ENS 101 Principles of Environmental Sciences 1+1

Theory Notes

Course teacher
Dr. V. Ponvizhi Ramya, Ph. D.,
Assistant Professor,
Agricultural Microbiology,
TRIARD,
Perambalur.
 Theory

Unit I: Introduction to Ecology and Environment Introduction – Ecology – Environment

: components, segments (hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere) - Ecosystem
concepts – Species, Population, Community and Succession, Species interaction – Energy
efficiencies and Energy flow – Food chain, food web and ecological pyramids, cropping
pattern.

Unit II: Natural resources and Biodiversity Natural resources – Soil, Water, Air, Mineral,
Energy, Forest resources; Bio diversity - importance, hot spots and conservation Unit III:
Environmental Pollution Pollution: Problems, types and sources – Soil, Water and Air
pollution: Sources, effects and control measures - Noise Pollution: Sources, effects and
control measures - Radioactive, thermal and nuclear pollution - Global warming and climate
change: GHG emission, GH effect, impact on environment and agriculture- mitigation
strategies.

Unit IV: Solid and liquid waste management Types of wastes - Industrial wastes,
Agricultural wastes, Domestic wastes and e wastes: Characteristics and Environmental
Impact - Solid waste management techniques: Principles and practices. Waste water
treatment Techniques – Physical, chemical and biological methods. Standards for waste water
disposal.

Unit V: Environmental protection Global treaties, conventions – National and state level
organizations: TNPCB, CPCB –– Environmental Laws and Acts – Environmental Education
– CDM – Prevention of land degradation – Afforestation.
Unit 1. Introduction to Ecology and Environment

Environmental Sciences is the Integration of materials from the disciplines of physical,

chemical, biological and social sciences.

Ecology is the basic science to understand environmental sciences.

Ecology comes from the greek words oikos (house or place where one lives) and logos (study
of). Ecology then means the study of the “house” in which we live.
- It is the science that deals with the interaction of organisms with their physical
environment.
- Physical environment includes – non living (abiotic) and living (biotic) things.
- Each organism has to interact with their biotic and abiotic compounds.
- Ecology can be defined more specifically as the study of the interactions between
organisms and the nonliving components of their environment.

Past and present of ecology

 In 1859, Geoffroy Saint Hilarire used the term ethology to refer to the study of
relationships between organisms and environment.
 Reiter (1868) introduced the term Oekologie in literature, and Ernst Haeckel
(1869) attempted the first precise definition of ecology.
 Then, the ecology was redefined more appropriately as “Study of Structure
and Function of Nature” by odum (1969).

Ecosystem - refers to group of plants and animals occurring together in a particular physical
environment with which they interact.

ECOSYSTEM
 The word ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

 This term is derived from two words, namely eco and system. Eco refers to
environment and system refers to a complex coordinated unit.

 A ecosystem is a basic functional ecological unit. It consists of living

organisms (biotic factors) and non-living substances (abiotic factors).
 Pond is a suitable example for ecosystem. Lake is another ecosystem. Other examples of
ecosystem are river, estuary, ocean, forest, grassland, town etc.,

ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic factors Biotic factors

Producers Consumers Reducers

Primary Secondary Tertiary

(Herbivores) (Primary Carnivores) (Secondary Carnivores)

Structure

The structure of any ecosystem is formed of two components, namely 1. abiotic

factors and 2. biotic factors.

1. Abiotic Factors.

The abiotic factors of an ecosystem include the non-living substances of the

environment. Eg. Water, soil, air, light, temperature, minerals, climate, pressure etc. The
biotic factors of the ecosystem depend on the abiotic factors for their survival.

2. Biotic Factors

The biotic factors include the living organisms of the environment. Eg. Plants,
animals, bacteria, viruses etc., Biotic factors of an ecosystem are classified into three main
groups, namely 1. Producers 2. Consumers and 3. Reducers or decomposers.

1. Producers : The organisms which carry out photosynthesis constitute the producers of an
ecosystem. Eg. Plants algae and bacteria. The producers depend on the abiotic factors of the
ecosystem for producing energy. They are provided with chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is used in
the synthesis of energy rich compounds with the utilization of abiotic factors like light, CO 2,
water and minerals. A portion of the energy synthesized, is used by the producers for their
growth and survival and the remaining energy is stored for future use.

2. Consumers: Consumers are organisms, which eat or devour other organisms. The
consumers are further divided into three or more types. They are Primary consumers,
Secondary Consumers and tertiary consumers.

1. Primary Consumers: They eat the producers like plants, algae and bacteria. The
primary consumers are also called herbivores. Elton referred the herbivores as key
industry animals. Rabbit, deer, etc., are primary consumers in a terrestrial
ecosystem.

2. Secondary Consumers: They kill and eat the herbivores. They are also called
carnivores. As these carnivores directly depend on herbivores, they are
specifically called primary carnivores. Fox, Wolf, etc., are the secondary
consumers in a terrestrial ecosystem.

3. Tertiary Consumers: They kill and eat the secondary consumers. They are also
called secondary carnivores. Eg. Lion, Tiger, etc.,

3. Reducers or Decomposers: The decomposers are organisms that break up the dead
bodies of plants and their waste products. They include fungi and certain bacteria. They
secrete enzymes. The enzymes digest the dead organisms and the debris into smaller bits or
molecules. These molecules are absorbed by the reducers. After taking energy, the reducers
release molecules to the environment as chemicals to be used again by the producers.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem may be large, as large as the world or small, as small as a cowdung
ecosystem. The biosphere (the total life content of the world) is the major ecosystem. It
comprises all other ecosystems.

1. Mega Ecosystem :
The biosphere is formed of four mega ecosystems. They are as follows:
1. Marine Ecosystem : It includes saline-water ecosystems like oceans, seas, estuaries,
brackish waters, etc.
2. Limnic Ecosystem : It includes all fresh water ecosystems like ponds, pools, lakes,
rivers, streams etc.
 3. Terrestrial Ecosystem : It includes the ecosystems of air, forests, grasslands,
deserts, etc.
4. Industrial Ecosystems : These are manmade ecosystems. Eg. Crop land, city, town,
etc.
2. Macro Ecosystems :

The megaesystem is further divided into sub units called macroecosystems. Eg.
Forests. The terrestrial macroecosystem is formed of many forest ecosystems.

3. Meso Ecosystems :

The macro ecosystem is further divided into mesoecosystems. For example, the forest
ecosystem is formed of many mesoecosystems like deciduous forest, coniferous forests, etc.

4. Micro Ecosystems

The mesoecosystem is further divided into microecosystems. Eg. A low land in a

forest and mountain in a forest etc.
All ecosystems in the world are further divided into natural and artificial ecosystems.

5. Natural Ecosystems

These are self-regulating systems without much direct human interference and
manipulations. Eg. Ponds, lakers, rivers, seas, oceans, grasslands, deserts, etc.

6. Artificial Ecosystems

These are man made ecosystems. Eg. Crop lands, cities, towns, villages etc

For the study of ecology it is often convenient to divide the environment into four broad
categories.

 Terrestrial environment - The terrestrial environment is based on land and consists

of biomes, such as grasslands, one of several kinds of forests, savannas, or deserts.

 Freshwater environment - The freshwater environment can be further subdivided

between standing-water habitats (lakes, reservoirs) and running-water habitats
(streams, rivers).
  Oceanic marine environment - The oceanic marine environment is characterized by
saltwater and may be divided broadly into the shallow waters of the continental shelf
composing the neritic zone

 Oceanic region - The deeper waters of the ocean that constitute the oceanic region.

SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment consists of four segments

(i) Atmosphere:

It is the blanket of gases surrounding the earth. Atmosphere can be divided into several layers
on the basic of temperature variations. They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere. The atmosphere forms a protective shell over the earth. The troposphere is the
lowest layer and is only Illustration of atmosphere around earth 12 kms thick. It is the only
part warm enough for us to survive in. The stratosphere is 50 km thick and contains a layer of
sulphates which is important for the formation of rain. It also contains a layer of ozone, which
absorbs ultra-violet light‟ known to cause cancer.

(ii) Hydrosphere:

It is composed of various water bodies on the earth. It includes the oceans, lakes, rivers, etc.

(iii) Lithosphere:

It contains various types of soils and rocks on earth.

(iv) Biosphere:

It is composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the environment, viz.
atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. The biosphere is Earth‟s zone of air, soil, and
water that is capable of supporting life. It is a zone which is reaching about 10 km into the
atmosphere and down to the deepest ocean floor. Processes in the biosphere include life and
death, evolution and extinction. Within the biosphere the basic unit of analysis or study is the
ecosystem. Thus, the biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

The surface of the earth as a whole is an ecosystem. The biosphere is the surface of
the earth (air, water, and land) where living things exist. The biosphere is composed of
smaller units called ecosystems. An ecosystem includes all the organisms and the nonliving
environment found in a particular place.

The simplest level of organization in ecology is that of the organism.

Species – A uniform interbreeding population spreading over time and space is known as
species.

Community – It is a group of similar or dissimilar species living together under more or less
similar environmental condition.

Population - It is a group of similar community living together under similar environmental

condition.

Biome – The complex of several communities sharing a common climate is called biome.

The Physical Location of a Community is called the habitat.

Each Organism or Species in the Community has a role or profession in that community and
in ecology is niche.

The Niche includes the range of conditions that the species can tolerate, the methods by
which it obtains needed resources, the number of offspring it has, its time of reproduction and
all its other interaction with its environment.

COMMUNITY DYNAMICS - ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

A community is a group of populations living in a particular area. It is formed of
many species. It comprises many kinds of plants, animals and micro organisms of a given
area. They interact with each other. Thus a community can be defined as “a natural
assemblage of plants, animals and micro organisms inhabiting a given habitat”.
Although a typical community maintains itself more or less in equilibrium with the
prevailing conditions of the environment, in nature this is hardly true. Communities are never
stable, but dynamic, changing more or less regularly over time and space. They are never
found permanently in complete balance with their component species or with the physical
environment. Environment is always kept on changing over a period of time due to (i)
variations in climatic and physiographic factors, and (ii) the activities of the species of the
communities themselves. These influences bring about marked changes in the dominants of
the existing community, which is thus sooner or alter replaced by another community at the
same place. This process continues and successive communities develop one after another
over the same area, until the terminal final community again becomes more or less stable for
a period of time. This occurrence of relatively definite sequence of communities over a
period of time in the same area is known as Ecological succession.

Odum (1971) preferred to call this orderly process as ecosystem development rather
than the more often known ecological succession.

Causes of Succession :

1. Initial or initiating causes

2. Ecesis or continuing causes
3. Stabilising causes

Basic types of Succession :

The various types of succession have been grouped in different ways on the basis of
different aspects. Some basic types of succession are, however, as follows.
1. Primary succession : In any of the basic environments (terrestrial, fresh water,
marine) one type of succession is primary succession which starts from the primitive
substratum, where there was no previously any sort of living matter. The first group of
organisms establishing there are known as the pioneers, primary community or primary
colonisers.

2. Secondary succession : Another general type of succession is Secondary

Succession which starts from previously built up substrata with already existing living
matter. The action of any external force, as a sudden change in climatic factors, biotic
intervention, fire etc., causes the existing community to disappear. Thus, area becomes
devoid of living matter but its substratum, instead of primitive, is built up. Such successions
are comparatively more rapid.

3. Autogenic succession : After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is
the community itself which, as a result of its reactions with the environment modifies its own
environment and thus causing its own replacement by new communities. This course of
succession is known as autognenic succssion.

4. Allogenic succession : In some cases, however , the replacement of the existing

community is caused largely by any other external condition and not by the existing
organisms. Such a course is referred to as allogenic sucession.

On the basis of successive changes in nutritional and energy contents, successions are
sometimes classified as :

5. Autotrophic succession : It is characterized by early and continued dominance of

autotrophic organisms like green plants. It begins in a predominatly inorganic environment
and the energy flow is maintained indefinitely. There is gradual increase in the organic matter
content supported by energy flow.

6. Heterotrophic succession : It is characterised by early dominance of heterotrophs,

such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and animals. It begins in a predominantly organic
environment, and there is a progressive decline in the energy content.

Stabilization (climax)

Finally, there occurs a stage in the process, when the final terminal community
becomes more of less stabilised for a longer period of time and it can maintain itself in
equilibrium with the climate of the area. This final community is not replaced, and is known
as Climax community and the stage as Climax stage.

POPULATION OR SPECIES INTERACTIONS

A population is generally a group of individuals of a particular species occupying a

particular area at specific time. Some of the ecologists, however, recognize two types of
population (i) monospecific population. It is the population of individuals of only one
species, and (ii) mixed or polyspecific population.

It is the population of individuals of more than one species. However, in ecology

polyspecific population is generally referred to as a community, and the term population is
used for group of individuals of any kind of organism.
Describing a Population (Population Characteristics)

The population, a collective group of organisms of species occupying a particular

space, has the following characteristics: (i) Population size and density

(ii) Dispersion (iii) Age structure (iv) Natality (Birth rate) (v) Mortality (Death rate), and (vi)
Life tables.

Inter – and Intra – specific relations among Populations

All types of symbiotic relationships between organisms into two groups, (i) Positive
and (ii) negative interactions.

1. Positive interactions. Here populations help one another, the interaction being
either one way or reciprocal. These include (i) commensalisms,
(ii) protocooperation, and (iii) mutualism.

2. Negative interactions. Here members of one population may eat members of the
other population, compete for foods, excrete harmful wastes, or otherwise
interfere with the other population, these have been sub- divided into (i)
competition, (ii) predation, (iii) parasitism, and (iv) antibiosis.
Positive interactions

Here populations help one another, and either one or both the species are benefited.
This benefit may be continuous or transitory, obligate or facultative and the two partners may
be in close contact (their tissues intermixed with each other) or one of them may live within a
specific area of the other or attached to its surface. These beneficial interactions are divided
into the following types.

