Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

UNIT- 1
INTRODUCTION

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

1.1 NEED FOR DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

A digital signal processor (DSP) is an integrated circuit designed for high-speed data
manipulations, and is used in audio, communications, image manipulation, and other data-
acquisition and data-control applications. A signal is any variable that carries information.
Examples of the types of signals of interest are Speech (telephony, radio, and everyday
communication), biomedical signals (EEG brain signals), Sound and music, Video and image,
Radar signals (range and bearing).
Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the digital representation of signals
and the use of digital processors to analyses, modify, or extract information from signals.
Many signals in DSP are derived from analogue signals which have been sampled at
regular intervals and converted into digital form. The key advantages of DSP over analogue
processing are Guaranteed accuracy (determined by the number of bits used), Perfect
reproducibility, No drift in performance due to temperature or age, Takes advantage of
advances in semiconductor technology, Greater edibility (can be reprogrammed
w i t h o u t m o d i f y i n g h a r d w a r e ), S u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e ( linear p h a s e
response possible, and itering algorithms can be made adaptive), Sometimes information may
already be in digital form. There are however (still) some disadvantages, Speed and cost (DSP
design and hardware may be expensive, especially with high bandwidth signals) Finite
word length problems (limited number of bits may cause degradation).
Application areas of DSP are considerable: Image processing (pattern recognition,
robotic vision, image enhancement, facsimile, satellite weather map, animation),
Instrumentation and control (spectrum analysis, position and rate control, noise reduction,
data compression) Speech and audio (speech recognition, speech synthesis, text to Speech,
digital audio, equalization) Military (secure communication, radar processing, sonar
processing, missile guidance).

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

• A digital programmable system allows flexibility in reconfiguring the digital signal

processing operations by changing the program. In analog redesign of hardware is
required.
• In digital accuracy depends on word length, floating vs. fixed point arithmetic etc. In
analog depends on components.
• Can be stored on disk.
• It is very difficult to perform precise mathematical operations on signals in analog form
but these operations can be routinely implemented on a digital computer using software.
• Cheaper to implement.
• Small size.
• Several filters need several boards in analog, whereas in digital same DSP processor is
used for many filters.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

System Representation: A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that relates
the input (or excitation) signal to the output (or response) signal. Let x and y be the input and
output signals, respectively, of a system. Then the system is viewed as a transformation ((or
mapping) of x into y. This transformation is represented by the mathematical notation where T is
the operator representing some well-defined
defined rule by which x is transformed into y

Figure 1.1 Basic System

Signals are functions of one or more variables.

• Systems respond to an input signal by producing an output signal.

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

1.3.1 Continuous Time

• If the input and output signals x and p are continuous-time signals, then the
system is called a continuous-time system
1.3.2 Discrete-Time Systems
• If the input and output signals are discrete-time signals or sequences, then the
system is called a discrete-time system
1.3.3 Linear Time-Invariant Systems
• If the system is linear and also time-invariant, then it is called a linear rime-
invariant (LTI) system. H. Stable Systems A system is bounded-
input/bounded-output (BIBO) stable if for any bounded input x defined by the
corresponding output y is also bounded defined by where k , and k, are finite
real constants.
1.3.4 Causal and Non causal Systems
• A system is called causal if its output y ( t ) at an arbitrary time t = t,, depends
on only the input x ( t ) for t It o. That is, the output of a causal system at the
present time depends on only the present and/or past values of the input, not on
its future values. Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible to obtain an output
before an input is applied to the system. A system is called non causal if it is not
causal.
1.3.5 Dynamic recursive time variance system
• A system is said to be static or memory less if its output depends upon the present input
only. The system is said to be dynamic with memory if its output depends upon the
present and past input values.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

• Continuous time signals (CT signals), discrete time signals (DT signals) A signal is a
function representing a physical quantity or variable, and typically it contains information
about the behaviour or nature of the phenomenon. For instance, in a RC circuit the signal
may represent the voltage across the capacitor or the current flowing in the resistor.

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an independent variable t.

