Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Structural evolution of Malay Basin, its link to Sunda Block tectonics

Md Yazid Mansor a, *, A. Hadi A. Rahman a, David Menier a, b, Manuel Pubellier a, c
a
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Faculty of Geosciences & Petroleum Engineering, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
b
Universit
e Europeenne de Bretagne, G
eosciences Marines et G
eomorphologie du Littoral, UMR CNRS 6538, Rue Yves Mainguy, 56017 Vannes cedex, France
c
Ecole Normale Sup erieure ENS, 24 Rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris cedex 5, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Malay Basin is located offshore West Malaysia in the South China Sea, within north central region of
Received 1 July 2013 1st order Sunda Block. The basin developed partly as a result of tectonic collisions and strike-slip shear of
Received in revised form the Southeast Asia continental slabs, as the Indian Plate collided into Eurasia, and subsequent extrusion
24 April 2014
of lithospheric blocks towards Indochina. The Sunda Block epicontinental earliest rift margins were
Accepted 5 May 2014
Available online 21 June 2014
manifested by the Palaeogene WeE rift valleys, which formed during NWeSE sinistral shear of the re-
gion. Later Eocene NWeSE dextral shear of (2nd order) Indochina Block against East Malaya Block rifted
open a 3rd order Malay Basin. Developed within it is a series of 4th order NeS en-echelon ridges and
Keywords:
Tertiary
grabens. The grabens and some ridges, sequentially, host WeE trending 5th order folds of later
Sunda Block compressional episodes. The Malay Basin Ridge and Graben Model explains the multi-phased structural
Malay Basin deformation which started with, the a) Pre-Rift Palaeo/Mesozoic crystalline/metamorphic Basement, b)
Miocene Synrift phase during Paleogene, c) Fast Subsidence from Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene, d)
Subsidence Compressional inversion of first Sunda fold during Late Miocene, and e) Basin Sag during Plio-Pleistocene
Inversion with mild compressional episodes. The subsequent Mio-Pliocene folding history of Malay Basin is con-
Ridge nected to the collision of Sunda Block against subducting IndianeAustralian Plate. This Neogene Sunda
Graben
tectonics, to some degree after the cessation of South China Sea spreading, is due to the diachronous
collision along the 1st order plate margins between SE Asia and Australia.
© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
The tectonic configuration of the Southeast Asia continental
plate (Fig. 1) is a result of Indian Plate collision into Eurasia during
Eocene, and subsequent extrusion of the lithospheric blocks to-
wards Indochina which amassed a number of major fault systems
and related basins (Tapponnier et al., 1982; Madon et al., 1999;
Pubellier et al., 2004; Metcalfe, 2011). The Sunda Block is a het-
erogeneous epicontinental terrane that has a complex structural
origin due to combination of strike-slip and extensional regimes. It
is bordered between purely extensional regions such as South
China basin, Celebes basin, and wrench zones as in Andaman basin
and Marinduque basin (Pubellier et al., 2004). Within north central
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: yazidm@petronas.com.my (M.Y. Mansor), hadi_rahman@
petronas.com.my (A.H.A. Rahman), david.menier@petronas.com.my (D. Menier),
Manuel.pubellier@petronas.com.my (M. Pubellier).
Sunda Block, the subordinate East Malaya block is juxtaposed along
Bentong Suture against Sibumasu (Tjia, 1989; Packham, 1993;
Hutchison, 2009; Hall, 2009) continental terrane of Peninsular
Malaysia and Indonesian Riau.
The Malay Basin is predominantly a Tertiary-fill basin with a
general NWeSE axial strike, located offshore in South China Sea. It
is east of Peninsular West Malaysia, between Latitude 4
e8
N, and
Longitude 102
e106
E. Its size is roughly 500 km long in NWeSE
direction, and some 250 km across. Between 1970s and 90s many
oil and gas companies acquired offshore 2D or 3D data predomi-
nantly down to 5 s TWT, due to shallower target horizons in range
of 1e3 s TWT, whereas much deeper sections were considered
uneconomic. In the 1980s, due to this data limitation and difficulty
to image basement profile, early seismic interpretations projected
very deep basin centre depths in excess of 14 km for the pre-
Oligocene sections (reported in Madon et al., 1999).
Published models on the Malay Basin tectonic origin proposed it
as a large synchronous extensional basin along a reactivated
NWeSE strike-slip zone (Tjia, 1994), as well as a regional mega-