[I] Mutualism

Mutually beneficial interspecific interactions are more common in the tropics than
elsewhere. Here both the species derive benefit. In such association, there occurs a close and
often permanent and obligatory contact more or less essential for survival of each. The two
populations enter into some sort of physiological exchange. The following are some common
examples of mutualism:

1. Pollination by animals. Bees, moths, butterflies etc., derive food from the nectar,
or other plant product, and in return bring about pollination.
[II] Commensalism

In this association between members of different species only one is benefited and
neither is harmed (cf. mutualism). Here two or more populations live together without
entering into any kind of physiological exchange. One is benefited without any effect on the
other. Some common examples are:

1. Lianas. These are vascular plants rooted in the ground and maintain erectness of their
stems by making use of other objects for support. Thus, with much economy of mechanical
tissues they are able to get better light. Lianas are common in dense forests of moist tropical
climates. They maintain no direct nutritional relationship with the trees upon which they
grow.

2. Epiphytes

[III] Protocooperation

However, in some cases the association is ahead of commensalisms, where both the
populations are benefited. But the association, although benefited to both, is not obligatory
i.e. not essential for survival of either population (cf. mutualism, where survival depends
mostly on each other). Such associations are referred to as protocooperation or non –
obligatory mutualism.

Negative Interactions

[I] Exploitation

Here one species harms the other by making its direct or indirect use for
support, shelter, or food. Thus exploitation may be in respect of shelter or food.

1. Shelter
2. Food
a) Parasitism
b) Predation
[II] Antibiosis

Production of chemicals that are antagonistic to microbes – the antibiotics is well

known. Bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi produce a number of antimicrobial substances
which are widespread in nature.
[III] Competition

1. Intraspecific competition. This is often called scramble competition and is an important

density – dependent facotor regulating populations. The wildebeest population is thought to
be regulated by intraspecific scramble competition for a limited supply of grass of adequate
quality in dry season

2. Interspecific competition. This is also called a contest (interference competition).

DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEM

The various components of the ecosystem constitute an interacting system. They are
connected by energy, nutrients and minerals. The nutrients and minerals circulate and
recirculation between the abiotic and biotic factors of the ecosystem several times. The flow
of energy, on the other land, is one way, once used by the ecosystem, it is lost. The
continuous survival of the ecosystem depends on the flow of energy and the circulation of
nutrients and minerals in the ecosystem. Thus the dynamics (functions) of the ecosystem
includes the following.
1. Energy 2. Primary production

3. Secondary production 4. Food chain

5. Food web 6. Trophic levels

7. Energy flow 8. Ecological pyramids

9. Biogeochemical cycles

1. Energy

Energy is the ability to do work. The main source of energy for an ecosystem is the
radiant energy or light energy derived from the sun. The amount of solar radiation reaching
the surface of the earth is 2 Cals/sq.cm/min. It is more or less constant and is called solar
constant or solar flux. About 95 to 99% of the energy is lost by reflection. Plants utilize only
0.02% of the energy reaching earth. The light energy is converted into chemical energy in the
form of sugar by photosynthesis.

6H2O + 6 CO2 + Light 6C6H12O6 + 6O2

The sugar synthesized is utilized for many purposes;

1. It can be converted into starch and stored.

2. It combines with other sugars to form cellulose.
3. It combines with inorganic substances (N2, P, S, etc) to form amino acids, protein,
nucleic acids, pigments, hormones, etc.
4. Some amount of sugar is oxidized during respiration and the energy is released to do
various functions.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

2. Primary Production

Plants convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of sugar by
photosynthesis. The total amount of sugar and other organic materials produced in plants per
unit area per unit time is called gross Primary production.

During photosynthesis respiration is also going on side by side. During respiration

some amount of sugar is oxidised. Hence it is not easy to measure gross primary production.
The total organic material actually present (biomass) in plants is called net primary
production.

Net primary production = Gross primary production – Respiration ie.,

Pn = Pg – R where Pg = Grosspri. Production

Pg = Pn + R Pn = Netpri. Production

R = Respiration

Thus the amount of organic material produced during a given period of time per unit
area is called Primary Production. The productivity is generally expressed in terms of grams
or kilocalories per square meter per day or per year. If Pg equals R no storage of energy
occurs. When Pg is less than R, productivity decreases. When Pg is greater than R,
productivity increases.

Measurement of Primary Production

Primary production refers to the amount and the rate of energy produced by
autotrophs. There are many methods to measure the primary production. They are following:
 1. Harvest method
2. Carbondioxide assimilation method
3. Oxygen production method and
4. Radio isotope method
1. Harvest method :

In this method the plants grown on a particular area are harvested at ground level and
their weight is taken. They are dried and again weighed. This is done at regular intervals. The
primary production is expressed in terms of biomass or mass per unit area per unit time.

2. Carbondioxide Assimilation Method :

Plants utilize carbondioxide for photosynthesis. So the rate of photosynthesis can be

calculated by calculating the amount of carbondioxide utilized by plants per unit time. The
incorporation of carbondioxide in photoshnthesis can be determined using infrared gas
analyzer. With the help of this analyzer, it is possible to measure the amount of
carbondioxide entering or leaving air tight chamber of known volume.

3. Oxygen Production Method :

This method is used to measure primary production in aquatic ecosystem. In this

method the amount of oxygen produced per unit time is taken as an index to measure the rate
of photosynthesis. For this, light and darkbottle technique is used. Samples of water
containing the autographs are collected in a light bottle (transparent bottle) and in a dark
bottle. The light bottle allows light to enter in and the dark bottle does not allow light. The
two bottles are suspended at the same depth from which the sample is collected. After a
certain period of time the amount of oxygen present in the two bottles is calculated by
titration using sodium thiosulphate. (Winkler’s method). In dark bottle photosynthesis does
not occur but respiration occurs.

In light bottle both respiration and photosynthesis occur. The rate of photosynthesis is
calculated by calculating the amount of oxygen present in the two bottles.

4. Radio Isotope Method:

This method is similar to the oxygen production method. In this method a known
quantity of C14 is introduced into the light and dark bottles along with the sample and the
bottles are suspended for six hours. During this period the C14 is incorporated into the
protoplasm of the autotrophs. The autotrophs are filtered and dried. After drying the
radioactivity is measured. The amount of radio activity is proportionate to the amount of
carbohydrate produced.

3. Secondary Production

The energy trapped by the products (primary production) is utilized by the consumers.
The producers are directly consumed by the herbivores that are eaten by the primary
carnivores that in turn are consumed by the secondary carnivores. The consumers store some
amount of energy in their tissues. This energy, stored by the consumers, is called secondary
production. Only about 10 to 20% of the primary production is converted into secondary
production. The remaining 80 to 90% is lost by the consumers in the form of faces.

4. Food chain:

The biotic factors of the ecosystem are linked together by food. For example, the
producers form the food for the herbivores. The herbivores form the food for the carnivores.
The sequence of the eaters being eaten is called food chain.
Producers Herbivores Carnivores
The various steps in a food chain are called trophic levels. Owing to repeated eating
being eaten, the energy is transferred from one trophic level.
Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fishes Snakes
Tr.L1 Tr. L2 Tr.L3 Tr.L4
Plants Mouse Snake Hawk = GRASSLAND
Plants Goat Man Lion = FOREST
to another trophic level. This transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is called
energy flow. A typical food chain can be seen in a pond ecosystem. The algae and
phytoplankton are eaten by the zooplankton. The zooplanktons are eaten by fishes which are
eaten by snakes.

1. TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS:

The food chains are of two types, namely 1. grazing food chain and 2. detritus food
chain.

1. Grazing Food Chain:

This food chain start from plants, goes through herbivores and ends in carnivores.
 Plants Herbivores Primary Carnivores Secondary Carnivores

This type of food chain depends on the autotrophs which capture the energy from solar
radiation. A few chains are given below:

Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk

Grass Mouse Snake Hawk

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fish Snake

Predator Chain:

In predator food chain one animal captures and devours another animal. The animal
which is eaten is called prey and the animal which eats other animals is called Predator. The
predator food chain is formed of plants, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores
and so on.

Parasitic food chain:

The plants and animals of the grazing food chain are infected by parasites. The
parasites derive their energy from their hosts. Thus the Parasitic chain within the grazing
food chain is formed.

2. Detritus food chain:

It starts from dead organic matter and ends in inorganic compounds. There are certain
groups of organisms, which feed exclusively on the dead bodies of animals and plants. These
organisms are called detritivores. The detritivores include algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoans,
insects, millipdes, centipeds, crustaceans, mussels, clams, annelid worms, nematodes, ducks,
etc. These organism ingest and idgest the dead organic materials. Some amount of energy if
trapped and the remainder is excreted in the form of simple organic compounds. These are
again used by another set of detritivores until the organic compounds are converted into CO2
and water.

Dead organic materials Detritivores CO2+H2O

Linking of Grazing and Detritus Food Chains:

The two main food chains cannot operate independently. They are interconnected at
various levels. According to Wilson an Bossert (1971) the stability of the ecosystem directly
proportional to the number of such links. The detritus feeders obtain energy from the dead
bodies of animals and plants which are components of the grazing food chain. Again some of
the detritus feeders are eaten by the consumers of the grazing food chain. For example, in a
pond ecosystem earthworms belonging to the detritus food chain are eaten by fishes
belonging to the grazing food chain.

A FOOD CHAIN indicates who eats whom in an Ecosystem.

Food Chain

5. Food web:

In an ecosystem the various food chains are interconnected with each other to form a
net work called food web. The interlocking of many food chains is called food web. Simple
food chains are varying rare in nature. This is because each organism may obtain food from
more than one tropic level. In other words, one organism forms food for more than one
organisms of the higher tropic level.

Examples:

In a grassland ecosystem, grass is eaten by grasshopper, rabbit and mouse.

Grasshopper is eaten by lizard which is eaten by hawk. Rabbit is eaten by hawk. Mouse is
eaten by snake which is eaten by hawk. In addition hawk also directly eats grasshopper and
mouse. Thus there are five linear food chains which are inter connected to form a food web.

This is very simple food web. But in any ecosystem the food web is more complex.
For example, in the grassland itself, in addition to hawk, there are many other carnivores such
as vulture, crow, wolf, fox, man, etc.
Significance of Food web:

Food webs are very important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem. For
example, the deleterious growth of grasses is controlled by the herbivores. When one type of
herbivore becomes extinct, the other types of herbivores increase in number and control the
vegetation. Similarly, when one type of herbivorous animal becomes extinct, the carnivore
predating on this type may eat another type of herbivore.

A Food Web may contain several Food Chains. Energy Flows through an Ecosystem in a
Complex Network of Feeding relationships called a FOOD WEB.

Food web

6. Trophic levels:

Each food chain contains many steps like producers, herbivores, primary carnivores
and so on. Each step of the food chain is called trophic level. The number of trophic levels in
a food chain is always restricted to 4 or 5. But very often the chains are very much
complicated with many trophic levels.

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fishes Snakes

Tr. L1 Tr.L2 Tr.L3 Tr.L4

 In an Ecosystem these Producers and Consumers are placed in Trophic Levels
(Feeding Levels).

A Trophic Level is a group of organisms whose feeding source is the same

number of steps from the Sun.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) are the First Trophic Level.

B. Herbivores are the Second Trophic Level.
C. Carnivores are the Third, Forth and Fifth Trophic Levels.
Most Animals (Carnivores) feed at more than one Trophic Level.

Energy is Lost or Used as it flows through the Trophic Levels of an Ecosystem.

Producers (Plants) absorb Energy from the Sun, but only about ½ of the Energy capture from
the Sun becomes part of the Plants Body. The other ½ is used for Living and Growing or
Lost as HEAT. At each Trophic Level, the Energy stored in an organism is about 1/10 that of
the Level Below it 10%. Because Energy diminishes at each successive Trophic Level, Few
Ecosystems can contain more than 4 or 5 Trophic Levels.

Organisms at Higher Trophic Levels, Large Carnivores, tend to be Fewer in number than
those at Lower Trophic Levels, Producers

7. Energy Flow

The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another trophic level is called energy
flow. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. That is, it flows from the
producer level to the consumer level and never in the reverse direction. Hence energy can be
used only once in the ecosystem. But the minerals circulate and recirculate many times in the
ecosystem.

A large amount of energy is lost at each trophic level. It is estimated that 80% to 90%
of the energy is lost when it is transferred from one trophic level to another. Hence the
amount of energy available decreases from step to step. When the food chain is short, the
final consumers may get a large amount of energy. But when the food chain is long, the final
consumer may get a lesser amount of energy. About 3000K cal of light falls on the green
plants. Of this approximately 50% (1500 K cal) is absorbed. Of the 50% only 1%(15 K cal) is
converted at the first trophic level. Thus the net primary production is merely 15 K cals.
Secondary productivity (P2 and P3) is 10% (1.5 K cal & o.3 K cal) at the herbivores and
carnivores levels.

FLOW OF ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS

The amount of energy an Ecosystem receives and the amount that is transferred from
organism to organism has an important effect on the Ecosystem‟s structure. All Organisms
need Energy to carry out essential functions, such as growth, movement, maintenance and
repair, and reproduction.

Energy in an Ecosystem flows from the sun to Autotrophs (Producers) then to

Organisms that Eat the Autotrophs, then to Organisms that feed on other Organisms
(Consumers). The Primary Source of Energy for an Ecosystem is the SUN.

PRODUCERS are Autotrophic Organisms (Autotrophs) with the capability of carrying out
Photosynthesis, and making food for themselves and storing some for other Organisms to
consume. Examples are plants, some bacteria, and algae.