Usually t represents time. Thus, a signal is denoted by x(t).
1.4.1 Periodic and A periodic signals
• A signal is said to be periodic signal if it repeats at equal intervals. A periodic signals do
not repeat at regular intervals.
1.4.2 Even and Odd signal
• A DT signal x(n) is said to be an even signal if x(-n)=x(n) and an odd signal if x(-n)=-
x(n). A CT signal is x(t) is said to be an even signal if x(t)=x(-t) and an odd signal if x(-
t)=-x(t).
1.4.3 Continuous Time signal
• Continuous time signals are defined for all values of time. It is also called as an analog
signal and is represented by x(t).
1.4.4 Discrete Time signal
• Discrete time signals are defined only for discrete values of time. It is also called as an
Digital signal and is represented by x(n).
1.4.5 Random signals
• A random signal is one which cannot be represented by any mathematical equation.
1.4.6 Power signals
• The signal x(t) is said to be power signal, if and only if the normalized average power p
is finite and non-zero.
1.4.7 Energy signal
• A signal x(t) is said to be energy signal if and only if the total normalized energy is finite
and non-zero.
1.4.8 Fundamental period
• A periodic signal is a signal that satisfies the condition x(t)=x(t+T) for all t. The smallest
• Value of T that satisfies this equation is called fundamental period.

1.4.9 Energy of a Signal:

• The total energy of a signal {x[n]} is defined by

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

A signal is referred to as an energy signal, if and only if the total energy of the signal Ex
is finite.
1.4.11. Power of a signal:
• If {x[n]} is a signal whose energy is not finite, we define power of the signal as

A signal is referred to as a power signal if the power Px satisfies the condition

An energy signal has a zero power and a power signal has inf
infinite
inite energy. There are
signals which are neither energy signals nor power signals. For example {x[n]} defined
by x[n] = n does not have finite power or energy

1.4.12 The Continuous Time Unit Step Function:

The definition is analogous to its Discrete Time counterpart i.e.

u(t) = 0, t < 0
= 1, t ≥ 0

Figure 1.2. Continuous Time Unit Step Function

The unit step function is discontinuous at the origin.

1.4.13 The Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function

Thee unit impulse function also known as the Dirac Delta Function, was first defined by Dirac as

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

There are several elementary signals that occur prominently in the study of digital signals and
digital signal processing.

1.4.14 Unit Sample Sequence

Graphically this is as shown below.

Figure 1.3 Unit Sample Sequence

Unit sample sequence is also known as impulse sequence.
1.4.15 Unit Step Sequence

Graphically this is as shown below

Figure 1.4 Unit Step Sequence

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Unit step in terms of unit impulse function having studied the basic signal operations namely
Time Shifting, Time Scaling and Time Inversion it is easy to see that

similarly,

Summing over we get

Looking directly at the Unit Step Function we observe that it can be constructed as a sum of
shifted Unit Impulse Functions

Figure 1.5 Unit Step Sequence

The unit function can also be expressed as a running sum of the Unit Impulse Function

Figure 1.6 Unit Step Interval Summations

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

We see that the running sum is 0 for n < 0 and equal to 1 for n >= 0 thus defining the Unit Step
Function u[n].

Sifting property

Consider the product .

The delta function is non-zero only at the origin so it follows the signal is the same as .

More generally

It is important to understand the above expression. It means the product of a given signal
x[n] with the shifted Unit Impulse Function is equal to the time shifted Unit Impulse Function
multiplied by x[k]. Thus the signal is 0 at time not equal to k and at time k the amplitude is x[k].
So we see that the unit impulse sequence can be used to obtain the value of the signal at any time
k. This is called the Sampling Property of the Unit Impulse Function. This property will be used
in the discussion of LTI systems. For example consider the product . It gives
.

Figure Unit step Product for X[n]

Figure 1.7 Unit step Product for X[n]

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Likewise, the product x[n] u[n] i.e. the product of the signal u[n] with x[n] truncates the signal
for n < 0 since u[n] = 0 for n <0

Figure1.8 product for n < 0 since u[n] = 0 for n <0

Similarly, the product x[n] u[n-1] will truncate the signal for n < 1.

Figure 1.9 Product Signal for n < 1.

