducive envoironment. Arrange the chairs, tables and the equipment
and materials. Provide sufficient lighting and ventilation.
 Explain the objectives of the lesson.
 Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully.
 State what they will be expected to do with the information they will learn.
Discussion or a test may follow.
 There is a need to summarize or review the experience. Prepare measures that can
assess their gains based on the objectives.

Unit III Assessment of Learning

CHAPTER 7 “If the proof of the pudding is in the eating, then the proof of learning
is results obtained from assessing.”

Focus Questions:
 What are some guiding principles in the assessment of learning?
 What are the implications of these in the teaching-learning process?
 What assessment tools are appropriate prior, during, and after instruction?
Introduction
The teaching cycle is not complete without the assessment of learning. This chapter will be
devoted to a discussion of the guiding principles in the assessment of learning and on assessment
tools in the three phases of instruction. The discussion and presentation will not be very detailed. It
wil be introductory to the two separate courses on Assessment of Student Learning you have to
take after this course.

Guiding Principles in the Assessment of Learning

Here are some guiding principles in the assessment of learning.
1. Assessment of Learning is an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
2. Assessment tool should match with performance objective.
3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners.
4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’ learning styles and multiple
intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing learning.
 5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school, it is pedagogically
sound that in our assessment tehniques we give some positive feedback along with
not so good ones.
6. Emphasize on self-assessment.
7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students, and that it is
possible that all students, even those from limited backgrounds, will have access to
opportunities and therefore can achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be
abandoned.
8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a disciplinary
measure.
9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to
parents.
10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances over out-of-
context drill items.
11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.
12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make use of multiple sources.

Unit Summary
Management of instruction includes determination and formulation of instructional goals
and objectives, selection and organization of content, selection and use of teaching strategies and
instructional materials, assessment of learning. For effective instruction, let us abide by time-tested
principles of teaching along objectives, content, strategies, instructional materials and assessment.
Goals and Objectives
The following principles must guide us in the formulation of our lesson objectives:
 Begin with the end in mind. Let us begin our lesson with a clearly defined objective.
 Share lesson objective with students. If our students make the lesson objectives their own,
they may end up more motivated to attain their personal targets.
 Lesson objectives must be in the three domains of learning – cognitive, psychomotor,
affective. We should aim to integrate knowledge, skills, and values in our lesson.
 Wokr on significant and relevant lesson objectives. Lesson objectives become significant
when lessons are connected to the life of our students.
 Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine
Constitution and other laws and on vision-mission statements of the schools were we teach.
 Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking.
 For reasons of accountability, lesson objectives must be SMART – Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Result-Oriented, and Timebound.

A taxonomy of objectives in the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains arranged form
the highest to the lowest level are given by Benjamin Bloom (revised by Anderson), David
Krathwohl and Anita Harlow, respectively.

Selection and Organization of Content

While we are not totally free from selecting the content of what we teach because it is already
laid down for us by our leaders, we have a choice in what to emphasized, how to organize and
present. In our organization, we must consider the following elements: 1) Validity, 2) Significance,
3) Balance, 4) Self-sufficienct, 5) Interest, 6) Utility, and 7) Feasibility.
Like our lesson objectives, our subject matter cintent is an integration of cognitive, skill, and
affective elements. The cognitive content dwells mainly on 1) facts, 2) concepts, 3) principles, 4)
hypotheses, 5) theories, and 6) laws. Facts are at the base of the cognitive triangle. The skills
content are the various levels of thinking skills and the manipulative skills. -1) divergent thinking,
2) convergent thinking, 3) problem solving, 4) metaphoric thinking, 5) critical thiniking-verbal
reasoning, and 6) creative thinking.
The affective content is deveoted to the development of values and attitudes. Those values and
attitudes are at the appex of the subject matter content triangle. The three elements that make up
subject matter are not mutually exclusive. There is a skill component in the cognitive in the same
way there is also a cognitive component in the skill lesson. The value lesson has conginitve basis
and a skill component, the behavioral expression of the value. The cognitive and skill content can
serve as a vehicle for the teaching of values.
Theses are several ways by which we can help our students construct an increasingly richer and
more sophisticated knowledge base. The use of a reflective, interactive, integrated and authentic
approacb can emhance conceptual understanding and the development of thinking skills.