All Other Organisms in Ecosystem are CONSUMERS or Heterotrophs that eat the Producers
or other Organisms. Consumers can be broken into different groups depending on what they
EAT:
A. Decomposers – Consumers who feed on Remains of Dead Plants and Animals.
B. Herbivores – Eat Producers or Plant Eaters.
C. Carnivores – Eat other Consumers. Meat Eaters.
D. Omnivores – Eat Both Producers and Consumers. Plant and Meat Eaters.
E. Detritivores – Feed on the “Garbage” of an Ecosystem.

8. Ecological Pyramids:

The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease from the producer
level to the consumer levels. This can be represented in the form of a pyramid called
ecological pyramid. Ecological pyramid is the graphic representation of the number,
biomass, and energy of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. The use of ecological
pyramid was first described by Charles Elton in 1927. In the ecological pyramid, the
producer forms the base and the final consumer occupies the apex. There are three types of
ecological pyramids, namely
 1. the pyramid of numbers
2. the pyramid of biomass and
3. the pyramid of energy
1. The Pyramid of Number:

The number of individuals at the trophic level decrease from the producer level to the
consumer level. That is, in an ecosystem the number of producers is far high. The number of
herbivores is lesser than producers. Similarly, the number of carnivores is lesser than the
herbivores.
In a Cropland Ecosystem: In croplands the crops are more in numbers. The
grasshoppers feeding on crop plants are lesser in number. The frogs feeding on grasshopper
are still lesser in number. The snakes feeding on frogs are fewer in number.

Crop Grasshopper Frogs Snakes Hawks

In a grassland Ecosystem: In grassland the grasses are there in large numbers. The
consumers decrease in the following order:

Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk

Grass Rabbit Fox Lion

In a Pond Ecosystem: The number in a pond ecosystem decreases in the following

order:

In a grassland: In a grassland and the biomass of grasses in the maximum and is

gradually decreases towards the consumer level in the following order.

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fishes Snakes

2. The Pyramid of Biomass:

Biomass refers to the total weight of living matter per unit area. In an ecosystem the
biomass decreases from the producer level to the consumer level.
In a grass land: In a grass land and the biomass of the grasses is the maximum and is
gradually decreased towards the consumer leveling the following order.
Grass Mouse Snake Hawk

Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk

 In a forest: In a forest the biomass or trees is the maximum and the biomass of the top
consumer is the minimum. The decrease in weight occurs in the following order:

Plants Deer Fox Tiger

Plants Rabbit Fox Lion

3. The Pyramid of Energy:

The energy flows in an ecosystem from the producer level to the consumer level. At
each trophic level 80 to 90% of energy is lost. Hence the amount of energy decreases from
the producer level to the consumer level. This can be represented in a pyramid of energy.
In a Grassland: In grassland green plants trap the maximum light energy. The energy
gradually decreases towards the top consumer level.

Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk

Grass Rabbit Fox Lion

Grass Mouse Snake Hawk

In a Pond: In a pond maximum energy is trapped by the phytoplankton. Then the

amount of energy decreases towards the top-consumer level.

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fish Snake

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Small Fish Large fish

Inverted Pyramids:

In most of the ecosystems the number and biomass of producers are more and those of
consumers are less. This type of ecosystem has a pyramid where the apex is pointed upwards.
This type of pyramid is called upright pyramid. In some ecosystems the number and the
biomass of the producers are less and those of consumers are more. This type of ecosystem
produces a pyramid where the apex is directed downwards. This type of pyramid is called
inverted pyramid. Inverted pyramid occurs in numbers and biomass. The pyramid of energy
is always upright.

Inverted Pyramid of numbers: when the ecosystem contains lesser number of

producers and more number of consumers, the pyramid will be inverted in shape. Inverted
pyramid occurs in a tree ecosystem. A single tree (producer) contains many fruit eating birds
(primary consumers). The birds contain numerous parasites (Secondary consumers).

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass: When the biomass of producers is less and that of
consumers is more the pyramid will have inverted shape. It occurs in a pond or lake
ecosystem. Here the biomass of diatoms and phytoplankton are negligible as compared to that
of crustaceans and small fishes.
Energy efficiency is a way of managing and restraining the growth in energy consumption.
Something is more energy efficient if it delivers more services for the same energy input, or
the same services for less energy input.

Cropping Pattern:

The selection of crops and their varieties is to be made depending on the soil and
rainfall situation in the rain fed areas. The photo insensitive crops and varieties with shorter
duration should be chosen to escape drought of different intensities. There are wide
variations, location to location in water availability periods in dry land areas. Thus depending
upon water availability following are the different crops and cropping patterns to suit
different climatic situations.

For rain fed areas:

Monoculture Scarcity zone Pearl millet, red gram, green gram, black
gram, Horse gram, groundnut
Rabi : Jowar, Safflower
Assured rainfall Cotton, sorghum, red gram, black gram,
green gram, soybean, sunflower
Kharif crops Mung / Rabi crops Safflower
Double cropping Scarcity zone
Urid Mung / Urid Jowar
Sunflower Gram
Bajra Gram
Bajra Safflower
Paddy Gram
Assured rainfall zone
Soybean Safflower
Mung/Urid Jowar
Mung/Urid Safflower
Sunflower Gram
Jowar Wheat
Irrigated areas
Jowar Gram
Maize Wheat
Grunt Jowar
Grunt Sunflower
Unit 2. Natural Resources and Biodiversity

A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from nature. People
do not make natural resources, but gather them from the earth. Examples of natural resources
are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, hydro-electric energy, iron, and coal.

There are two sorts of natural resources: renewable resources and non-renewable
resources.

 A renewable resource grows again and comes back again after we use it. For
example, soil, sunlight, water and wood are renewable resources.

 A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not grow and come back, or a
resource that would take a very long time to come back. For example, coal is a non-
renewable resource. When we use coal, there is less coal afterward. One day, there
will be no more of it to make goods. It is important to conserve (save) non-renewable
resources, because if we use them too quickly there will not be enough. For example,
oil, minerals, and other non-renewable resources cannot be recycled.

Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A
perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of perpetual resources include
solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy. Other examples are salt, stone, magnesium, and
diamonds.

Natural
Products or Services
Resource
Air Wind energy, tires
Foods (milk, cheese, steak, bacon) and clothing (wool sweater, silk shirt,
Animals
leather belt)
Coal Electricity
Minerals Coins, wire, steel, aluminum cans, jewelry
Natural Gas Electricity, heating
Oil Electricity, fuel for cars and airplanes, plastic
Plants Wood, paper, cotton clothing, fruits, vegetables
Sunlight Solar power, photosynthesis
Water Hydroelectric energy, drinking, cleaning
Classification of Natural Resources

There are different ways to classify natural resources, including where they come
from and if they are renewable or not.

Biotic and Abiotic Natural Resources

If natural resources come from living things or organic materials, then they are
considered biotic resources. Biotic resources include plants, animals, and fossil fuels. The
three fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are classified as biotic resources
because they were formed from the decay of organic matter over millions of years.

On the other hand, abiotic resources originate from nonliving and inorganic
materials. For example, air, sunlight, and water are abiotic natural resources. Minerals (gold,
copper, iron, diamonds) are also considered abiotic.

Conserving Natural Resources

For conservation of natural resources like natural gas, one can get tank less water
heater as it reduces the usage of natural gas. The other way to save natural gas is the use of
another energy source for instance hydro, solar or wind power are all healthy and great
alternatives to conserving natural resources. In fact these energy sources are clean and
healthy for environment. Moreover, these energy sources do not emit or produced harmful
gases or toxin into our environment like that of the burning fossil fuels at the same time they
are renewable as well as are not easy to deplete.

To conserve fossil fuels one can choose to buy a hybrid car. Some of these cars will
run on electricity combined with using small amounts of gas. Some hybrid cars just run on
electricity. Either way it is a great way for conserving natural resources when it is concern
with fossil fuels.

There is also way to conserve natural resource like trees. It can be conserve through
recycling process. Many products come from the trees like papers, cups, cardboards and
envelopes. By recycling these products you can reduce the number of trees cut down a year.
One should make the most use of these paper products without being wasteful and then
recycle them.
FOREST AND ENERGY RESOURCES

As the global demand for energy is soaring, high fossil fuel prices, increasing
greenhouse gas emissions and concerns over energy import dependence are prompting a
major shift in the sources from which energy is derived. Alternative forms of energy are
receiving considerable interest as a means to reduce fossil fuel consumption and limit
greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, biomass such as wood, crops and agricultural by-
products can be used as a renewable source of energy, known as bioenergy. This bioenergy
could help reduce dependence on fossil fuel imports and lower energy price while emitting
less greenhouse gases than fossil fuels.

Energy sources in which new plants replace those harvested are only considered
renewable if biomass growth equals or exceeds harvest. The net benefit in terms of CO2
emissions depends on the balance between CO2 captured during plant growth and CO2
released when producing, processing, transporting and burning the fuel. Bioenergy can
contribute to climate change mitigation if the net CO2 releases are lower than those from the
energy form it replaces, notably fossil fuels. Some countries have large forested areas which,
if sustainably managed, can be used as a source of bioenergy. In developing countries,
traditional bioenergy such as fuelwood, charcoal, dung etc. are still widely harvested and
used in an unsustainable and unsafe way for cooking and heating purposes. However, large-
scale modern facilities now exist that can effectively convert wood and forest residues to heat
and power.

Recently, first-generation liquid biofuels made from oil-palm, sugar cane, maize,
rapeseed, soybeans, wheat and other agricultural products have gained popularity as
alternative ways to power vehicles. The expansion of agricultural production for bioenergy
will very likely increase pressure on land and result in increased deforestation and associated
carbon emissions; these arguments are used to question the actual role of liquid biofuels in
mitigating climate change. Furthermore, because fossil fuel energy is usually used to grow,
harvest, process and transport crops and biofuels, the net carbon benefit may be small – even
negative – in some cases. In addition, there is evidence that the use of these crops for biofuels
instead of food has contributed to increased food prices. Yet, it is expected that technology
will soon become available for the production of wood-based second-generation liquid
biofuels that would not compete with food crops and would be much more efficient both in
terms of energy conversion and greenhouse gas emissions.
 In coming years, global energy use is set to climb steeply and fossil fuels are likely to
remain the most economically viable sources of energy. The extent to which energy sources
are likely to change in the future depends, among other things, on energy prices and
dependence on fossil fuel imports, the cost and mitigation potential of alternative energy
sources and the degree of commitment to climate change mitigation.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. It is a measure of the variety of

organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem
variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet.
Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest near the equator, which seems to be the result of
the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on
Earth. It is the richest in the tropics. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in
the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band
in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends
to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time but will be likely to slow in the
future.

"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long
established terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologists most often define
biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of
this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of
the traditional types of biological variety previously identified:

 taxonomic diversity (usually measured at the species diversity level)

 ecological diversity often viewed from the perspective of ecosystem diversity
 morphological diversity which stems from genetic diversity

Why is Biodiversity Important?

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small,
all have an important role to play.
For example,

 A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops

 Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms
 Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters.
And so, while we dominate this planet, we still need to preserve the diversity in wildlife.

Hotspots

A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species that is under
threat from humans. The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by Dr. Sabina Virk. While
hotspots are spread all over the world, the majorities are forest areas and most are located in
the tropics.

Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000
plant species, 1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere
else. The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is
characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide
and it has the largest number of endemism (species that are not found naturally anywhere
else) of any country.

Types of Biodiversity Biodiversity can be viewed on three levels namely:

 Genetic diversity
 Species diversity, and
 Ecosystem diversity

All three interact and change over time and from place to place.

Species diversity refers to the variety of different living things.

Genetic diversity refers to the variations between individuals of a species

characteristics passed down from parents to their offspring.

Ecosystem diversity refers to the great variety of environments produced by the

interplay of the biotic (living animals and plants) and the abiotic (non-living world; earth
forms, soil, rocks, air and water).
 Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: intraspecific diversity,
which includes the genetic variety within a single species, like the potato (Solanum
tuberosum) that is composed of many different forms and types.

The other category of agricultural diversity is called interspecific diversity and refers
to the number and types of different species. Thinking about this diversity we might note that
many small vegetable farmers grow many different crops like potatoes, and also carrots,
peppers, lettuce etc.

Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or

‘associated’ diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic
feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has
encouraged, planted or raised (e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others),
which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited
(e.g.: herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others).

The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that
farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated
diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic
engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the
same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies
that are more labor-intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and
energy.

Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we
eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us
choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to
replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a
hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat
production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific
diversity. Even an agricultural society which primarily grows monocultures relies on
biodiversity at some point.
CONSERVATION

Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife

and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of biodiversity the
survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to human activities can be
ensured. Other reasons for conserving biodiversity include securing valuable Natural
Resources for future generations and protecting the well being of eco-system functions.

Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:

In-situ: Conservation of habitats, species and ecosystems where they naturally occur. This is
in-situ conservation and the natural processes and interaction are conserved as well as the
elements of biodiversity.

Ex-situ: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their natural
habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks are all
example of ex-situ conservation.

In-situ conservation is not always possible as habitats may have been degraded and there may
be competition for land which means species need to be removed from the area to save them.

Which areas to conserve? - Hotspots of biodiversity

A popular approach for selecting priority areas has been to select hotspots of
diversity. Since it is not possible to conserve all biodiversity due to lack of resources and the
need to use land for human activities, areas are prioritized to those which are most in need of
conservation. „Hotspot‟ a term used to define regions of high conservation priority combining
high richness, high endemism and high threat.

Ecosystems and their species perform important biological services, for example,
green plants remove carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere, which helps
keep the environment healthy and fit for human life. Although we still have much to learn
about the often complex function of ecosystems, and about which species perform critical
roles, we know that if an ecosystem is altered in any way, it might not be able to perform
some of its important services. Economic arguments also provide compelling reasons for
conserving species. Different species of plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms provide
us with food, medicines, fuel, building materials, fibre for clothing and industrial products.
Unit 3. Environmental Pollution

Definition :
There are many definitions for pollution. According to Odum Pollution is an
undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of our air, land
and water that will harmfully affect the human life and the desirable species or that may
waste or deteriorate our raw material resources.