1.4.16 Exponential sequence

The complex exponential signal or sequence {x[n]} is defined by x[n] = C αn
where C and α are, in general, complex numbers.
Note that by writing α = eβ , we can write the exponential sequence as x[n] = c eβn
Real exponential signals:
If C and are real, we can have one of the several type of behavior illustrated below

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Figure 1.10 Exponential Sequence

Figure 1.11 Exponential Sequence for <1

Figure 1.12 Exponential Sequence for <0

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Figure 1.13 Exponential Sequence for <-1

For |α|>1magnitude of the signals grows exponentially,

|α| < 1 It is decaying exponential.

For α > 1 all terms of {x[n]} have same sign,

α<1 sign of terms in {x[n]} alternates.

1.4.17 Sinusoidal Signal

Then sinusoidal signal {x[n]} is defined by

Euler's relation allows us to relate complex exponentials and sinusoids as

and

The general discrete time complex exponential can be written in terms of real exponential and
sinusiodal signals.

Specifically if we write C and α in polar form and then

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Thus for |α| = 1 , the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential sequence are sinusoidal.
|α| < 1, they correspond to sinusoidal sequence multiplied by a decaying exponential,
|α| > 1 , they correspond to sinusoidal sequence multiplied by a growing exponential.

1.5 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON SIGNALS

1.5.1 Sequence addition

Let {x[n]} and {y[n]} be two sequences. The sequence addition is defined as term by
term addition. Let {z[n]} be the resulting sequence.
{z[n]} = {x[n]} + {y[n]}
Where each term z[n] = x[n] + y[n]
We will use the following notation {x[n]} + {y[n]} = {x[n] + y[n]}

1.5.2 Scalar multiplication

Let a be a scalar. We will take a to be real if we consider only the real valued signals, and
take to be a complex number if we are considering complex valued sequence. Unless
otherwise stated we will consider complex valued sequences. Let the resulting sequence be
denoted by {w[n]}
{w[n]} = a {x[n]}
is defined by w[n] = ax[n]
each term is multiplied by a
a {w[n]} = {aw[n]}
Note: If we take the set of all sequences and define these two operations as addition and scalar
multiplication they satisfy all the properties of a linear vector space.
1.5.3 Sequence multiplication
Let {x[n]} and {y[n]} be two sequences, and {z[n]} be resulting sequence
{z[n]} = {x[n]}{y[n]}

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

where z[n] = x[n] y[n]

The notation used for this will be {x[n]} {y[n]} = {x[n] y[n]}
Now we consider some operations based on independent variable n.
1.5.4 Shifting
This is also known as translation. Let us shift a sequence {x[n]} by n0 units, and the resulting
sequence be {y[n]}

where is the operation of shifting the sequence right by n0 unit. The terms are defined by
y[n] = x[n - n0]. We will use short notation {x[n - n0]} to denote shift by n0.

Figure below show some examples of shifting.

{x[n]}

Figure
Figure1.14 Shifting {x[n]}

{x[n-2]}

A negative value of n0 means shift towards right.

Figure 1.15 Shifting {x [n-2]}

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

{x [n+1]}

A positive value of n0 means shift towards left.

Figure 1.16 Shifting {x [n+1]}

1.5.5 Reflection
Let {x[n]} be the original sequence, and {y[n]} be reflected sequence, then y[n] is defined by
y[n] = x[-n]

{x[n]}

Figure 1.17 Reflection

When we have complex valued signals, sometimes we reflect and do the complex
conjugation, ie, y[n] is defined by y[n] = x*[-n], where * denotes complex conjugation. This
sequence will be denoted by {x*[-n]}.
.

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Figure 1.18 Shifting of Signal

{x[n]} {y[n]} = {x[n-1} {z[n]} = {y[-n]}

Figure 1.19 Shifting of Signal

{x[n]} {w[n]} = {x[-n]} {u[n]} = {w[n-1]}

Figure 1.20 Shifting of Signal

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

We can combine many of these operations in one step, for example {y[n]} may be defined as
y[n] = 2x [3-n]

1.6 Definition of System

A signal was defined as a mapping from a set of the independent variable (domain) to the
set of the dependent variable (co-domain).
domain). A system is also a mapping, but across signals, or
across mappings . That is, the domain set and the coco-domain set for a systemtem are both sets of
signals, and corresponding to each signal in the domain set, there exists a unique signal in the co
co-
domain set.