Selection and use of teaching strategies

Here are some principles:
 Learning is an active process. Nobody cam learn for himself/herself except the person
himself/herself.
 The more senses that are involved, the better the learning.
 Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ daily life.
 Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
 An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of
information. An integrated approach incorporates research-based instructional
strategies and includes the acquisition of knowledge, skills, as well as values. It is
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary.
 There is no such thing as best method. The best method is that which yields results.

Various Approaches and Methods

Instructional Media/Materials
Effective use of media can enliven a class, encourage participation and help students grasp
difficult concepts. The following guidelines when observed can help you reap results:
 All instructinal materials are aids to construction. They do not replace the teacher.
 Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.
 If possible, ise a variety of tools.
 Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.
 For results, get acquainted and abide by the given general utilization guide.

Assessment
The following princples can aid in the assessment of learning:
 Assessment is an integral part of the teaching0learning process.
 Assessment tool should match with the lesson objective being tested.
 The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners.
 In assessing learning, teachers must consider learniners’ leaning styles and multiple
intelligences.
 Our assessment techniques include giving some positive feedback with suggestions for
improvement.
 Emphasize on self-assessment. This is also known as assessment as learning.
 Abandon the “bell curve” mentality.
  Assessment should never be used as punishment or disciplinary measure.
 Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to parents.
 Emphasize on real word applicatiob that favors realistic perfomrances over out-of-context
drill items.

Unit
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
IV
Focus Questions:
 What are some guiding principles in classroom management and their implications to
teaching?
 What techniques are effective in the maximization of instructional time?
 What are ways by which a teacher can prevent or solve discipline prblems in class?
 How can a teacher come up with a physical environment that is supportive of learning?
 What routines can be established for efficient and effective learning?

Introduction
One of the most important roles that teachers play is that of a classroom manager. Effective
teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed classroom. When chaos becomes the
norms, both teachers and students suffer. In contrast, a well-managed classroom provides and
environment in which teaching and learning can flourish. But a well-managed classroom does not
just come out form nowhere. It takes a good deal to effort to create that conducive classroom
climate. The person who is most responsible for ctreating it is the teacher.

Unit IV Guiding Principles in Classroom Management

CHAPTER 1
teaching teachin
“Classroom management is not teaching; it is a necessary condition to
Teaching.”

Focus Questions:
 What are some guiding principles to classroom management?
 What are the implications of these principles in the classroom?
Introduction
A common problem, soetimes the most common, that beginning teachers face is poor
classroom management. As the quotation beneath the title of this Chapter states, classroom
management is not yet teaching, yet it is a pre-requisite to teaching. We cannot teach when we are
inattentive, worse they are unruly. This is how critical classroom management is.
As classroom managers, we manage resources to facilitate learning. These resources include the 3
Ms-Moment, Materials and Man. In the context of teaching and learing, these are time, teaching
materials and other physical features like desks and tables and the learners themselves.
Principles in Classroom Management
Below is a list of principles on classroom management backed up by research as cited by
James H. Stronge in his book “Qualities of Effective Teachers” (2002)
1. Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom management.
2. Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs.
3. Orchestrate smooth transitions and continuity of momentum throughoutthe day.
4. Strike a balance between variety and challenge in students’ activities.
5. As classroom manager, be awware of all actions and activities in the calssroom.
6. Resolve minor inattention and disruption before they become major disruptions.
7. Reinforce positive behavior.
8. Treat minor disturbances calmly.
9. Workk out a physical arrangement of chairs that facilitates an interactive teaching-learning
proces.
10. Make good use of every instructional moment. Minimize discipline time to maximize
instructional time.