Pollution is the deliberate or accidental contamination of the environment with man’s

waste.

Pollution is defined as matter in the wrong place.

According to Melaughlin, pollution is defined as the introduction by man of waste

matter or surplus energy into the environment, which directly or indirectly causes damage to
man and his environment.

Edwards defined pollution as the release of substances or energy into the environment
by man in quantities that damage either his health or resources.

1. Pollutants:

Certain substances or factors may affect the normal functioning of human life and
domesticated species when introduced into the biopshere. These substances are called
Pollutants. The important pollutants are as follows.

1. Deposited Matter: Smoke, soot, dust, tar, etc.

2. Gases: CO, SO2, CO2, H2S, NH3, Fl2, Cl2 nitrogen oxide, methyl isocyanate, etc.
3. Chemical compounds: Aldehydes, arsines, hydrogen fluorides, phosgenes,
detergents, etc.
4. Metals: Load, iron, zinc, mercury, etc.
5. Biocides: Pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, etc.
6. Fertilizers: Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, etc.
7. Radiactive substances
8. Noise
9. Heat
10. Sewage etc.
2. Classification of Pollutants
Ecologically pollutants are classified into two main groups. They are nondegradable
pollutants and biodegradable pollutants.

1. Nondegradable Pollutants: The pollutants which can not be decomposed are

called non-degrdable pollutants. Once they fall in an environment, they remain as such.
Hence continuous use of these substances leads to there accumulation in the environment and
in the organisms through biogeochemical cycles and food chain. This accumulation of
pollutants in the organisms is called biological magnification. Eg. DDT, mercury salts,
aluminium cans, etc.

2. Biodegradable Pollutants: The pollutants which can be decomposed by natural

process are called biodegradable pollutants. Eg. Sewage, heat, noise, etc.

On the basis of physical properties, pollutants are classified into four categories. They
are solid pollutants, liquid pollutants, gaseous pollutants and pollutants without weight, etc.

3. Causes for pollution:

The following are the main causes of pollutions

1. Human Activity: The main cause of pollution is man himself. His activities, his
civilization, culture, etc. bring about environmental pollution. Hence pollution is said to be a
„necessary evil‟ in the present age.

2. Population Explosion: Southwick (1976) stated that population explosion causes

pollution because more people produce more sewage, more solid wastes, more fuel being
burned, more fertilizers and insecticides being used to produce more food.

3. Industries: Paper mills, sugar factories, soap factories, cement factories, chemical
factories, fertilizer factories, oil plants rubber factories, blast furnaces, distillaries, oil
refineries etc. cause pollution to a greater extent.

4. Automobiles: Automobiles like road vehicles, trains, aircrafts, etc, cause air
pollution and noise pollution.

5. Smoke: Smoke arises from industries and houses.

6. Biocides: Insecticides, pesticides and other biocides cause pollution.

 7. Fertilizers: The synthetic fertilizers used for the improvement of crops cause
pollution.

8. Sewage: It is the liquid pollutant emerging form houses and industries. The
domestic sewage contains urine, faecal matters, kitchen wastes, etc.

4. Types of Pollution

Pollution is classified into the following types :

1. Air pollution 2. Water pollution 3. Land pollution

4. Noise pollution and 5. Thermal pollution

5. Ecological Effects of Pollution

Pollution causes the following ecological effects

1. Death: When air is polluted with poisonous gases, death comes as a result
immediately. Bophal episode is a good example.

Bophal Episode: On 2nd December 1984 about 3000 human beings died, about 5000
paralysed and thousands of cattles, birds, dogs and cats died in one night at Bophal. This
mass death is due to the leakage of methyl isocynamate (toxic gas) into the air from an
insecticide plant managed by Union Carbide.

Minamata Disease: This disease is caused by mercury poisoning. It is characterised by

crippling and death. This disease started in a costal town, Minamata in Japan in 1953. The
primary cause for this disease was a plastic industry which was started on the sea coast of
Japan in 1905. From this factory a by-product called mercury was disposed into the sea. This
mercury accumulated in marine animals. Later birds, cats and dogs which ate fish, crabs and
shell fish died. The initial symptoms of minamata disease include the numbness of limbs, lips
and tongue, impairment of motor control, deafness and blurring of vision. Finally it affects
and destroys the brain. As a result of the attack of minamata disease about 17 persons died
and 23 became permanently disabled in the year 1953, in Japan.

2. Green house effect: CO2 is released into the air by the combustion of fuels. It has
been estimated that the accumulation of CO2 is increasing at the rate of 0.4% per annum. This
will result in an appreciable warming up of the earth. This is called green house effect. It is
very likely that this will cause the melting of polar ice caps resulting in a rise of nearly 60
feet on the sea level. Coastal regions and low lying areas all over the world will be flooded
and will gounder water.

3. Respiratory disorders: Excessive ethylene accelerates respiration causing

premature senescence (old age) and abscission (accumulation of yellow fluid(pus)in the
body) . Aldehydes irritate nasal and respiratory tracts. Chlorine and phosgenes (carbonyl
chloride) cause pulmonary edema.

4. Eutrophication: Sewage adds much nutrient to the water. Thus water is enriched.
This is called eutrophication. This causes the thick growth of phytoplankton and algae and
plankton blooms. Plankton blooms prevent the existence of other groups of organisms.

5. Biochemical Oxygen Demand: Sewage enriches the water with nutrients. This
causes rapid growth of plankton and algae. This leads to oxygen depletion in water. The
oxygen depletion causes the death of algae. They decay and decomposition of algae consume
more oxygen from water.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of

oxygen required by the microorganisms in water. BOD is higher in polluted water (sewage)
and lesser in drinking water. Increased BOD lowers the contents of dissolved O2 in water
causing the suffocation and death of aquatic flora and fauna.

6. Water-Borne Diseases: Diseases like jaundice, Cholera, typhoid, diarrohea, etc.

are transmitted through water contaminated with sewage.

7. Biomagnifications: The pesticides are nondegradable. They have much affinity

towards fat. Hence they tend to move into the living organisms. They are concentrated as
they pass up food chains. For example, at each trophic level, the accumulation of insecticides
increases by ten times. For example, if the goat gets one part per million (PPM) of DDT from
the grasses, it will have 10 ppm in its tissues. The man, eating the goat, will have 100 ppm.
The man eating tiger will have 1000 ppm. If the food chain is still greater , the accumulation
will still be higher. This increasing accumulations of insecticides is higher organism is called
biomagnification or biological amplification.
 8. Radio activity causes the following effects :

1. Cancer
2. Leukaemia
3. Mental retardation
4. Cogenital malformations
5. Retarded growth
6. Deteterious mutations
7. Infant mortality etc.
9. Noise diminishes the power of hearing. Noise increases blood pressure, and heart
beat.

10. Depletion of Ozone Umbrella: In the atmosphere, about 30 miles above the
surface of the earth, the ozone molecules (O3) form an umbrella. It prevents the penetration of
harmful ultra violet radiation from the sun and thus protects the life of the earth. It is now
feared that there is danger of appearing holes on the ozone umbrella. This is caused by the
use of freons and other Chlorine –fluorine-carbons as refrigerents, coolants in domestic
refrigerators and other cold storage facilities, and as filling agents in foam plastics and in
aerosal umbrella. They destroy ozone molecules as a result of photochemical reactions. Over
the past 16 years, the density of the ozone layer has been diminishing at an average rate of
3%. It is calculated that the depletion of ozone layer by 1% results in an increase in the
incidence of skin cancer by 5% to 7%

11. Acid Precipitation: Air pollution creates acid rain. The acidity of rain, snow, and
fog is caused by the release into the atmosphere of immense quantities of sulphur-di-oxide
and nitrogen oxide from the burning of fossil fuel. Acid rain diminishes crop-yields, destroys
vegetation and life in fresh water bodies and decays buildings. In Scandinavia all life has
been destroyed in 2,000 lakhs.

6. Prevention of Pollution:

The solution to pollution is dilution. Several methods are used to control pollution.

1. In some commercial swimming pools, spas etc. Ozone is injected into contaminated
water. Ozone oxidises microorganisms and pollutants and the water is purified.
2. Factories must be established faraway from the residence
3. Machineries in factory must have pollution control equipments.
 4. The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) at Nagpur has
recommended the sewage treatment ponds such as stablization pond or oxidation
pond to treat the sewage.
5. Citizens must obey the legislation to control pollution.
6. People must be educated on the ill-effects of polluting their own natural resources
7. Government should encourage research for developing new techniques for pollution
control.
8. To reduce pollute water artificial – rearing of fishes is needed.
9. The nitrogenous wastes are thrown far away from human settlements.
10. The use of biocides must be reduced because they give side effects.
11. Loud speakers should be set at low sound to reduce sound pollution.
12. Silence zone is necessary to reduce noise.
13. Industrialists must take necessary steps to control pollution.
14. Trees absorb noise and thus reduce noise pollution. So thick vegetation must be
grown around industries, cities and on the sides of roads.

Soil pollution - Types, sources, effects and control measures.

LAND POLLUTION
The undesirable change in the land that harmfully affects the life activities is called
land pollution.
1. Land Pollutants :

Manure, crop-residues, ashes, cinders (pieces of coal), garbage (waste food), paper,
card board, plastics, rubber, leather, cloth, rubbish, bricks, sand, metal, broken glasses,
demolished buildings, dead animals, discarded furniture, automobiles, insecticides, herbicides
and other biocides and radioactive elements are some of the important land pollutants. The
main sources of land pollution are pesticides, radioactive elements and fertilizers.

1. Pesticides:

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests like insects, rats, snails, fungi, herbs etc.
They are collectively called biocides because they kill life. They are of the following types.

1. Insecticides : These are chemicals used to kill insect pests

 2. Rodenticides: These kill rats.

3. Fungicides: These kill fungi

4. Herbicides: These kill weeds.

5. Helminthicides: These kill helminth worms.

1. Chemistry of pesticide:
Based on chemical composition, pesticides are divided into three main groups. They
are 1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons 2. Organic phosphorus insecticides and 3. inorganic
insecticides.

1. Chlorinated hydro carbons: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), aldrin,

endrin and their close relatives form chlorinated hydrocarbon. They are very poisonous, very
persistent, highly mobile and highly capable of dissolving in fat. As they have higher affinity
for fat, they tend to move out of the physical environment and enter the living organisms.
They are non-degradable pollutants.

2. Organic phosphorus pesticides: These are alkyl or organic phosphates. Parathion

and Malathion are well known organic phosphates. They are biodegradable.

3. Inorganic insecticides: These includes arsenic and sulphur compounds. These

are much less in use.

2. Ecological Effects of pesticides:

1. Mutation: Insecticides induce gene-mutation in human beings (Wurster, 1974).

2. Cancer: DDT produces cancer in human tissues.

3. Congenital birth defects: Certain herbicide like diozan increase birth-defects in

both people and livestock.

4. Sex hormones: DDT affects sex hormones in mammals and birds.

5. Decline of reproduction: In Bermuda petral, a sea bird, the rate of hatching of

eggs is much reduced because of the accumulation of DDT. If the accumulation increases
further, there will be failure of reproduction in this species in future.
 6. Calcium metabolism: DDT interferes with calcium metabolism resulting in
calcium deficiency. DDT causes hormonal disturbance resulting in delayed ovultion and
inhibition of gonad development.

7. Biomagnification: The pesticides are non-degradable. They have much affinity

towards fat. Hence they tend to move into the living organisms. They are concentrated as
they pass up the food chains. Fox example, at each trophic level, the accumulation of
insecticides increases by 10 times. For example if the goat gets one part per million (PPM) of
DDT from the grasses, it will have 10 ppm in its tissues. The man, eating the goat will have
100 ppm. The man eating tiger will have 1000 ppm. If the food chain is still greater , the
accumulation will still be higher. This increasing accumulation of insecticides in higher
organisms is called biomagnification or biological amplification.

3. Control of Pesticide Pollution

1. Minimal use: Pesticides should be used at minimum rates and that too only when
required.

2. Biological control: Pests should be killed either by rearing predators or parasites.

3. Sterilization: Juvenile hormones prevent metamorphosis and maturation in insects.

4. Decoy plants: Pests can be minimized in high value crops by cultivating low value
crops.

5. Rotation of crops: Different types of crops should be cultivated in different

seasons.

2. Radioactive pollution:

Certain elements continuously disintegrate by emitting ionizing radiations. These

elements are called radioactive isotopes. Ecologically, important radioactive elements are
Strontium-90, Argon-41, Iodine-131, Cobalt-60, Cesium-137, Plutonium-238 etc.

1. Types of lonizing Radiations :

Radioactive isotopes release three types of radiations. They are 1. alpha particles, 2.
beta particles and 3. gamma rays.
 1. Alpha particles: These are large particles emitted by radioactive isotopes. They
travel only short distances. They cannot penetrate the organisms. They cause local ionization

2. Beta Particles: These are small particles emitted by radioactive isotopes. They can
travel long distances. They can easily penetrate the body tissues and cause ionization.

3. Gamma rays: These are short wave length, rays emitted by radioactive isotopes.
They can travel long distances. They can easily penetrate the body tissues and cause
ionization.

On the basis of the biological effects produced, the radioactive radiations can be
grouped into two types, namely internal emitters and external emitters.

A. Internal emitters: The alpha and beta particles have low penetrating power.
Hence they produce their effect in organisms only when they are ingested into the body.
Hence these are called internal emitters.

B. External emitters: The radiations with short wave length like gamma rays have
high penetrating power. They can affect the internal tissues even when they remain outside
by virtue of their high penetrating power. Hence they are called external emitters.