Figure 1.221 Representation of System

In signals and systems terminology, we say; corresponding to every possible input signal,
a system “produces” an output signal.

In that sense, realize that a system, as a mapping is one step hierarchically higher than a
signal. While the correspondence for a signal is from one element of one set to a unique element
of another, the correspondence
espondence for a system is from one whole mapping from a set of mappings
to a unique mapping in another set of mappings!

Examples of systems are all around us. The speakers that go with your computer can be
looked at as systems whose input is voltage puls pulses
es from the CPU and output is music (audio
signal). A spring may be looked as a system with the input , say, the longitudinal force on it as a
function of time, and output signal being its elongation as a function of time. The independent
variable for the input and output signal of a system need not even be the same.

In fact, it is even possible for the input signal to be continuous

continuous-time
time and the output signal
to be discrete-time or vice-versa.
versa. For example, our speech is a continuous-timetime signal, while a
digital recording of it is a discrete-time
time signal! The system that converts any one to the other is
an example of this class of systems.

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

As these examples may have made evident, we look at many physical ob objects/devices
jects/devices as
systems, by identifying some variation associated with them as the input signal and some other
variation associated with them as the output signal (the relationship between these, that
essentially defines the system depends on the laws or rules that govern the system) . Thus a
capacitance with voltage (as a function of time) considered as the input signal and current
considered as the output signal iss not the same system as a capacitance with, say charge
considered as the input signal and voltage considered as the output signal. Why?

The mappings that define the system are different in these two cases.

Figure 1.22 Simple Different Systems

1.6.2 System description

The system description specifies the transformation of the input signal to the output
signal. In certain cases, a system has a closed form description. E.g. the continuous
continuous-time
time system
with description y(t) = x(t) + x(t-1);; where x(t) is the input signal and y(t) is the output signal.
Not all systems have such a closed form description. Just as certain "pathological" functions can
only be specified by tabulating the value of the dependent variable against all values of the
independent variable; some systems can only be described by tabulating the output signal against
all possible input signals.

1.6.3 Explicit and Implicit Description

When a closed form system description is provided, it may either be classified as an

explicit description or implicit one. For an explicit description, it is possible to express the
output at a point, purely in terms of the input signal. Hence, when the input is known, it is easily
possible to find the output of the system, when the system description is Explicit. In case of an

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

explicit description, it is clear to see the relationship between the input and the output. e.g. y(t) =
{ x(t) } 2 + x(t-5).

In case the system has an Implicit description, it is harder to see the input-output
output
relationship. An example of an Implicit description is y(t) - y(t-1) x(t) = 1.. So when the input is
provided, we are not directly able to calculate the output at that instant (since, the output at 't't-1'
alsoo needs to be known). Although in this case also, there are methods to obtain the output based
solely on the input, or, to convert this implicit description into an explicit one. The description by
itself however is in the implicit form.

A signal
ignal maps an element in one set to an element in another. A system, on the other
hand maps a whole signal in one set to a signal in another. That is why a system is called a
mapping over mappings. Therefore, the value of the output signal at any instant oof time
(remember "time" is merely symbolic) in general depends on the whole input signal. Thus, even
if the independent variable for the input and output signal are the same (say time t)

For example, consider the system with description:

The output at, say t = 5 depends on the values of the input signal for all t <= 5.

Henceforth; w shall call systems with both input and output signal being continuous
continuous-time
time as continuous-
time systems , and those with both input and output signal being discrete
discrete-time as discrete-time
discrete systems.
Those that do not fall into either of these classes (i.e. input discrete
discrete-time
time and output continuous-time
continuous and
vice-versa) we shall call systems. hybrid

1.7 PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

i) Memory
ii) Linearity
iii) Shift-invariance
iv) Stability
v) Causality

1.7.1 Memory

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Memory is a property relevant

ant oonly
nly to systems whose input and output signals have the
same independent variable. A system is said to be memoryless if its output for each value of the
independent variable is dependent only on the input signal at that value of independent variable.
variable
For example the system with description : y(t) = 5x(t) ( y(t) is the output signal corresponding to
input signal x(t) ) is memoryless. In the physical world a resistor can be consid
considered
ered to be a
memoryless system (with voltage considered to be the input signal, current the output signal).