Unit IV Management of Time

CHAPTER 2 “Time lost is irretrievably lost.” – Jose Rizal

Focus Questions:
 What effective techniques can help maximize instructional time?
Here are some research-based effective techniques to make wise all of time:
 Orchestrate smooth classroom transitions.
 Remain involved with the students during the entire class period allowing for no idle time.
 Use fillers, in case you finish the lesson ahead of time.
 Use planning or pacing material such as a copy of the scope and sequence of the subject or a
calendar for long-term, weekly, and daily planning.
 Use a common place to keep materilas such as scissors, school supplies. This saves time.
 Follow a consistent schedule and maintain the procedures and routines established at the
beginning of the year.
 Handle administartive tasks quickly andefficiently.
 Prepare materilas in advance.
 Make clear and smooth transitions. Limits disruptions and interruptions through
appropriate behavioral management technique.

For quality output within an allotted period, here are some suggestions:
1. Schedule all activities with corresponding time allotment way ahead of time. Early
preparations could avoid haste and confusion.
2. Provide enough time for everytime you expect to happen.
3. Avoid rushing since you know you have carefully alotted required time for every activity.
Quality maysuffer.
4. Anticipate difficulties or failure of some operations in order to be able to pursue alternative
actions.
5. Be flexibel with time assignements.
6. Set the example by showing that you are time-conscious.
 Unit IV
Discipline
CHAPTER 3 “Self-discipline connotes internal motivation for one’s behavior, the
internalization of domestic ideals and is most evident when external
regulations of behavior are absent.”
- George Bear
Focus Questions:
 What are some causes of disciplinary problems?
 How can disiplinary problems be prevented?
 What are various modes of establishing classroom disipline?
 What is Canter’s mode of assertive discipline?
 What are acceptable and unacceptable ways of dealing with discipline problems?

Introduction
The subject of discipline is a matter of continuing and great concernin school. We read
about bullying and physical violence heppeining in schools. Much learning time is lost due to
disciplinary problems. Teachers may be partly blamed because of mistaken ideas about discipline
which have led them to be hesitant in controlling behavior. Teachers, administators and parents
and other educaiton stakeholders see the need for the exercise of appropriuae and effective
discipline in schools.
Discipline is controlled behavior. It constitutes the next important concern of teachers as
part of good management. No matter how wel-managed a learning environment is, students will
occasionally misbehaved. Teachers must be ready to deal them with utmost care and consideration.

Some causes of Disciplinary Problems

 Unfavorable learning conditions
 Teacher’s poor management skills
 Students’ varied background

How to Prevent Disciplinary Problems

 Depending on the students abilities and interests, teachers can implement groiup-oriented
methodologies such as
o Cooperative learning approach,
o Team learning,
o Peer tutoring, and
o Group projects and collections.
 Teachers who are sensitive to possible msdirection of efforts and interactions are fast
switch form one technique to another as the need arises.
 Of prime importance are the teachers’ personal attributes such as:
o Patience,
o Compassion,
o Concern and caring attitude, and
o Respect and trust for others
 The taechers’ personalities influence students’ behavior. A warm, respectable relationship
wit hstudents through sincere and straightforward communications can demostrate tust
and credibility.
  The teachers’ teaching style wil determine how the students will respond, at times
receptive, sometimes withdrawn.

Various Modes of Establishing Disipline/Classroom Conrol

Authoritarian Assertive Laissez Faire

Control No control

The Canter Model of Assertive Discipline

Assertive discipline involves the use of the following behaviors. To be effective they must be
used consistently:
 Identify expectations clearly.
 Be willong to say “I like that” or “I don’t like that”.
 Be persistent in stating expectations and feelings.
 Use a firm tone of voice.
 Maintain eye contact.
 Use non-verbal gestures in support of verbal statements.
 Use hints, questions, and I-messages rather than demands or requests for appropriate
behavior.
 Follow-uo with promises (reasonable consequences, previously established) rather than
with threats.
 Be assertive in confrontations with students; include the use of statements of expectation,
indicate consequences that will occur, and note why action is necessary. (Kelly, 2006).

Ways of Dealing with Discipline Problems

Acceptable and effective:
1. Use verbal reinforcers that encourage good behavior and discourage bad tendencies.
2. Use non-verbal gestures, frown or a hard look to dissuade them form mischiefs.
3. Dialogues can help in discovering problems and agreeing on mutually benefcial solutions.
4. Focus attention on one wh is unruly and is about to disturb the neighbors. Lead him.her to a
secluded area and nicely convince him/her to be quiet.
5. Award merits for good behavior and demerits inconsitencies and lapses.
6. A private one-to-one brief conference can lead to a better understanding of mistakes that
need to be remedied or improved.
7. Give students the freedom to express or explain agitated feelings and misgivings rather than
censure them right away.