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.05.003
0264-8172/© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748 737

shear with WeE trending faults from IndiaeAsia early Tertiary
indentation (Madon, 1997). These ideas were generally based on
early vintage, simplified broad-spaced contour maps of deep
basement surface, and the extensively mapped Middle to Late
Miocene WeE compressional folds (Esso, 1985 reported in Madon
et al., 1999). In this paper, the authors provide further insight
based on several refined and infill seismic mapping post-1993 deep
regional data on the basement structure and fault patterns. The
existence of several Oligocene to Early Miocene sub-grabens and
narrow ridges is recognised, underlying the shallow Neogene WeE
anticlines. This paper presents a tectono-stratigraphic overview, a
description of seismic profiles and structural analysis, and a dis-
cussion of the implications of these data and interpretations.
2. Tectono-stratigraphic overview
Malay Basin earliest rifts are believed to be Late Mesozoic to
Palaeogene age WeE axis pull-aparts due to NWeSE sinistral
transtensional faults (Madon, 1997). These rifting episodes devel-
oped across early Malay Basin, connected northwards to the
Three-Pagodas Fault, and eastwards into East Natuna basins. To
the NW of Malay Basin is the Pattani Trough, eastwards is the
Khorat Swell, to SE is Natuna Arch, and westwards is Terengganu
Platform/Tenggol Arch and Penyu Basin. The flanks of the Malay
Basin are made up of Mesozoic age granitoids, metamorphics and
weathered beds and older Palaeozoic rocks. The pre-rift basement
of Malay Basin is estimated to be Late Mesozoic age (Daines, 1985;
Madon, 1997). Oligocene to Mid-Miocene basin thermal cooling
and basin sag generated accommodation space, filled by thick
sedimentary succession. Successive Indo-Australian Plate oblique
northwards convergence into southern margins of Sunda Block
and Southeast Asia caused shortening of the Sunda Block which
developed inversion folds from Mid-Miocene to Late Pliocene (Tjia
and Liew, 1996; Ngah et al., 1996; Hall and Morley, 2004; Metcalfe,
2011).
For a long while Malay Basin has been described as an asym-
metrical NWeSE trending elongate basin, related to the Axial Malay
Basin Fault as suggested by Tjia (1994). Numerous WeE trending
compressional anticlines within the basin are associated with
Neogene age Sunda Folds. An unpublished report by Wahid Musbah
et al. (2005) summarised the Malay Basin structural model as Fault
Zones and Grabens, shown by the Basement Depth Structure

Figure 1. Map showing location of Malay Basin on the Sunda Block or platform within the Tectonic Setting of Southeast Asia, modified after Madon et al. (1999). The Palaeogene
period HimalayaneTibet extrusion created major shears towards southeast regions. The SE extension of the Three Pagodas Fault underwent sinistral shear in the Palaeogene. 1st
order Sunda Block is bordered by the Sunda-Java-Timor Trench, sea-spreading of Andaman Sea, South China Sea, Celebes Sea, and Eastern Indonesia Archipelago.
738 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748