Fall outs:

Atomic blasts and nuclear explosion release radioactive isotopes into the atmosphere.
These radioactive isotopes fall over the earth from the atmosphere continuously for a long
time. Hence they are called fall-outs or nuclear fall-outs or radioactive fall-outs. These fall-
outs contaminate the air, soil, water, vegetation and animals. The contaminants persist for
several years.

Ecological Effects of Radioactivity:

Radio activity causes the following effects:

1. Cancer 2. Leukamia

3. Mental retardation 4. Congenital malformations

5. Retarded growth 6. Deleterious mutations

7. Infant mortality
Water pollution - Types, sources, effects and control measures.

WATER POLLUTION
Water is the soul of nature; its pollution will perish the world water pollution refers to
the undesirable change occurring in water which may harmfully affect the life activities of
man and domesticated species.

1. Water Pollutants

The common water pollutants are as follows :

1. Domestic sewage 2. Industrial effluents

3. Pesticides 4. Herbicides

5. Fertilizers 6. Bacteria and viruses

7. Plankton blooms 8. Heavy metals

9. Temperature 10. Silt

11. Radioactivity 12. Oils, etc.

2. Causes of water Pollution

1. Domestic sewage: Domestic sewage consists of human faeces, urine, and the drity
used-up water in houses. It contains a large number of pathogenic bacteria and virus.
The sewage is released into the rivers on the banks of which most of the cities are
situated.
2. Industrial effluents: All industrial plants produce some organic and inorganic
chemical wastes. Those nonusuable chemicals are dumped in water as a means of
getting rid of them. The industrial wastes include heavy metals (Hg, Cu, lead zinc
etc), detergents, petroleum, acids, alkalies, phenols, carbonates, alcohol, cyanides,
arsenic, chlorine, etc.
3. Thermal pollution: Many industries use water for cooling. The resultant warm
water is discharged into rivers. This brings about thermal pollution.
4. Agricultural pollution: The fertilizers used for crops are washed into ponds and
rivers.
 5. Pesticides: Pesticides are used to control pests in fields and houses. They include
DDT, BHC, endrin etc.
6. Radioactive wastes: Liquid radioactive wastes are released into the sea around
nuclear installations. The oceanic currents carry the radio active contaminants every
where.
7. Oil pollution: Oil is a source of pollution in sea- water. Oil pollution is due to ship
accidents, loading and discharging of oil at the harbour, oil refineries and off-shore
oil production.
8. Retting: the process of decaying coconut husk to get fibre for making coir is called
retting. Retting releases H2S. It makes water polluted.
3. Ecological Effects of Water Pollution

1. Minamata Disease: This disease is caused by mercury poisoning. It is

characterised by crippling and death. This disease appeared in a coastal town, Minamata, in
Japan. The primary cause for this disease was a plastic industry which was started on the sea
coast of Japan in 1905. From this factory a by -product called mercury was disposed into the
sea. This mercury accumulated in marine animals. Later birds, cats and dogs, which ate the
marine animals died. Finally many men who ate fish, crabs and shell fish died . Their initial
symptoms of minamata disease include the numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, impairment
of motor control, deafneses and blurring of vision. Finally it affects and destroys the brain. As
a result of the attack of minamata disease about 17 persons died and 23 become permanently
disabled in the year 1953, in Japan.

2. Diarrhoea : It is caused by mercury, cadmium and cobalt.

3. Mortality of Plankton and Fish: Chlorine which is added to water to control the
growth of algae and bacteria n the cooling system of power stations may persist in streams to
cause the mortality of plankton and fish.

4. Reduction in Productivity: Intensive agricultural increases the amount of silt in

lakes and rivers. Silt prevents the penetration of light to depthsand thus reduces primary
production.

5. Siltation: Siltation is a phenomenon by which the gills of fishes are deposited with
silt. This causes heavy mortality among fishes.
 6. Poor oxygenation: Oil present on the surface of water prevents water
oxygenation. This reduces respiration and metobolism in aquatic organisms.

7. Poor Photosynthesis: Oil – pollution prevents photosynthesis in phytoplankton.

8. Red Tide: When coastal waters are enriched with nutrients of sewage,
dinoflagellates multiply rapidly and form bloom. These blooming dinoflagellates liberate into
the water toxic metabolic by-products, which can result in a large-scale death or marine
fishes. This is called redtide.

9. Biochemical oxygen Demand: Sewage enriches the water with nutrients. This
causes rapid growth of plankton and algae. This leads to oxygen depletion in water. The
oxygen depletion causes the death of algae. The decay and decomposition of algae consume
more oxygen from water.

Biochemical oxygen Demand or biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of

oxygen required by the microorganisms in water. (BOD) is higher in pollute water(sewage)
and lesser in drinking water. Increase BOD lowers the contents of dissolved O2 in the water
causing the suffocation and death of aquatic flora and fauna.

10. Water – Borne Diseases: Disease like jaundice, cholera, typhoid, diarriohea,
etc., are transmitted through water contamination with sewage.

11. Methaem oglobinema: The nitrate used in fertilizer enters the intestine of man
through drinking water. In the intestine it is converted into nitrite. Nitrate is absorbed into the
blood where it combines with haemoglobin to form methaemoglobin : Methaemoglobin
cannot transport oxygen. This leads to suffocation and breathing troubles, especially in
infants. This disease is called methaemoglobinema.

12. Eutrophication: Domestic sewage and fertilizers add large quantities of nutrients
such as nitrates and phosphates to the fresh water ecosystems. The rich supplies of these
nutrients make blue green algae, green algae and other phytoplankton to grow abundantly.
This increased productivity of lakes and ponds brought about by nutrient enrichment is
known as eutrophication. As the algae use O2 of the water for respiration, the O2 is depleted
from the water. The rapid growth also consumes all the nutrients of the water. The depletion
of O2 and nutrients lead to the death of algae and other phytoplankton. As other organisms,
such as zooplankton and fishes of the water, depend on theblue green algae and
phytoplankton for their food, they also die. Thus eutrophication leads to the complete
depletion of the fauna from the ecosystem.

13. Fluoride pollution: Prolonged intake of fluoride containing water stiffens the
bone joints, particularly of spinal cord. Fluoride is not absorbed in the blood stream. It has an
affinity with calcium and thus gets accumulated in bones, resulting in the mottling of teeth,
pain in the bones and joint and outward bending of legs from the knees – knock-knee
syndrome. Fluoride levels more than 0.5 ppm over a period of 5-10 years results in fluorisis
terminating in crippling or paralysis.

4. Control of Water Pollution:

1. Sewage treatment: Pollution control by sewage treatment includes the following

steps : a. sedimentation b. dilution and c. Storage

(a) Sedimentation: When sewage is allowed to stand, the suspended particles settle
to the bottom. So by sedimentation the suspended particles are removed from sewage.

(b) Dilution: The sewage can be diluted with water. This increase the O2 contents and
reduces BOD and CO2.

(c) Storage: The diluted sewage is stored in a pond. This facilitates the growth of
microorganisms. This renders further oxidation of sewage.

2. Waste stabilization pond or oxidation pond: The National Environmental

Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) at Nagpur has devised a very economical method for
the treatment of industrial and domestic effluents. Domestic and industrial wastes are stored
in a dilute condition in shallow ponds called Oxidation or stabilization ponds. After a few
days microorganisms and algae flourish. The micro-organisms decompose the organic
wastes by Oxidation, and the water is purified. This water is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and other nutrients. This water can be used for fish culture, agriculture etc.

3. Recycling: Pollution can be prevented to a certain extent by reutilizing the wastes.

This is called recycling. Eg. a) The dung of cows and buffalloescan be used for the
production of gobargas. b) Sewage can be used for irrigation and fish culture after treatment
in Oxidation pond.
 Certain pollutants from industrial effluents can be removed by filtration and selective
absorption.

Excessive use of pesticides and herbicides should be avoided.

At the Government level, legislations should be framed to control water pollution.

Some Indian rivers and their major sources of pollution,

S.No Name of the river Sources of pollution

1. Kali at Meerut(u.p) Sugar mills; distilleries; paint, soap,

rayon, silk, yarn, tin and glycerine

industries.

2. Jamuna near Delhi D.D.T factory, sewage, indraprastha

power station, Delhi.

3. Ganga at Kanpur Jute, chemical, metal, and surgical

industries; tanneries, textile mills

and greatbulk of domestic sewage

of highly organic nature.

4. Gomatai near Lucknow(u.p) Paper and pulp mills; sewage.

5. Dajora in Bareilly(u.p) Synthetic rubber factories.

6. Damodar between Bokaro Fertilizers, flyash.

and panchet.

7. Hooghly near Calcutta Power stations , paper pulp , jute

 textile chemical mills, paints, varnishes, metal, steel,
hydrogenated vegetable oils, rayon and soap, match
shellac and polythene industries and sewage.

8. Sone at Dalmia nagar (Bihar) Cement , pulp and paper mills.

9. Bhadra (Karnataka) pulp , paper and steel industries .

10. Cooum , Adayar and Domestic sewage, automobile

workshops. Buckingham canal

(Madras) automdrite workshops.

11. Cavery (Tamil Nadu) Sewage,Tanneries, distilleries, paper

and rayon mills.

12. Godavari paper mills.

13. Siwan (Bihar) paper , sulphur, cement , sugar mills.

14. Kulu (between Bombay Chemical factories , rayon mills,

tanneries. and Kalyan

15. Suwao (in Balrampur ) Chemical factories , rayon mills and

tanneries,

Bio Indicators for Water Quality Montitering

Organisms suitable for sewage treatment

1. E. Coli
2. Streptococcus faecalis
3. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Among these organisms bacteria plays important role in sewage treatment.
  Anaerobic organisms like, Clostridium Perfringens, Aeromonas sp indicates
Oxygen depletion.
 Fusarium sp., Thiothrix sp., Candida albicans are used for treating acidic
wastewater and oil refineries wastewater.
 Filamentus bacteria, Sclerotium sp., are used for treating wastewater rich in
cellulose.
Noise pollution - Types, sources, effects and control measures.

NOISE POLLUTION
The word noise has a Latin origin nausea meaning a feeling of sickness at the
stomach with an urge to vomit. Noise is defined as unwanted sound or sound without value.
Noise pollution is the unwanted sound dumped into the environment.

Noise is measured by the unit decibel (dB). One decibel is equal to the faintest sound
that can be heard by the human ears. Some people feel discomfort with the sound of 85 dB.
But more people do not feel discomfort with the sound of 115 dB. Pain is usually felt at 145
dB.

1. Causes of Noise Pollution:

Scooters, motor bikes, cars, tempos, vans, buses, trucks, tractors, aircrafts, supersonic
aircrafts, motor boats, ships, loud speakers, loud pop music, social gatherings, machines of
factories, mills, industries, kitchen appliances, fire crackers and generators are some of the
chief sources of pollutions.

2. Ecological Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Noise diminishes the power of hearing

2. It gives pain to the ear
3. It interferes with communication systems
4. It causes stress
5. It causes fright.
6. It increase the rate of heart beat
7. It causes the constriction of blood vessels
8. It increases blood pressure
9. It causes head-ache
 10. It causes the dilation of pupil of the eye
11. It causes emotional upsets and
12. It causes deafness.
13. Noise causes physical or mental fatigue and lack of concentration.
14. In industrial situations this effect results in lowered efficiency, reduced work rate and
higher chances for accident.
15. Noise disturbs sleep.
16. High frequency or ultrasonic sound can affect the semicircular canals of the internal
ear and cause nausea and dizziness.
3. Control of Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution can be controlled in the following ways :

1. Legislations should be framed
2. The sources that generate unwanted sound should be reduced.
3. Noisy automobiles should be condemned.
4. Wheels of automobiles should be oiled properly.
5. Industrialists must take up necessary steps to control noise.
6. Loudspeakers should be set at a low sound.
7. Trees absorb noise and thus reduce noise pollution. So thick vegetation must be
grown around industries, cities and on the sides of roads.
8. Noise-producing machines should be placed in closed rooms.
9. Residential houses should be constructed far away from industries, factories and
airports.
Air pollution - Types, sources, effects and control measures.

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution refers to the undesirable change occurring in air causing harmful effects
on man and domesticated species.

1. Air Pollutants

The common air pollutants are the following

Dust, Smoke, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3), Sulphur dioxide (SO2),
Hydrogensulphide (H2S), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen
fluorides, Chlorines, Phosgenes, Arsines, Aldehydes, Ozone, Ionising radiations and CO2
 Air pollutants are of two types. They are primary air pollutants and secondary air
pollutants.

1. Primary Air Pollutants : Air is polluted by poisonous gases and undesirable

substances. They are released by burning fossil fuels. These substances are called Primary air
pollutants. The primary air pollutants are the following.

1. Soot released from unburned fuel

2. SO2(sulphur-di-oxide)
3. Benzopyrene (hydrocarbon, released from cigarette smoke)
4. NH3
5. Oxides of nitrogen
6. CO (Carbon monoxide)
7. Lead
2. Secondary Air Pollutants : Secondary air pollutants are poisonous substances
formed from primary air pollutants. In bright sun ling nitrogen, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, and O2 interact to produce more powerful photochemical oxidants like ozone
(O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), aldehydes, sulphuric acid, peroxides, etc. All these
constitute Photochemical smog.

2. Causes of Air Pollution

1. Agriculture: Hydrocarbons released by plants, pollen grains, insecticides etc. cause

air pollution.

2. Dust: Dust in the air is increased by dust storms, wind, volcanoes, automobiles, etc.

3. Industries: Combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, etc. in industries is the
main source of pollution.

4. Automobiles: The combustion of petrol and diesel in automobiles released harmful

gases into the air. They also produce dust.

5. Ionising Radiations: Ionizing radiations include alpha particles, beta particles and
gamma rays. They are released into the air from testing atomic weapons and atomic
explosions.
 6. Freons: Use of freons and other chlorine – fluorine-carbons as refrigerants, coolants
and as filling agents in aerosol pachages cause pollution.