Unacceptable and ineffective:

1. Scolding and harsh words as a reprimand will have a negative effect on the entire class.
2. Nagging and faultfinding, together with long “sermons” are repugnant and nasty.
3. Keeping a stydent in a “detention area” during or after classes as a penalty for misbehavior
is a waste of time and occasion for learning.
4. Denying a student some privileges due to unnecessary hyperactivity can all the more
encourage repitition.
5. Assignment of additional homework compared to the rest can make them dislike the
subject.
6. Use of ridicule or sarcasm could humiliate and embarass a stident.
7. Grades for academic achievement should not bve affected due to misdemeanor.
 Unit IV Managing the Physical Environment
CHAPTER 4 “The external environment helps create the atmosphere conducive for
learning.”

Focus Question:
 What constitute a conducive physical environment?

Introduction
A well-designed utilization of classroom space is of utmost necessity if the aim is to be abe
to manage all learning activities to a successful completion. How should environment be
strucxtured for effective teaching and learning?

Furniture Arrangement
Seating Arrangement
Physical Condition of the classroom

Unit IV
Establishing Classroom Routine
CHAPTER 5 “Routines are the groundwork for a well-orchestrated classroom.”

Focus Question:
 What routines can be established for an efficient and effective teaching-learning process?

Introduction
Routines have to be learned. We get used to doing them in order for them to become
routinized. It is, therefore, necessary that we identify and explain specific rules and procedures in
our classrooms. When? The first days of school will be most timely. It is also good to rehearse
classroom procedures (especially for elementary pupils) until they become routines. Reinforcing
correct procedure and re-teaching in incorrect one will be of great help.

Some routines on the following can be of great help:

 Beginning and ending the class day or period
 Transitions
 Getting / distribution of materials and equipment
 Group work
 Seatwork and teacher-led activites

Unit
Effective Questioning and Reacting Techniques
V “Children go to school as question marks and leave school as periods.”
– Niel Postman

Focus Questions:
 For a highly interactive classroom, what are the various types of questions asked?
 What are some questioning skills that teachers should develop to generate interaction?
  How can a teachewr improve his/her questioning skills?
 What are some effective reacting techniques?

Types of Questions according to Purpose

For Assessing Cognition
For Verification
For Cretive thinking
For Evaluating
For productive thinking
For Motivating
For Instructing

Types of Questions according to Level / Answer

Low level of questions
High level of questions
Convergent questions
Divergent questions

Questioning skills
1. Varying type of question
2. Asking non-directed questions
3. Calling on non-volunteers
4. Rephrasing
5. Sequencing logically
6. Requiring abstract thinking
7. Asking open-ended questions
8. Allowing for sufficient wait time
9. Assessing comprehesion
10. Involving as many as possible

How to improve Questioning Techniques

1. Know your own style of questioning
2. Request a colleague to critique your own style as to:
a. Kind of questions often asked
b. Amount of wait-time provided
c. The type of responses required
3. Increase your own repertoire of type of questions.
4. Consider the individual abilities and interests of the students.
5. Spend time reflecting on the type of questions you ask

How to Encourage Questions from Students

Here are some tips:
1. The teacher’s qiuestioning technique is the key in encouraging the students to ask correct,
relevant and high level questions.
2. Attend to their questions
3. Praise the correctly formulated questions.
4. Allot an appropriate time slot for open questioning.

Handling Pupils’ Repsonse

The following techniques can help:
1. Providing feedback on the correctness or incorrectness of a response.
2. Giving appropriate praise to high quality responses.
3. Making follow up questions
4. Redirecting questions
5. Following up a student’s response with related questions
6. Re-phrasing the seemingly unclear question
7. Showing non-verbal encouragement
8. Encouraging learners to ask questions

Source: SEAMEO INNOTECH. The Interactive Instruction Series for Teacher Education, Trainor’s
Manual on The Art of Questioning and Reacting Techniques, 1994.)