configuration (Fig. 2). This map had Tertiary basin depths exceeding
14 km, projected from simple seismic velocity model and influ-
enced by earlier regional seismic interpretations.
PETRONAS, in 1993 acquired deep regional 2D seismic data
across Malay Basin. A few of these seismic sections were variously
described by Tjia and Liew (1996), Madon et al. (1999), Madon and
Watts (1998). These sparse regional 2D deep data are the only
seismics to exceed normal 5 s TWT acquisition limit. This research
utilised 8 s TWT sections that cover distances between 160 and
220 km across, to nearly 400 km along the basin length in
Malaysian territory. The quality of seismic data is generally fair in
deeper sections, to good in the shallower sections. The interpreted
sections have been grouped by tectonic phases, from below,
namely as Basement, Early to Late Synrift, Early Subsidence high
supply, Fast Subsidence moderate to low supply, Compression
Inversion, and Basin Sag. The basement profile is clearly imaged on
most of the 1993 2D data set, with deepest part of Malay Basin
Tertiary basin at 6e7 s TWT, or 8e10 km depths. The sections are
also visibly dissected by several prominent fault systems, with
narrow horst blocks or ridges separating sub-grabens. To date,
detection of much deeper lower crust profiles or the Mohorovicic
Discontinuity on these data set is elusive (Morley and Westaway,
2006).
The Malay Basin stratigraphy, as documented in Madon et al.,
1999, has been variously described by EPIC (1994), Khalid Ngah
et al. (1996). The alphabetic-based stratigraphic nomenclature
(EPIC, 1994 unpublished) is still widely used, hence forms the
seismo-stratigraphic picks for this research, with modification
(Fig. 3).
Data on regional tectonics were based on published literature by
Katili (1972), Mazlan Madon et al. (1999), Hall (2009), Cullen
(2010), and Satyana (2012), as well as earlier unpublished pro-
prietary PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd regional reports (Musbah
et al., 2005).
This research focuses on genetically related tectono-
stratigraphic provinciality within Malay Basin. It attempts to

Figure 2. Map showing Malay Basin Basement Depth Structure Map, modified after Musbah et al. (unpublished 2005), with projected maximum depths of some 14 km below mean
sea level using seismic velocities. The key en-echelon fault zones identified in this research are the NeS Laris-Jambu, Melor-Dulang, Pilong-Ular and the NNWeSSE Samudera fault
zones. Inset map indicates the selected 1993 regional 2D seismic lines used in this research.
 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748 739

Figure 3. Chrono-Stratigraphy of the Malay Basin (modified after Madon et al., 1999), indicating Geological Age Range, Depositional Environment and Lithology, inversion events,
local Tectonic Phases, and Seismic Groups, which are also schematically depicted on interpreted seismic sections in Figure 4aef.
740 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748

Figure 4. a: WSWeENE Regional 2D dipline AeA0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section north of Malay Basin. The basin is asymmetrical, only 5 s TWT deep. The Eocene-
eOligocene 4th order NW and Northern Grabens are separated by strike-slip faults of unequal displacements such as along Samudera Ridge and Pilong-Ular Ridge. b: SWeNE
Regional 2D dipline BeB0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section north-central of Malay Basin. The basin is 6 s TWT deep. The Hinge Zones on either flanks are steep. The
EoceneeOligocene synrift section has strike-slip faults with a tail-end minor displacement Melor-Dulang Ridge, which separates Northern and Central Grabens. c: SWeNE Regional
2D dipline CeC0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section central of Malay Basin. The basin is 6þ sec TWT deep. The basin is asymmetrical, with small half-grabens present on the
Eastern basement flank. The 4th order EoceneeOligocene synrift section has large strike-slip displacements on ridge margins such as Melor-Dulang faults, Laris-Jambu Ridge which
split Central and Eastern Grabens. The Central Graben is about 9 km deep on this section. d: WeE Regional 2D dipline DeD0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section south-central
of Malay Basin. The basin is 6 s TWT deep, also asymmetrical, with very steep western Hinge Zone. The Laris-Jambu strike-slip faults have merged along the SW hinge zone. The 4th
 Figure 4. (continued).