7. Aerosols: Aerosols are small particles of all sorts of solid or liquid substances
suspended in the air. They block the stomata of plants and prevent the gaseous exchanges
between plants and atmosphere. They may also change the climate of an area.

Biological Indicators
Some plants are sensitive to certain air pollutants. These plants are used to indicate
the presence of these substances. These plants are called biological indicators.

Eg.1 the tissues present in the tip of dusheri mango turns black when they are exposed
to sulphur dioxide (SO2) fumes.

2. Pinto beans and petunias are used to indicate the presence of peroxy acetyl nitrate
(PAN).

3. Tobacco and annual blue-grass plants are used to show the presence of ozone (O3)

3. Ecological Effects of Air Pollution

1. Death: When air is polluted with poisonous gases, death comes as a result
immediately. Bophal episode is a good example.

Bhopal episode: On 2nd December 1984 about 3000 human beings died, about 5000
paralysed and thousands of cattles, birds, dogs and cats died in one night at Bhopal. This
mass death is due to the leakage of methyl isocyanate (toxic gas) into the air form an
insecticide plant managed by Union Carbide.

2. Chlorosis: The disappearance of chlorophyll is called chlorosis. It is caused by SO 2

flurides present in the air.

3. Necrosis: The breakdown of cells is called necrosis. It is caused by SO2, nitrogen

dioxide, ozone and flurides.

4. Green house effect: CO2 is released into the air by the combustion of fuels. It is
estimated that CO2 content of the air is increasing at the rate of 0.4% per annum. This will
result in an appreciable warming up of the earth . This is called green house effect. It is very
likely that this will cause the melting of polar ice caps resulting in a rise of nearly 60 feet on
the sea level. Coastal regions and low lying areas all over the world will be go under water.

5. Croplosses: Heavy loss of crop plants is caused by smog. Smog denotes a

combination of smoke and fog. The important components of smog are ozone and PAN
(Peroxyacetyl nitrate) . They damage leafy vegetables, cereals, textile crops, ornamental
plants, fruits and forest trees.

6. Respiratory disorders: Excessive ethylene accelerates respiration causing

premature senescence (old age) and abscission (accumulation of yellow fluid(Pus) in the
body) . Aldehydes irritate nasal and respiratory tracts. Chlorine and phosgenes (carbonyl
chloride) cause pulmonary oedema.

7. Nausea: H2S smells like rotten eggs and causes nausea.

8. Vomiting: SO2 causes vomiting

9. Jaundice: Arsines induce RBC breakdown and jaundice

10. Oxygen carrying capacity: CO reduces O2 carying capacity of RBC by its

permanent combination with haemoglobin.

11. Coughing: Coughing is induced by phosgenes (Carbonyl chloride)

12. Headache: SO2 causes headache

13. Cancer: Cancer is caused by air pollutants like ash, soot, smoke, chromium, nickel
and radioactive elements.

14. Mutation: Radioactive elements produce mutation. Ozone produces chromosomal

aberrations.

15. Cardiac diseases: Cadmium causes high blood pressure and heart diseases.

16. Pneumonia: Pneumonia is caused by breathing in too much of manganese

particles.

17. Depletion of Ozone Umbrella: In the atmosphere, about 30 km above the surface
of the earth, the ozone molecules (O3) form an umbrella. It prevents the penetration of
harmful ultra violet radiation from the sun and thus protects the life of the earth. It is now
feared that there is danger of appearing holes on the ozone umbrella. This is caused by the
use of freons and other chlorine- fluorine-carbons as refrigerents, coolants in domestic
refrigerators and other cold storage facilities, and as filling agents in foam plastics and in
aerosol packages. Reaching the ozone umbrella, they destroy ozone molecules as a result of
photochemical reactions. Over the past 16 years, the density of the ozone layer has been
diminishing at an average rate of 3%. It is calculated that the depletion of ozone layer by 1%
results in an increase in the incidence of skin cancer by 5% to 7%.

18. Acid Rains: One of the major environmental issues facing human society at the
National and International level is the problem of acid. The rain water is always slightly
acidic as CO2 in the atmosphere gets dissolved in it. However during recent years, it has been
noted a further lowering of pH of rain water often as low as 2.4. This lowering of pH is due to
the dissolution of acids in the rain water. Precipitation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen with
rain is termed acid rain.

Acid rain is caused by air pollution. When atmospheric air contains sulphurdioxide
(SO2) and oxides of nitrogen such as nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric Oxide (NO), they
dissolve in rain water forming sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The rain water falls as acid
rain. The main source of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen is the burning of fossil fuels in power
plants based on coal and oil contribute more than 60% of all sulphur oxides and 25 to 30% of
nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Automobiles make a substantial contribution in large
cities. Ozone is now recognized as a major factor in the formation of acid rain.

Acid rain affects both materials and organisms. It attacks building materials
principally sandstone, limestone, marble, steel and nickel. In plants, it leads to Chlorosis
(gradual yellowing in which the chlorophyll making mechanism is impeded) or
depigmentation of leaves.

Acid rain increases the acidity of lakes and rivers. Vast tracts of forests and lakes in
Europe and North America have been destroyed by acid rain. Acidity kills fish, bacteria and
algae and the aquatic ecosystem collapses into sterility leaving a crystal clear but ultimately a
dead lake.

4. Control of air pollution

1. The emission of exhaust from automobiles can be reduced by devices such as

Positive crankcase ventilation valve and catalytic converter.
 2. Electrostatic precipitators can reduce smoke and dust from industries.

3. Gaseous pollutants arising from industries can be removed by differential

solubility of gases in water.

4. A finepray of water in the device called scrubber can separate many gases like NH3,
SO2 etc. from the emitted exhaust.

5. Certain gases can be removed by filtration or absorption through activated carbon.

6. Certain gases can be made chemically inert by chemical convertion.

7. At the Government level pollution can be controlled by framing legislations.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Energy from the sun drives the earth's weather and climate, and heats the earth's surface; in
turn, the earth radiates energy back into space. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat
like the glass panels of a greenhouse.
Without this natural "greenhouse effect," temperatures would be much lower than they are
now, and life as known today would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the
earth's average temperature is a more hospitable 60°F. However, problems may arise when
the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases.
Reasons for increase in greenhouse gases concentration

The combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary reason for
the increased concentration of carbon dioxide. Plant respiration and the decomposition of
organic matter release more than 10 times the CO2 released by human activities; but these
releases have generally been in balance during the centuries leading up to the industrial
revolution with carbon dioxide absorbed by terrestrial vegetation and the oceans.

Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are likely to accelerate the rate of

climate change. Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could rise 1-
4.5°F (0.6-2.5°C) in the next fifty years, and 2.2-10°F (1.4-5.8°C) in the next century, with
significant regional variation. Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will
increase average global precipitation. Soil moisture is likely to decline in many regions, and
intense rainstorms are likely to become more frequent.

Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from
human activities. Naturally occuring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of
most of these naturally occurring gases: Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when
solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned.

Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid
waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which
are generated in a variety of industrial processes. Each greenhouse gas differs in its ability to
absorb heat in the atmosphere. HFCs and PFCs are the most heat-absorbent. Methane traps
over 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide absorbs 270
times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide. Often, estimates of greenhouse gas
emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of carbon equivalents (MMTCE),
which weights each gas by its GWP value, or Global Warming Potential (GWP).

Ozone layer: the region of the stratosphere containing the bulk of atmospheric ozone
The ozone layer lies approximately 15-40 kilometers (10-25 miles) above the Earth's surface,
in the stratosphere. Depletion of this layer by ODS will lead to higher UVB levels, which in
turn will cause increased skin cancers and cataracts and potential damage to some marine
organisms, plants, and plastics.

Stratosphere: the region of the atmosphere above the troposphere

The stratosphere extends from about 10km to about 50km in altitude. Commercial airlines fly
in the lower stratosphere. The stratosphere gets warmer at higher altitudes. In fact, this
warming is caused by ozone absorbing ultraviolet radiation. Warm air remains in the upper
stratosphere, and cool air remains lower, so there is much less vertical mixing in this region
than in the troposphere.

Troposphere: the region of the atmosphere closest to the Earth

The troposphere extends from the surface up to about 10 km in altitude, although this height
varies with latitude. Almost all weather takes place in the troposphere. Mt. Everest, the
highest mountain on Earth, is only 8.8 km high. Temperatures decrease with altitude in the
troposphere. As warm air rises, it cools, falling back to Earth. This process, known as
convection, means there are huge air movements that mix the troposphere very efficiently.

Ozone-Depleting Substance(s) (ODS): a compound that contributes to stratospheric ozone

depletion

ODS include CFCs, HCFCs, halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform. ODS are generally very stable in the troposphere and only degrade under intense
ultraviolet light in the stratosphere. When they break down, they release chlorine or bromine
atoms, which then deplete ozone.

UV: ultraviolet radiation

Ultraviolet radiation is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths shorter
than visible light. The sun produces UV, which is commonly split into three bands: UVA,
UVB, and UVC. UVA is not absorbed by ozone. UVB is mostly absorbed by ozone, although
some reaches the Earth. UVC is completely absorbed by ozone and normal oxygen.
UVB: a band of ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths from 280-320 nanometers produced
by the Sun

UVB is a kind of ultraviolet light from the sun (and sun lamps) that has several harmful
effects.particularly effective at damaging DNA. It is a cause of melanoma and other types of
skin cancer. It has also been linked to damage to some materials, crops, and marine
organisms. The ozone layer protects the Earth against most UVB coming from the sun. It is
always important to protect oneself against UVB, even in the absence of ozone depletion, by
wearing hats, sunglasses, and sunscreen.

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): a number that refers to the amount of ozone depletion
caused by a substance

The ODP is the ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical compared to the impact of a
similar mass of CFC-11. Thus, the ODP of CFC-11 is defined to be 1.0. Other CFCs and
HCFCs have ODPs that range from 0.01 to 1.0. The halons have ODPs ranging up to 10.
Carbon tetrachloride has an ODP of 1.2, and methyl chloroform's ODP is 0.11. HFCs have
zero ODP because they do not contain chlorine.

Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4): a compound consisting of one carbon atom and four chlorine
atoms

Carbon tetrachloride was widely used as a raw material in many industrial uses, including the
production of CFCs, and as a solvent. Solvent use ended when it was discovered to be
carcinogenic. It is also used as a catalyst to deliver chlorine ions to certain processes. Its
ozone depletion potential is 1.2.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC): a compound consisting of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon

CFCs are very stable in the troposphere. They are broken down by strong ultraviolet light in
the stratosphere and release chlorine atoms that then deplete the ozone layer. CFCs are
commonly used as refrigerants, solvents, and foam blowing agents. The most common CFCs
are CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114, and CFC-115. The ozone depletion potential
(ODP) for each CFC is, respectively, 1, 1, 0.8, 1, and 0.6.

Dobson Unit (DU): a measurement of column ozone levels

If 100 DU of ozone were brought to the Earth's surface, it would form a layer 1 millimeter
thick. In the tropics, ozone levels are typically between 250 and 300 DU year-round. In
temperate regions, seasonal variations can produce large swings in ozone levels.

Global Warming Potential: a number that refers to the amount of global warming caused by
a substance. The GWP is the ratio of the warming caused by a substance to the warming
caused by a similar mass of carbon dioxide. Thus, the GWP of CO2 is defined to be 1.0.
CFC-12 has a GWP of 8,500, while CFC-11 has a GWP of 5,000. Various HCFCs and HFCs
have GWPs ranging from 93 to 12,100. Water, a substitute in numerous end-uses, has a GWP
of 0.
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The impacts of climate change on agriculture and human well-being include: 1) the
biological effects on crop yields; 2) the resulting impacts on outcomes including prices,
production, and consumption; and 3) the impacts on per capita calorie consumption and child
malnutrition. The biophysical effects of climate change on agriculture induce changes in
production and prices, which play out through the economic system as farmers and other
market participants adjust autonomously, altering crop mix, input use, production, food
demand, food consumption, and trade.

Climate Mitigation

Climate mitigation is any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the long-
term risk and hazards of climate change to human life, property. The International Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) defines mitigation as: “An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the
sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.”

Kyoto Protocol

The main current international agreement on combating climate change is the Kyoto
Protocol, which came into force on 16 February 2005. The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that
have ratified this protocol have committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and
five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase
emissions of these gases.
Unit 4. Solid and liquid waste management

Waste comes in many different forms:

Agriculture is a highly intensified industry in many parts of the world, producing a

range of wastewaters requiring a variety of treatment technologies and management practices.

Nonpoint source pollution

Nonpoint source pollution from farms is caused by surface runoff from fields during
rain storms. Agricultural runoff is a major source of pollution, in some cases the only source,
in many watersheds

Point source pollution

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, can be a
major source of point source wastewater. In the United States, these facilities are called
concentrated animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding operations and are being
subject to increasing government regulation

Business (or commercial and industrial) waste – cover the commercial waste and industrial
waste types. Generally, businesses are expected to make their own arrangements for the
collection, treatment and disposal of their wastes. Waste from smaller shops and trading
estates where local authority waste collection agreements are in place will generally be
treated as municipal waste.

Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage in the U.S. and as
refuse or rubbish in the UK, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded
by the public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal;
the two are sometimes collected separately.

 Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also be
recycled).

 Recyclable material: paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, fabrics,
clothes, batteries etc.

 Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.

 Electrical and electronic waste (WEEE) - electrical appliances, TVs, computers,

screens, etc.
  Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys.

 Hazardous waste including most paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes,
spray cans, fertilizer and containers

 Toxic waste including pesticide, herbicides, fungicides

 Medical waste.

Biomedical waste is waste that is either putrescible or potentially infectious. Biomedical

waste may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that
visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages,
infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms
that are restricted from environmental release.

Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used

electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also
considered as e-waste. Informal processing of electronic waste in developing countries may
cause serious health and pollution problems, as these countries have limited regulatory
oversight of e-waste processing.

Electronic scrap components, such as CRTs, may contain contaminants such as lead,
cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Even in developed countries recycling
and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to workers and communities and great
care must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials
such as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

"Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic

equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets, and refrigerators.
This includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or
disposal. Others are re-usables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary scrap
(copper, steel, plastic, etc.) to be "commodities", and reserve the term "waste" for residue or
material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and
recycling operations. Because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good,
recyclable, and non-recyclable), several public policy advocates apply the term "e-waste"
broadly to all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are considered one of the hardest
types to recycle
Biodegradable waste is a type of waste which can be broken down, in a reasonable amount
of time, into its base compounds by micro-organisms and other living things, regardless of
what those compounds may be.

Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid waste (sometimes called
biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as green waste, food waste, paper waste, and
biodegradable plastics. Other biodegradable wastes include human waste, manure, sewage,
and slaughterhouse waste. In the absence of oxygen, much of this waste will decay to
methane by anaerobic digestion.

Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:

i. Sanitary Landfill

ii. Incineration

iii. Composting

iv. Pyrolysis

i. Sanitary Land Filling:

In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.

Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered
with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near
the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced
by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. Sanitary
Landfills Site Selection:

i. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.

ii. Preferably located in clay or silt.

iii. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in
rocks into a water fracture system.

iv. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately,
most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after they
were no longer being used.

v. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if
the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.

A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These impacts can
vary:

i. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).

ii. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).

iii. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers
by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill
closure).

iv. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse
gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants of
an area).

v. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated
landfills.

ii. Incineration:

The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is
a unit or facility used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to ash. An
incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off
extreme amounts of external heat.

The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly
and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or
as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful
for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the
original volume.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
“thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical
method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial
method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

iii. Composting:

Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept
separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil
conditions and fertility.

Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This
waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is
the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which
is very rich in nutrients.

Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,

convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which
looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.

The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly
thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart
from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of
disposable garbage.
The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when
used for vegetables. It increases the soil‟s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to
cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.

Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are
added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn
how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.

To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school
compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for
aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.

Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the
subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit
it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to
enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter
is ready to be used. Composting: some benefits

i. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.

ii. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.

iii. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer.

iv. It makes soil easier to cultivate.

v. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.

vi. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.

vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.

iv. Pyrolysis:

Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in

the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating
temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).

In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some

oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or
semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.

Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue
containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal
oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis
units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace.
These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with
less air supply.

Limitations and Concerns:

i. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.

ii. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that systems
that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of
incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are extremely toxic
in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not produce dioxins and
furans.

iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the
waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be
hazardous and require special care in disposal.

iv. pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the
contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures
associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products containing heavy metals
may require stabilization before final disposal.
v. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and
contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment,
storage, and disposal.

Elements of Integrated Solid Waste Management

Treatment and disposal of bio-degradable solid wastes

Agriculture, industrial or domestic activities of man produce huge quantities of solid

wastes. Production of about 50 million tons of rice creates about 17 million tons of paddy
husk and 2.8 million ton of rice bran. A cigarette making industry using about 7.8 million of
tobacco leaves produces about 0.39 million kg of solid wastes. About 10,000 kg of cotton
turned into cloth creates about 800 kg, while tanning and dyeing 100 hides generate about
1200 kg of solid refuse. The amount of waste solids produced per person per day in Indian
cities varies from about 300 to 600 gm. On global scale all this adds upto an enormous
quantity, disposal of which is a tough task.

Bio-degradable wastes pose little problems. Much of agricultural wastes is used to feed
the live stock population. In India about 410 million tons of manure are produced every year
from organic waste produced by bovine population. Large compost pits are dug and organic
wastes, if dry may be soaked with water which helps in their rapid decomposition. The
process of degradation under anaerobic conditions changes the physical structure of the waste
material. Its mass is drastically reduced. The time required for adequate decomposition upon
the nature of organic wastes, moisture content, temperature etc. The residual matter is
exceedingly rich in mineral nutrients. It is used as manure in agricultural fields.

Problems arise when the mass of organic wastes is enormous. As biodegradation

process, land once used as dumping ground or compost pits is engaged for a long time.
Lower temperatures and scanty moisture content delay the process considerably and in
very cold climates, the decomposition of organic wastes is negligible. In temperate and
tropical regions as well, the growing amount of organic wastes is causing concern. More
and more land has to be used to accommodate the dumping grounds for solid wastes as
human establishments expand. Useful land has to be converted to ugly looking waste-
land.

A rather quick method of getting rid of the enormous bulk of solid wastes is to burn it
under controlled conditions. The heat produced may be utilized for some useful purpose.
Ashes left after burning are dumped in water or disposed of in fields. They represent only
about 8-10% of the total mass of waste material thus burnt. When organic wastes are
subjected to high temperatures in absence of oxygen large molecules are broken down
into smaller ones. The process is known a pyrolysis. Gases like CO2, CO, CH4, C2, H2,
C2H4, black tar like liquid and charcoal is produced. These can be used as fuel. However,
heat treatment yields plenty of gaseous pollutants which adds to the atmospheric burden
of gaseous pollutants. Rising concentration of these gases in the atmosphere shall have far
reaching consequences such as global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion etc. Hence
the practice of burning organic wastes is not a very sound practice.

The combustion of organic matter releases, quickly, mineral elements which appear as
ashes. These are either dumped on open land or disposed of in streams and drives.
Flowing waters carry the precious mineral nutrients down to the ocean from where little
returns to the land. Natural biogeochemical cycles are cut short. It the period of residence
of mineral elements in the bio-sphere is shortened, the soil becomes poorer as it receives
little recycled mineral nutrients and has to obtain it from virgin sources. Quick depletion
of nutrients occurs. The practice of burning cow-dung cakes has resulted in wide spread
depletion of nitrogen and phosphorus in many Indian fields. The mineral content in the
faecal matter produced by cattles could have helped to maintain proper soil structure and
nutrient status. But instead it is burned to produce heat and ashes which are quickly
leached away during rainy seasons. The soil becomes poorer after every rain.
Methods Of Composting
The important sources of solid wastes are domestic, commercial, industrial and
agricultural activities. Many times domestic and commercial wastes are considered
together as the so-called urban wastes.

Disposal Methods:

Several disposal methods are being used in the various parts of the world and the most
prominent are

 Open dumping
 Sanitaiy land filling (controlled tipping)
 Incineration and
 Composting
In incineration, burning the wastes causes air pollution, and in land fills, the waste is
spread in low lying areas and allowed to degrade by natural process. it causes odour
pollution. So, the only recycling method got solid waste is composting.

Composting is the alternate process for Farm residues and animal wastes. Composting
is the microbially activated process, in which the organic matter is the waste materials are
degraded is to humus like and product. The humic acid is the proper soil conditioner. It
improves the soil health, fertillty and productivity. This is mostly aerobic process. Some
times it may be anaerobic process.

First step is to separate the inert materials from degradable materials. Generally
magnetic seperators are used for this purpose. For getting the good quality compost, it takes 6
months. The bacteria, fungi, aetinomycetes play predominent role in the degradation process
when we see the microbiology of composting, it can be divided in to 4 stages.
 Mesophilic stage
 Thermophilic stage
 Cooling
 Maturity.

Mesophilic Process starts at 30oC. Initial degradation by mesophilic organisms.

During degradation, heat is released . It increases the thermophilic temperature. In
mesophilic, all soluble sugars are utilised by mesophilic bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes.
Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, Basillus, Streptomyces, Nocardia, Trichoderma, Fusarium,
Penicillicm are the major organisms. After temperature increased, fungal colonies dies off.
Here thermophilic baeteria plays the major role and acts on the compounds like cellulose and
lignin and oxidise the compounds. The important organisms are Basillus substilis and B.
coagulans.

The thermopnilic actinomycetes Thermomonospora plays important role in polymer

degradation. The process of mesophilic and thermophilic, occurs for 1 or 2 weeks. Rate of
degradation is high in thermophilic stage (70oC). After that cooling takes place, so Fungi
again established and combined with bacteria, actinomycetes and degradation takes place. 3-5
months will be taking for the maturity. The maturity period only decides the quality of the
product. pH should be neutral. Higher amount of acid production in initial stages, activate the
fungal colony. During thermophilic, the pH will be increased to 7-7.5 (alkaline condition).

Apart from the interaction of micro organisms, other factors deriding compost are,

 Particle size - it should be 12.5 mm size. In commercial scales it will be 50 mm

 C.N ratio should be 25:1 to 30:1. If low carbon content, 10:1 or 15:1. excess N will
lead to the volatilisation loss.
 Moisture should be 50-60% (favours the activity of microorganisms).
 Aeation : supply of oxygen is very much essential.
In India 2 methods of compositng:

Indore method : Heap is formed by spreading the waste materials and moist with cowding
or animal manure. The size will be 4-6 m length and 1m breadth. Due to the heap formation,
heat will be produced. so conservation of heat energy takes place. By turning also, we can
improve the aeration.

Bangalore method:

Here the urban waste materials, will be mixed with night soil and arranged in pit by
layers. The animal manure should be added in alternate layers. Filling should be done up to
15 cm above the ground. Here the process will be slow and in top layers aerobic process and
in bottom layers anaerobic process occurs. Immature compost teads to problem. So, the
maturity can be checked by some of the characters.
1. Colour of the product - Should be brownish black.

2. Odour -> musky odour, not soil odour.

3. CEC - > 60 m.eq/100 g of ash free waste.

4. Infra red spectrophotometer => help us to assertain the level of humic and fulvic acid.

5. Going for phytotoxic assay - identify the chemicals like ethylene oxide, fatty acids,
undegraded phenols.

Waste water treatment Techniques

Oxygen-Demanding Waste
 Dead organic matter in water decomposes by bacterial action
 Bacteria utilize oxygen during the decomposition
 Oxygen levels can be reduced to levels low enough to
o Kill fish
o Kill other organisms
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is amount of oxygen used for bacterial decomposition
 BOD measured as milligrams per liter of oxygen consumed over 5 days at 20
degrees Centigrade
 High BOD indicates a high level of decaying organic matter

Source of Organic Matter

 Natural sources = leaves, plant matter
 Agricultural sewage
 Municipal sewage

PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
 Cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery
 Difficult to monitor all disease-causing microorganisms
 Fecal coliform bacteria used as an indicator of microbial pollution
 Coliform bacteria common and usually harmless – occur in all human waste
 Historically, epidemics arise in areas with combined sewage and drinking water
and no drinking water treatment
 Outbreaks of water-borne diseases are still common in developing countries
  Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1993 – 400,000 cases of cryptosporidiosis from the
parasitic microorganism, Cryptosporidium
o Can be fatal to people with depressed immune system
o Resistant to chlorination
 Water supplies are also vulnerable following earthquakes, floods and hurricanes
o Damaged or overflowing sewer lines can contaminate drinking water supply

NUTRIENTS
 Phosphorus (P) and/or nitrogen (N) released by
o Fertilizers
o Detergents
o Sewage treatment plants
 Concentrations in streams are related to land use
o Forested watersheds have lowest N and P
o Agricultural watersheds have highest N and P
o Urban watersheds have levels somewhere in between
 High nutrient levels in waters can result in eutrophication

EUTROPHICATION
 High concentrations of nutrients stimulate rapid growth of plants (algae)
 Algal blooms produce thick mats of algae on water surface
 Mats block sunlight to plants (algae) below and they die
 Dead plant matter decomposes = increased BOD
 Dissolved oxygen can drop to low levels in the water
 Fish and animals die (Fish kills)

Treatment methods for sewage

Treatment processes for sewage can be grouped under four headings:

 Physical processes relying on gravity or mechanical assistance to separate solids and

gases from water.
 Chemical processes relying on chemical reactions to convert dissolved or tiny
particles of suspended solids to solids that can be physically separated; or to oxidise
or reduce impurities.
  Biological processes rely on bacteria which can convert dissolved and very fine solid
impurities to more bacteria and gas.
 Land Treatment processes which involve components of each of the previous three
groups.

All of these processes remove solids from the sewage in the form of sludge. The more
efficient a sewage treatment process is, the greater the amount of sludge it will produce.
Most, if not all, the previously noted treatment processes only remove some of the disease-
causing pathogens from the sewage. Final disinfection is needed prior to disposal to kill any
remaining pathogens.

Physical Processes
Screens
These are used to remove large objects. The smaller plants have coarse, manually
cleaned screens. A screen is simply a barrier designed to remove solids as sewage passes
through it. The amount and type of solids trapped depends on the size of the gaps in the
screen. Typically two types of screens are used:

 coarse screens with 10 mm to 25 mm gaps for removing large objects pieces of wood,
textiles etc) and,
 fine screens with a 0.1 mm to 3 mm gap for removing smaller debris, most plastics,
textiles, pens, etc.

Coarse screens remove little organic matter and suspended solids. Fine screens are
sometimes used in place of primary clarifiers and can remove a portion of the organic matter
and suspended solids, although typically they are less efficient than primary clarifiers.
Screening equipment varies from simple sets of bars to rotating mesh drums through which
sewage is passed. Larger capacity screens generally have automatic cleaning. The solids
collected by the screens need to be disposed of, usually by either landfill or incineration.
Sometimes the solids from coarse screens are disintegrated and returned to the sewage flow.

Grit Removal Systems

Grit removal systems come in a variety of designs. They are designed to remove high
density solids, such as sand. They will remove material down to about 0.2 mm, and although
designed not to remove organic materials, some such as peas, coffee grounds and corn will be
removed. The grit collected is usually disposed of to a landfill, although the organic materials
may be destroyed in an incinerator.