By definition, a system that does not have this property is said to have memory.

For a memory less system, changing the input at any instant can ch change the output only at that
instant.. If, in some case, a change in input signals at some instant changes the output at some
other instant, we can be sure that the system has memory.

Examples:

Assume y[n] and y(t) are respectively outputs corresponding to input signals x[n] and x(t)

1. The identity system y(t) = x(t) is of-course

course Memoryless
2. System with description y[n] = x[n-5] 5] has memory.. The input at any "instant" depends on the
input 5 "instants" earlier.
3. System with description

1.7.2 Linearity

Now we come to one of the most important and revealing properties systems may have -
Linearity. Basically, the principle of linearity is equivalent to the principle of superposition,
superposition i.e. a
system can be said to be linear if, for any two input si signals,
gnals, their linear combination yields as
output the same linear combination of the corresponding output signals.

(It
It is not necessary for the input and output signals to have the same independent variable for
linearity to make sense. The definition for systems with input and/or output signal being discrete-
discrete
time is similar.)

Example of linearity

A capacitor, an inductor, a resistor or any combination of these are all linear systems, if
we consider the voltage applied across them as an input signal, and the current through them as

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

an output signal. This is because these simple passive circuit compo

components
nents follow the principle of
superposition within their ranges of operation.

Figure 1.23 Simple Passive Circuit Components

Additivity and Homogeneity

Linearity can be thought of as consisting of two properties:

• Additivity

A system is said to be additive if for any two input signals x1(t) and x2(t),

i.e. the output corresponding to the sum of any two inputs is the sum of the two outputs.

• Homogeneity (Scaling)

A system is said to be homogenous if, for any input signal X(t),

i.e. scaling any input signal scales the output signal by the same factor.

To say a system is linear is equivalent to saying the system obeys both additivity and
homogeneity.

a) We shall first prove homogeneity and additivity imply linearity.

b) To prove linearity implies homogeneity and additivity.

This is easy; put both constants equal to 1 in the definition to get additivity; one of them
to 0 to get homogeneity.

Additively and homogeneity are independent properties.

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

We can prove this by finding examples of systems which are additive but not homogeneous, and
vice versa.

Again, y(t) is the response of the system to the input x(t).

Example of a system which is additive but not homogeneous:

[ It is homogeneous for real constants but not com

complex ones - consider ]

Example of a system which is homogeneous but not additive:

Examples of Linearity

Assume y[n] and y(t) are respectively outputs corresponding to input signals x[n] and x(t)

1) System with description y(t) = t . x(t) is linear.

Consider any two input signals, x1(t) and x2(t), with corresponding outputs y1(t) and y2(t).
(t)

a and b are arbitrary constants. The output corresponding to a.x1(t) + b.x2(t) is

= t (a.x1(t) + b.x2(t))

= t.a.x1(t) + t.b.x2(t),, which is the same linear combination of y1(t) and y2(t).

Hence proved.

2) The system with description is not linear.

See for yourself that the system is neither additive, nor homogenous.

Show for yourself that systems with the following descriptions are linear:

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1.7.3 Shift Invariance

This is another important property applicable to systems with the same independent
variable for the input and output signal. We shall first define the property for continuous time
systems and the definition for discrete time systems will follow naturally.

Say, for a system, the input signal x(t) gives rise to an output signal y(t). If the input
signal x(t - t0) gives rise to output y(t - t0), for every t0, and every possible input signal, we
say the system is shift invariant.

i.e. for every permissible x(t) and every t0

In other words, for a shift invariant system, shifting the input signal shifts the output signal by
the same offset.

Figure 1.24 Shift Invariant System

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Note this is not to be expected from every system. x(t) and x(t - t0) are different (related by a
shift, but different) input signals and a system, which simply maps one set of signals to another,
need not at all map x(t) and x(t - t0) to output signal als
also shift by t0

A system that does not satisfy this property is said to be shift variant.