order Eastern Graben is deep at almost 9 km, and thins to about 2 km on the eastern Belumut-Ledang Ridge. e: SeN Regional 2D dipline EeE0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip
section south-central of Malay Basin. The basin is much shallower at 5 s TWT deep. The southern basement flank Tenggol Arch, and the north NW and Eastern Escarpment flank has
low relief. The 4th order Eastern Graben EoceneeOligocene synrifts are narrow and numerous, and above each are large relief 5th order anticlines of Miocene and younger
stratigraphic age. f: NWeSE Regional 2D strikeline FeF0, uninterpreted and interpreted strike section along axial Malay Basin. The basin is 7 s TWT deep (10 km) at centre, thinning
to SE towards Natuna to 3.5 s TWT (5 km), and about 5.5 s TWT (8 km) towards Pattani Trough in NW direction. The 4th order ridges, namely Pilong-Ular, Melor-Dulang, Laris-
Jambu, and Belumut-Ledang, are loci of fault zones. Above basement ridges, fault density is higher, with flower structures. The unequal displacement across fault planes suggests
strike-slip mechanism. The structural lows are the 4th order Northern, Central and Eastern Grabens.
742 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748

Figure 4. (continued).
 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748
explain Malay Basin probable structural evolution since the early
Tertiary, its relationship to north central Sunda Block tectonics, and
possibly to the western margins of mega Plate Tectonics of South
China Sea region. In this paper, it is proposed that the SE Eurasia
Sundaland continental block (Madon et al., 1999) is a 1st order
mega tectonic element. It hosts the inter-locking Sibumasu, East
Malaya, and Indochina Blocks which are 2nd order tectonic ele-
ments, together with associated major faults, such as the Three-
Pagoda Fault and Bentong-Raub-Bengkalis Suture. Within these
2nd order blocks, are large 3rd order Tertiary basins such as Malay
Basin, Pattani Trough, Penyu Basin, Natuna Basins, North, Central
and South Sumatra, Java Central Deep, and Con Son Basin, to name
some. Further within Malay Basin, a dozen 4th order tectonic ele-
ments were identified. These basins and their respective tectonic
sub-provinces experienced poly-phased deformation, combining
extensional rifting, subsidence, strike-slip shearing and compres-
sional events, and generated even higher order tectono-
stratigraphic elements. The oil and gas petroleum plays are
considered 5th order structural elements, while individual pros-
pects and traps are 6th order.
3. Analyses of key structural framework
A total of six deep regional 2D Seismic Sections were utilised in
this research, as indicated on Figure 2 inset base map. They are
Uninterpreted and Interpreted Seismic Sections, as depicted in
Figures 4ae4f respectively:
As shown in Figure 4a, a 190 km long WSWeENE Regional 2D
dipline AeA0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section north of
Malay Basin. The basin is asymmetrical, only 5 s TWT deep. The 4th
order EoceneeOligocene NW and Northern Grabens are separated
by strike-slip faults of unequal displacements such as along
Samudera Ridge and Pilong-Ular Ridge. Also visible is the SW
extension of a minor Tok Bidan half-graben (left of section) just
above the Western Escarpment.
In Figure 4b, a 180 km long SWeNE Regional 2D dipline BeB0 ,
uninterpreted and interpreted dip section north-central of Malay
Basin. The basin is 6 s TWT deep, with few normal faults. The Hinge
Zones on both flanks are prominent, with small half-grabens. The
EoceneeOligocene synrift section has non-uniform thicknesses
across interpreted faults above the 4th order Northern Graben,
suggesting strike-slip displacement. Here, the 4th order Melor-
Dulang Ridge has a minor tail-end displacement that separates
the Northern and Central Grabens.
Figure 4c displays a 200 km long SWeNE Regional 2D dipline
CeC0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section across the centre
of Malay Basin. The basin is 6þ sec TWT deep, with clear 3rd order
basement escarpments on both flanks, and associated Hinge
Zones. Here, the 4th order Central Graben is about 9 km deep. The
basin is asymmetrical, with small half-grabens present on Eastern
basement flank. The EoceneeOligocene synrift section has large
strike-slip displacements on ridge margins such as the Laris-
Jambu Ridge which splits Central and Eastern Grabens. The
Melor-Dulang ridge has merged with Western Hinge Zone as
normal faults.
Figure 4d is another 220 km long WeE Regional 2D dipline
DeD0 , uninterpreted and interpreted dip section south-central of
Malay Basin. The basin is 6 s TWT deep, slightly asymmetrical, with
steep western Hinge Zone. The Laris-Jambu strike-slip faults have
merged into the SW Hinge Zone. The 4th order Eastern Graben is
deep at almost 9 km, and thins to about 2 km on the eastern
Belumut-Ledang Ridge. Two small half-grabens are present on
western basement flank of Terengganu Platform.
Figure 4e is a 160 km long SeN Regional 2D dipline EeE0 ,
uninterpreted and interpreted dip section south-central of 3rd
743
order Malay Basin. The basin is much shallower at 5 s TWT deep.
The 2nd order southern basement flank Tenggol Arch on East
Malaya Block, and the north NW and Eastern Escarpment flanks
on Indochina Block are low relief monoclines. The 4th order
Eastern Graben EoceneeOligocene synrifts are narrow and
numerous. Above each synrift are large relief 5th order anticlines
of Miocene and younger stratigraphy. The central synrift has the
largest anticlinal relief, and the amplitude diminishes towards
both basin edges. Successive collision of Sunda Block south
margins against IndianeAustralian Plate compressed the
Miocene soft sedimentary fills into Inversion Structures above
the early synrifts.
Figure 4f shows a 360 km long NWeSE Regional 2D strike-
line FeF0, uninterpreted and interpreted strike section along 3rd
order Malay Basin. The basin is 7 s TWT deep (about 10 km) at
centre. Towards NW, the basin is about 5.5 s TWT (8 km) deep in
Pattani Trough, and thins towards SE in West Natuna to 3.5 s
TWT (5 km). The 4th order ridges, namely Pilong-Ular, Melor-
Dulang, Laris-Jambu, and Belumut-Ledang, are loci of local fault
zones. Above these ridges, fault density is higher, with flower
structures in the shallower horizons. The unequal stratigraphic
displacement across these fault planes suggests strike-slip
mechanism. The structural lows are the 4th order Northern,
Central and Eastern Grabens. The Plio-Miocene, Mid-Miocene
angular unconformities are better developed in SE Malay Basin
being proximal to Sunda-fold uplift.
4. Discussion
4.1. Pre-rift phase (pree50 Ma)
Pre-Rift Malay Basin basement dates of Jurassic (~154e139 Ma)
age for granitic rocks were reported by Robertson Research, while
the metamorphics are early Cretaceous. Basement igneous, meta-
morphic and sedimentary sections have been observed in field
outcrops and offshore well penetrations. Triassic limestones were
documented from wells drilled on basin margins (Fontaine et al.,
1990). The East Malaya Block is represented by the Western Base-
ment escarpment which forms the onshore outcrops in east coast
Peninsular Malaysia, the offshore resort islands in South China Sea,
and the subsea Tenggol Arch in SW of Malay Basin. The Indochina
Block is represented by the Eastern Basement escarpment which
extends offshore beneath thin Plio-Pleistocene and younger sedi-
ments towards Con Son/Khorat Swell. This phase defines the
original plate configuration of 1st order Sunda Block, and its 2nd
order East Malaya and Indochina Blocks.
4.2. Synrift phase (50e23 Ma)
The Palaeogene (~50e45 Ma) NWeSE sinistral transtensional
shear of 2nd order Three Pagoda Fault generated early synrifts in
Malay Basin (Fig. 5). These early basin fill material comprises
continental basal conglomerates and boulders, granitic and vol-
canic wash, some red beds, which are collectively termed as
seismic Groups O and P (Shahar, 2008). Middle synrift
(~45e35 Ma) sections are seismic Groups M and N fluvial sands.
During Late Eocene to Early Oligocene (35e30 Ma), NWeSE
dextral shear of the Three-Pagoda Fault created a wider, late-rift
Malay Basin, and deposited the Oligocene (~30 Ma) age seismic
Group L reservoir quality sands (Fig. 6). Offshore wells drilled in
south SE Malay basin found that Group L sandstones are topped by
oxidised, reddish continental clay. Elsewhere deeper in Malay
Basin, these L shales stratigraphic equivalent are lacustrine lith-
ofacies (Muhammad and Jamil, 2010). Each and every seismo-
stratigraphic group displays sharp erosional base formed by
Figure 5. Conceptual early Malay Basin structural evolution during Palaeocene to Eocene (~50e35 Ma) continental extension, resulted from HimalayaneTibetan extrusion activity
upon NWeSE sinistral shear of major Three-Pagodas Fault zone in 1st order Sunda Block. The sinistral shear upon the SE extension of the Three-Pagoda Fault opened up WNWeESE
strike early synrifts in Malay Basin.