1.7.4 Stability

Let us learn about one more important system property known as stability. Most of us are
familiar with the word stability, which intuitively means resistance to change or displacement.
Broadly speaking a stable system is a one in which small inputs lead to predictable responses that
do not diverge, i.e. are bounded. To get the qualitative idea let us consider the following physical
example.

Example

Consider an ideal mechanical spring (elongation proportional to tension). If we consider

tension in the spring
ing as a function of time as the input signal and elongation as a function of time
to be the output signal, it would appear intuitively that the system is stable. A small tension leads
only to a finite elongation.

There are various ideas/notions about sta

stability
bility not all of which are equivalent. We shall
now introduce the notion of BIBO Stability, i.e. BOUNDED INPUT-BOUNDED BOUNDED OUTPUT
STABILITY.

Statement

Note: This should be true for all bound inputs x(t)

Examples

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

Consider systems with the following descriptions. y(t) is the output signal corresponding to the
input signal x(t).

BIBO Stable system : In a BIBO stable system, every bounded input is assured to give a
bounded output. An unbounded input can give us eit
either
her a bounded or an unbounded output, i.e.
nothing can be said for sure.

BIBO Unstable system:: In a BIBO unstable system, there exists at least one bounded input for
which output is unbounded. Again, nothing can be said about the system's response to an
unbounded input.

1.7 CAUSALITY

Causality refers to cause and effect relationship (the effect follows the cause). In a causal
system, the value of the output signal at any instant depends only on "past" and "present" values
of the input signal (i.e. only on values of the input signal at "instants" less than or equal to that
"instant"). Such a system is often referred to as being non-anticipative,, as the system output does
not anticipate future values of the input (remember again the reference to time is merely
symbolic). As you might have realized, causality as a property is relevant only for systems
whose input and output signals have the same independent variable.. Further, this independent

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

variable must be ordered (it makes no sense to talk of "past" and "future" when the independent
variable is not ordered).

What this means mathematically is that If two inputs to a causal (continuous

(continuous-time)
time) system are
identical up to some time to, the corresponding outputs must also be equal up to this same time
(we'll define the property for continuous
continuous-time systems; the definition for discrete-time
time systems
will then be obvious).

Definition

Let x1(t) and x2(t) be two input signals to a system and y 1(t) and y2(t) be their respective
outputs.

The system is said to be causal if and only if:

This of course is only another way of stating what we said before: for any t0 : y( t0) depends only
on values of x(t) for t <= t0

As an example of the behavior of causal systems, consider the figure below:

Figure 1.25. Representation of Causal System

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

The two input signals in the figure above are identical to the point t = t0, and the system being a
causal system, their corresponding outputs are also identical till the point t = t0.

Examples of Causal systems

Assume y[n]
n] and y(t) are respectively the outputs corresponding to input signals x[n] and x(t)

System with description y[n] = x[n-1] 1] + x[n] is clearly causal, as output "at" n depends on only
values of the input "at instants" less than or equal to n ( in this case n and n-1 ).

Similarly, the continuous-time

time system with description is causal, as value of
output at any time t0 depends on only value of the input at t0and before.

But system with description y[n] = x[n+1] is not causal as output at n depends
epends on input one
instant later.

Deductions from System Properties

Now that we have defined a few system properties, let us see how powerful inferences can be
drawn about systems having one or more of these properties.

Theorem

Statement: If a system is additive or homogeneous, then x(t)=0 implies y(t)=0.

Proof:

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 Digital Signal Processor -Class Notes

This completes the proof.

Theorem:

Statement : If a causal system is either additive or homogeneous ,then y(t) can not be non zero
before x(t) is non-zero .

Proof:

Say x(t) = 0 for all t less than or equal to t0.

We have to show that the system response y(t) = 0 for all t less than or equal to t0.

Since the system is either additive or homogeneous the response to the zero input signal is the
zero output signal. The zero input signal and x(t) are identical for all t less than or equal to t0.

Hence, from causality, their output signals are identical ffor all t less than or equal to t0.