Figure 7. Malay Basin structural evolution during Early to Middle Miocene

Figure 6. Malay Basin structural evolution during Late Eocene to Oligocene (~22e11 Ma). Fast Subsidence Phase from thermal cooling of crustal basement allowed
(~35e30 Ma). Reversal into NWeSE dextral shear, between 2nd order East Malaya Block rapid deposition of seismic Group J fluvial incised valley sandstones, Group I lower
and Indochina Block, widened 3rd order Malay Basin. The generated antithetic Riedel coastal plain sands, widespread swamp coals and mudflats. The eventual drowning of
shears across the basin formed 4th order NeS narrow ridges and adjacent sub-grabens. Malay Basin was during seismic Groups F/H with deposition of thick marine shales.
 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748 745

multiple stacks of fluvial channel sandstones. They are, in turn,
topped by thinner floodplain clays. Across Sunda Block, the varied
spatial distribution, elevation and isolation of these early rift
systems from plate margin oceanic environments, determined the
type of sedimentary fills, whether they are dominantly lacustrine,
deltaic, fluvial or even marine sequences (Longley, 1997; Phillips
et al., 1997). This phase marks the creation of the 3rd order Ma-
lay Basin, and by Eocene times, established the 4th order ridge and
graben tectonic elements within it.
Miocene (17 Ma) seismic Group H. The following Upper H is
mainly siltsones and shales, with biostratigraphic data (Yakzan
et al., 1994) suggesting earliest true marine incursions across Ma-
lay Basin. The Mid-Miocene (15e12 Ma) seismic Group F is almost
entirely marine shales. This phase is mainly marked by extensive
and thick basin fill.
4.4. Compression phase (12e8 Ma)

The rapid subsidence episode of north central Sunda Block

4.3. Fast subsidence phase (22e11 Ma)
Thermal cooling of Sunda Block crust caused post-rift Fast
Subsidence phase in Malay Basin (Fig. 7). This action created ac-
commodation space which was filled by a succession of fluvial
sands and mudstones. Late Oligocene stacked incised valley sand-
stone fills followed, namely the seismic Group K (26 Ma). This
group has a significant lithologic horizon cap, the Terengganu Shale
lacustrine source rock. Subsequent basin fill (Lower Miocene,
23 Ma) saw another stacked incised valley fill system deposited, the
seismic Group J sands, which are also capped by widespread shales.
During Early Miocene (21 Ma), very thick seismic Group I tidal
channel sands, coals and tidal mudflats were deposited. The coal
beds are very distinctive on wireline logs, between 1 and 8 m gross
thickness, averaging 2e5 m and thus, correlatable across the south
central Malay Basin (EPIC, 1994). Thicker shales occur in Upper
Group I, followed by younger infrequent channel sands in Mid-
Malay Basin halted at about 12 Ma. During this period the Indi-
aneAustralian (Sahul Platform) Plate northward subduction and
collision into Sunda Platform and other eastern regions, caused
orogenic uplift of SE Asia. Locally, collision occurred in East Sabah
into CagayanePalawan, and climaxed into Sabah Orogeny
(Cullen, 2010). The Sabah orogeny is a protracted event between
22 and 8 Ma. East of the Sunda Block, rifting of South China Sea
ceased around Middle Miocene (Pubellier et al., 2004; Hutchison,
2004).
The late Middle Miocene northward collision of Indian-
eAustralian Plate shortened Sunda Block, which resulted in a
Compression Phase in SE Malay Basin (Fig. 8). Mild uplift of older
Group F shale beds resulted in an erosional unconformity, which
was later by the Late Miocene (11.5 Ma) age seismic Group E. This
comprised of shallow tidal channel sandstones, mudstones and
coals. In central Malay Basin, this section is further divided into a
Lower Group E unit and an Upper Group E unit. Successive Malay

Figure 8. Malay Basin structural evolution during Middle to Late Miocene (~12e11 Ma). Early Inversion phase when northward progressive subduction of IndianeAustralian Plate
shortened overlying Sunda Block, which generated early stage 5th order WeE primary compressional anticlines aligned to the older underlying WeE PaleoceneeEocene rift fabric.
Commonly known as Sunda folds, the amplitude is more pronounced in SE Malay Basin due to proximity to collision margins.
746 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748
Basin shortening due to this southerly plate collision deposited a
younger lower coastal plain sequence, the Late Miocene (9 Ma)
Group D sandstones, mudstones and coals (Letouzey et al., 1990).
This early stage crustal shortening created inversion anticlines.
Subsequent compression created later stage peripheral anticlines
(Fig. 9). These 5th order inversion folds line up the anticlinal pe-
troleum plays within the grabens of Malay Basin.
4.5. Basin Sag phase (8e1.8 Ma)
Thermal subsidence of Malay Basin continued in the late post-
rift section (Morley and Westaway, 2006; Madon & Watts in
reply to Higgs et al., 1999). The Mio-Pliocene (5.5e5.2 Ma)
boundary forms the base of seismic Group B, marked with depo-
sition of offshore sand bars and marine shales from eustatic
changes (Dororbek, 2011). Towards the SE flanks of the Malay Basin,
this Mio-Pliocene angular unconformity is more prominent across
older sections. In the EPIC study, Lower Pliocene Group B sits atop
Mid-Miocene (10.5 Ma) Groups E to H. Across SE Malay Basin
margins, where Exxon was operating then, most of Groups D and
Upper E sections are missing due to massive truncation. This region,
being proximal to collision margins, has some 800 m of Miocene
section peneplained (Ngah et al., 1996). Further close scrutiny of
some seismic sections enabled the identification of other shallower
intermediate unconformities. The lower surface is termed Base of
Upper Group B (3.6 Ma), while the younger surface is the Lower
Pleistocene (1.8 Ma) seismic Group A, made up of mainly marine
Figure 9. Malay Basin structural evolution during Late Miocene to Pliocene (8e4 Ma). Further successive shortening of Sunda Block, reinforced the amplitude of WeE primary
anticlines, and generated later stage 5th order peripheral Secondary Anticlines with broader and lower relief amplitudes, and complementary synclines in-between.
siltstones and mudstones. This phase is defined by a gentle and
thinner basin fill of Malay Basin.
5. Conclusion
The configuration of Malay Basin major tectonic elements across
the basin are controlled by older underlying architecture. Its evo-
lution explains the influence of the Palaeogene tectonics on the
structural provinciality of younger Neogene fabric. This research
has recognised that the Tertiary age 3rd order Malay Basin frame-
work is made up of en-echelon tectonic elements. These 4th order
tectonic elements are, from SE to NW, namely BelumuteLedang
Ridge, Eastern Graben, Laris-Jambu Ridge, Central Graben, Melor-
Dulang Ridge, Northern Graben,Pilong-Ular Ridge, NW Graben,
and Samudera Ridge. Within these grabens are younger 5th order
Late Mio-Pliocene WeE Sunda fold structures (Fig. 10).
 Major tectonic collision since Cretaceous age docking of Indian -
Eurasia Plates reactivated major WeE faults in China-Monggolia,
and resulted in non-uniform NWeSE shear displacement across
1st order Sunda Block, in Indochina and Southeast Asia. In the
Palaeogene Sunda Block, as its 2nd order East Malaya Block
moved faster southeastwards relative to adjacent Indochina Block
along the Three-Pagoda Fault, the NWeSE sinistral shear devel-
oped the Early Synrift phase of Malay Basin.
 By Eocene, the East Malaya Block motion towards SE slowed
down adjacent to Indochina Block which resulted in a direction
 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748 747