1.8 TYPICAL SIGNAL PROCESSING OPERATORS

1.8.1 Convolution
• Convolution is a mathematical way of combining two signals to form a third signal. It is
the single most important technique in Digital Signal Processing. Using the strategy of
impulse decomposition, systems are described by a signal called the impulse response.
res
Convolution is important because it relates the three signals of interest: the input signal,
the output signal, and the impulse response. This chapter presents convolution from two
different viewpoints, called the input side algorithm and the output side algorithm.
Convolution provides the mathematical framework for DSP

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1.8.2 Correlation

• It is frequently necessary to be able to quantify the degree of interdependence of one

process upon another, or to establish the similarity between one set of data and another.
In other words, the correlation between the processes or data is sought. Its of two types
cross correlation and auto correlation

Correlation is commonly encountered in

Ø radar,
Ø sonar,
Ø digital communications,
Ø geology,
Ø image processing, and
Ø Remote sensing.

1.9 TYPICAL DSP SYSTEM

1.9.1 ADC/DAC Sampling

• The first thing we have to do, is to obtain signal values from the continuous
signal at regular time-intervals. This process is known as sampling. The
sampling interval is denoted as Ts and its reciprocal, the sampling frequency or
sample-rate is denoted as fs, where fs = 1/Ts. The result of this process is just a
sequence of numbers. We will use n as an index into this sequence and our
discrete time signal is denoted as x[n] – it is customary in DSP literature to use
parentheses for continuous variables such as the time t and brackets for discrete
variables such as our sample index n. Having defined our sampling interval Ts,
• after the sampling is a sequence of numbers. Those numbers themselves are
termed samples in the DSP community - each such number is a sample in this
terminology. This is different from what a musician usually means when talking
about samples - musicians refer to a short recording of an acoustic event as
sample. In this article we will use the DSP terminology.
1.9.2 Quantization
• After the sampling we have a sequence of numbers which can theoretically still take on
any value on a continuous range of values. Because this range in continuous, there are
infinitely many possible values for each number, in fact even uncountable infinitely

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many. In order to be able to represent each number from such a continuous range, we
would need an infinite number of digits - something we don’t have. Instead, we must
represent our numbers with a finite number of digits, that is: after discrediting the time-
variable, we now have to discrete the amplitude-variable as well. This discretization of
the amplitude values is called quantization.
• Assume, our sequence takes on values in the range between −1... + 1. Now assume that
we must represent each number from this range with just two decimal digits: one before
and one after the point. Our possible amplitude values are therefore: −1.0,−0.9, . . . ,−0.1,
0.0, 0.1, . . . , 0.9, 1.0. These are exactly 21 distinct levels for the amplitude and we will
denote this number of quantization levels with Nq. Each level is a step of 0.1 higher than
its predecessor
1.9.3 Quantization Error
• When forcing an arbitrary signal value x to its closest quantization level xq, this xq value
can be seen as
x plus some error. We will denote that error as eq (for quantization error)
• The quantization error is restricted to the range −q/2... + q/2 - we will never make an
error larger than half of the quantization step size. When the signal to be sampled has no
specific relationship to the Sampling process, we can assume that this quantization error
(now treated as a discrete time signal eq [n] will manifest itself as additive white noise
with equal probability for all error values in the range.
1.9.4 Quantization digital signals - sampling and quantization
• To reiterate, this equation can be used to calculate the SNR between an unit amplitude
sinusoid and the quantization error that is made when we quantize the sinusoid with a
quantization step size of q. In the discussion above, we used a step size of 0.1 - this was
only for easy presentation of the principles.

• Computers do not represent numbers using decimal digits, instead they use binary digits -
better known as bits. With b bits, we can represent 2b distinct numbers. Because we want
those numbers to represent the range between −1 and 1, we could represent 2b−1
quantization levels below zero and 2b−1 above zero - however, we have not yet

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represented the zero level itself. To do so, we ’steal’ one binary pattern from the positive
range - now that can only represent 2b−1 − 1 strictly positive levels.
1.10 NYQUIST RATE
• Nyquist sampling rate states that, the minimum sampling rate is equal to twice the highest
audio input.
1.10 ALIASING EFFECT
• When produce the sequence x(n) by sampling xa ( t) to ensure that all the information’s in
the original signals is retained in the samples . There will be no information loss if can
exactly recover the continuous time signal from the samples.

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