Figure 10. Present day Sunda Block Malay Basin Tectonic Sub-Province map, of en-echelon grabens separated by narrow ridges, flanked by basement escarpments to West and SW
(Terengganu Platform and Tenggol Arch) and NE (Khorat Swell). The thick black arrows indicate shear direction. The main strike-slip fault zones which appear as structural ridges
are the 4th order Samudera Ridge, Pilong-Ular Ridge, Melor-Dulang Ridge, Laris-Jambu Ridge as well as the far SE Belumut-Ledang Ridge. The narrow 4th order grabens are the NW,
Northern, Central and Eastern Grabens. The strong 5th order WNWeESE to WeE structural lineaments within each graben were generated by successive NeS stressed Sunda Block.

reversal to NWeSE dextral shear of the Three-Pagodas Fault.
This opened up the 3rd order Malay Basin further. Subsequent
shears resulted in generation of high and low relief 4th order
tectonic blocks, or narrow ridges, and grabens. The Early
Miocene thermal cooling of the Sunda region initiated early
subsidence. This new accommodation space is later filled by
coastal fluvio-tidal sediments, with drainage axes striking
roughly WeE, confined to some degree by the underlying older
basement synrift architecture.
 The thermal sag phase accelerated throughout Early to Middle
Miocene as continued thermal cooling contracted the crustal
volume and increased in bulk density. The sag is accompanied
by very thick succession marginal marine sediments. Towards
end of Mid-Miocene, the Malay Basin became fully marine, and
connected to other large circulating water bodies, possibly the
proto South China Sea.
 In early Upper Miocene, the northward dive of Indian-
eAustralian Plate underneath the Sunda Block generated early
stage 5th order compressional Sunda Folds on overlying
Neogene sediments. The proximity of the SE Malay Basin to the
southern collision margin is manifested by high amplitude
748 M.Y. Mansor et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 736e748
primary anticlines. Farther NW across the basin, the magnitude
of the anticlines diminishes.
 The Late Miocene folding events in Malay Basin reinforced the
relief on the primary anticlines, and created later stage 5th order
peripheral secondary rows of anticlines. The Malay Basin
continued to subside throughout Pliocene with deposition of
marine offshore bars, siltstones and mudstones.
 The shearing and subsidence events in Malay Basin within
Sunda Block are comparable with the OligoceneeMiddle
Miocene age South China Sea spreading duration between 32
and 16 Ma in East Asia. The subsequent Mio-Pliocene folding
history of Malay Basin is connected to the collision of Sunda
Block southern margins against northward subducting Indian-
eAustralian Plate. This Neogene Sunda tectonics, which took
place a few million years after the cessation of South China Sea
spreading, is due to the diachronous collision along the 1st order
plate margins between SE Asia and Australia.
Acknowledgements
This research was as follow up of work conducted in PETRONAS
in 2010, which was recently refined at Universiti Teknologi PET-
RONAS. The authors are grateful to PETRONAS PMU for permission
to publish this paper. Comments from reviewers are gladly
acknowledged.
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