Settling Tanks
These are also known as clarifiers or sedimentation tanks. They can be circular or
rectangular. Settling tanks operate on the principle of slowing the flow sufficiently so that
slow settling materials can sink and be collected and removed. Typically, 60 to 70 percent of
suspended solids and 30 to 40 percent of organic matter in raw sewage is removed. Floating
oil and fats can be removed if a scum collection system is installed. Settling tanks are also an
important part of other treatment processes, particularly biological treatment where they are
normally called secondary clarifiers. The sludge which collects at the bottom needs to be
removed frequently, and usually mechanical scrapers are installed to do this. The sludge
produced must be further treated before disposal, usually by aerobic or anaerobic digestion,
chemical stabilization, composting, or incineration.

Chemical Processes
Chemically Enhanced Settling
The performance of a traditional settling tank can be enhanced by adding chemicals to
the incoming sewage. Typically a coagulant, usually a ferric (iron) salt or possibly alum
(aluminium sulfate), is added to the sewage prior to the settling tank.This technology can
increase suspended solids removals to more than 80% and organic matter removal to 50-60
%. The technology is well established and has been used with success for some years in the
USA. The same chemicals can be used to remove phosphorus compounds from sewage. The
addition of these chemicals causes the phosphorus compounds to precipitate out and become
part of the sludge.

Biological Processes
Anaerobic Processes
These processes use bacteria which are able to live without oxygen (anaerobic
bacteria). Generally they are used to pre-treat sewage with a high content of organic matter
and to treat sludges from other processes. Several types of bacteria work in stages to break
down complex organic materials to simpler ones and eventually to methane and carbon
dioxide.
 Anaerobic processes are slower and provide a lower degree of organic matter removal
than aerobic ones (as used in activated sludge). They are also very sensitive to their
environment and are therefore not as reliable. For sewage with a high organic matter
concentration, methane can be burnt as a fuel, resulting in net energy production. The
methane gas produced can be burnt to power turbines for electricity production. The
electricity produced is used to power the plant. Treated sewage from an anaerobic process
would need to be further treated before discharge to the environment. Typically the process is
carried out in large mixed vessels known as digesters. The sewage remains in the digesters
for 15 to 20 days.

Land-Based Treatment
Lagoons
Lagoon systems comprise a series of lagoons, usually earthen, through which the
sewage passes. The lagoons are normally 1 to 3 metres deep with retention times between 3
and 20 days in each lagoon. A typical lagoon system has between 4 and 10 lagoons,
depending on the degree of treatment required. Typically lagoons remove toxic chemicals
and metals to a slightly greater degree than activated sludge. Lagoon systems rely on a
population of bacteria forming in each lagoon to break down pollutants in the sewage.
Lagoons may be classified as anaerobic, facultative, aerobic or aerated. An anaerobic
lagoon contains no dissolved oxygen due to the high sewage load on it. Anaerobic lagoons
provide effective treatment but can produce strong, unpleasant odours and often need to be
covered. Anaerobic lagoons must be followed by aerated, facultative or aerobic lagoons to
achieve adequate treated sewage quality for discharge to the environment.
A facultative lagoon contains less organic matter, allowing the surface water to
contain dissolved oxygen, although the bottom is anaerobic. An aerobic lagoon can handle
only low levels of organic material and contains dissolved oxygen throughout its depth.
Facultative and aerobic lagoons do not usually produce significant odours, but require more
area than anaerobic ones.
An aerated lagoon is one which is mechanically aerated, so reducing the area needed.
All forms of lagoons achieve good removal of metals and organic toxicants and aerobic,
aerated and facultative lagoons provide good disinfection.
Lagoons need to be desludged only every few years, so the sludge spends a long time
in the bottom of the lagoon. This maximizes solids reduction, though significant amounts of
solids eventually still need to be disposed of. Except for aerated lagoons, they use no energy
and require very little maintenance. Due to algal blooms in the final lagoons, they tend not to
produce an effluent as clear as that from other types of treatment plant, and they require a
large area.
Land Filtration
A land filtration system consists of the periodic inundation of the land with raw
sewage to a depth of around 100 millimetres on areas prepared as either flat bays surrounded
by banks, or as graded bays. These bays have a gradient of 0.1% to 2%, and receive sewage
at the elevated end by means of distribution channels. The sewage is purified as it filters
through the soil, and the resultant treated sewage is intercepted at the lower end of the bay by
an earthen drain cut below the level of the water table. The process requires large areas of
suitably permeable land and cannot be used in wet climates.
Grass Filtration
In the grass filtration process, primary-settled sewage is continuously passed at a slow
rate over graded areas planted with a water-tolerant grass species such as Italian rye grass.
This species is both fine-stemmed and thick in growth. Bays are usually designed so that an
average 36 to 48 hours is required for sewage to travel the length of a bay. As sewage trickles
through the vegetation, suspended matter is filtered out and the pollutants are removed by a
biologically-active film which builds up on the vegetation. The treated sewage is then
collected in a drainage network. As soil permeability is not important in this process, areas
where the soil is of a heavy clay texture are used. Grass filtration requires large areas of land.
Artificial Wetlands
This type of treatment is based around a bed of aquatic plants with the sewage
flowing through the root system. The plants transfer oxygen into the sewage via their roots,
and take up nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus). The sewage needs at least coarse screening
and preferably primary settling before treatment by a wetland. Typically, 55% to 80% of
organic matter and 50% to 85% of suspended solids can be removed. Phosphorous removal
can be high initially, but declines with time. Most full-scale experience with these systems is
for effluent "polishing" following a conventional biological treatment system.
Artificial wetlands are slightly cheaper to construct on a small scale than more
compact plants and have very low maintenance costs. The aquatic plants usually chosen grow
slowly and don't require frequent harvesting. Large areas of land are required. A lead time of
6 months to 2 years is required to allow plants to grow before the system becomes fully
operational. Sludge is retained within the system so that eventually some rebuilding of the
area may be required.
Disinfection
Chlorination and UV radiation is used for the final disinfection of treated sewage.This occurs
in the lagoons.

Chlorination
Chlorination is the most common method of disinfection. Chlorine is added to the
sewage either as chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite liquid or calcium hypochlorite tablets.
Many large treatment plants use chlorine gas.
When stored as a liquid, the chlorine must first be converted to chlorine gas. Then the
chlorine gas is dissolved in water to form a concentrated chlorine solution which is mixed
with the sewage to be disinfected.
Chlorination has been proven effective, uses well-established technology and the
necessary equipment is low cost. There are some disadvantages with the use of chlorine to
disinfect sewage. For example, some chlorine is left behind in the treated sewage and this can
be toxic to aquatic life. For this, and other reasons, chlorine has been replaced as a
disinfectant by ultraviolet radiation in many treatment plants.

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Primary Treatment
 Physical removal of solid material

 Screening removes grit (sand, stones and other large particles)

 Sedimentation settles out remaining particulate matter into a mudlike sediment

called sludge

 Sludge must be disposed of

 Treated wastewater continues to secondary treatment or is released

 30 to 40% of pollutants removed through primary treatment

Secondary Treatment
 biological treatment

 most common is activated sludge

o water enters an aeration tank – air pumped in and aerobic (oxygen-

requiring) bacteria break down organic matter

o final sedimentation tank  more sludge (living and dead microorganisms)

 o Sludge goes to digester  anaerobic (no oxygen used) bacteria digest
(break down) organic matter in the sludge

o Wastewater disinfected by

 Chlorine or

 Ozone

o Water discharged

 About 90% of pollutants removed after secondary treatment

 Does not remove all nutrients, heavy metals, or organic pollutants

Tertiary Treatment

 Advanced treatment to reduce concentrations of selected pollutants identified in

effluent

 Removes nutrients, organic pollutants, etc.

Activated Sludge Process

Definition of the process: In general, the activated sludge process is a continuous or

semicontinuous(fill and draw) aerobic method for biological wastewater treatment, including
carbonaceous oxidation and nitrification. This process is based on the aeration of wastewater
with flocculating biological growth, followed by separation of treated wastewater from this
growth. Part of this growth is then wasted, and the remainder is returned to the system.
Usually, the separation of the growth from the treated wastewater is performed by settling
(gravity separation) but it may also be done by flotation and other methods.

Screening and Grit Units - The purpose of this prestep is to remove large objects such as
logs, branches, rags, and small fish that could damage pumps and clog pipes and channels if
they are not removed. This step can also be used for grinding waste to reduce particle size.

Primary Settling Tanks - The oldest and most widely used form of water and wastewater
treatment uses gravity settling to remove particles from water. The shape of the tanks can be
round, square or rectangular. Sedimentation takes place in the primary settling tanks and is
relatively simple and inexpensive. Particulates suspended in surface water can range in size
from 10-1 to 10-7 mm in diameter, the size of fine sand and small clay respectively. Turbidity
or cloudiness in water is caused by those particles larger than 10-4 mm, while particles smaller
than 10-4 mm contribute to the water‟s color and taste. Such very small particles may be
considered for treatment purposes, to be dissolved rather than particulate.

Water containing particulate matter flows slowly through a sedimentation tank and is thus
detained long enough for the larger particles to settle to the bottom before the clarified water
leaves the tank over a weir at the outlet end. Particles that have settled to the bottom of the
tank are removed manually or by mechanical scrapers on the site pending their treatment
and/or removal. Detention time is typically 3 h in tanks 3 to 5m (10 to 15 ft) deep.

Aeration Tanks - The waste water flows into an aeration chamber usually constructed of
steel, poly, fiberglass, or concrete. The aeration chamber normally provides 6 to 24 hours
retention time for the waste water. The contents of the aeration tank are referred to as mixed
liquor, and the solids are called mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). The latter includes
inert material as well as living and dead microbial cells. In the aeration tank, microorganisms
are kept in suspension for 4 to 8 hours by mechanical mixers and/or diffused air, and their
concentration in the tank is maintained by the continuous return of the settled biological floc
from a secondary settling tank to the aeration tank.

Final Settling Tanks - Like primary tanks, final tanks may be rectangular or circular, and
occasionally square, but they provide longer detention (2h) and lower overflow rates (30 to
50 m3/m2.day). The Final Settling Tanks can also be referred to as The Settling Chamber or a
Secondary Clarifier. The Final Settling Tanks receives the overflow of the aeration chamber.
When the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank, it is still active and it is able to remove
more BOD from the waste water. Returning the activated sludge to the aeration chamber on a
continuous basis maintains and increases the microorganism concentration in the aeration
chamber. This is a key factor to increase BOD removal from the waste water. The sludge will
continue to build up. Occasionally, some of the sludge should be drained to keep the effluent
from deteriorating.

The cleaner water at the top of the settling chamber overflows through openings at the top of
the chamber. It can then be treated for reuse or discharged. For less than a 24 hour retention
period in the aerobic process, BOD concentration should not exceed about 2,000 mg/l on the
effluent.
Thickener - Thickening of activated sludge occurs as a part of the separation of the activated
sludge from the mixed liquor in the secondary clarifiers; or it is practiced independently as an
additional operation, usually for mixed sludges (primary and secondary). Separate gravity
thickening of activated sludge only is not a very effective operation. There are several types
of thickeners, the most common being: Gravity Thickening, Thickening by Flotation, and
Centrifugal Thickening.

Anaerobic Digester - Anaerobic digestion of organic sludges is generally a two-phase

process. In the first phase, complex organic substances are converted into simple organic
acids. In the second phase of the process, the simple organic acids are converted into methane
and carbon dioxide.

Chlorine Tank - To ensure that water is free of harmful bacteria it is necessary to disinfect it.
Chlorination is the most common method of disinfecting public water supplies. Sufficient
quantities of chlorine from chlorine gas or hypochlorites are added to treated water to kill
pathogenic bacteria. Chlorination is a reliable, relatively inexpensive, and easy disinfection
method to use.

Types of Activated Sludge Processes

Plug Flow - wastewater is routed through a series of channels constructed in the aeration
basin.

 Wastewater Flows through as a plug & is treated as it winds its way through the tank.

 As the wastewater goes through the system, BOD and organics concentration are
greatly reduced.

 Variations to this method include: adding return sludge and/or in decreasing amounts
at various locations along length of the tank; wastewater BOD is reduced as it passes
through tank, and air requirements and number of bacteria required also decrease
accordingly.

Complete Mix - wastewater may be immediately mixed throughout the entire contents of the
aeration basin (mixed with oxygen and bacteria).
 This is the most common method used today.
  Since the wastewater is completely mixed with bacteria and oxygen, the volatile
suspended solids concentration and oxygen demand are the same throughout the tank.
Contact Stabilization -
 Microorganisms consume organics in the contact tank.
 Raw wastewater flows into the contact tank where it is aerated and mixed with
bacteria.
 Soluble materials pass through bacterial cell walls, while insoluble materials stick to
the outside.
 Solids settle out later and are wasted from the system or returned to a stabilization
tank.
 Microbes digest organics in the stabilization tank, and are then recycled back to the
contact tank, because they need more food.
 Detention time is minimized, so the size of the contact tank can be smaller.
 Volume requirements for the stabilization tank are also smaller because the basin
receives only concentrated return sludge, there is no incoming raw wastewater.
Extended Aeration -
 Used to treat industrial wastewater containning soluble organics that need longer
detention times.
 This is the same as complete mix, with just a longer aeration.
 Advantage - long detention time in the aeration tank; provides equalization to absorb
sudden/temporary shock loads.
 Less sludge is generally produced because some of the bacteria are digested in the
aeration tank.
 One of the simpler modifications to operate.
Other Modifications (less common)
Oxidation ditch - similar to plug flow but uses a circulator aeration basin.
Step feed - microbes gradually feed organics in a step feed mode at multiple points along the
tank plug flow.
Tapered aeration - air flow rate to the aeration basin may be tapered along the length of the
basin.
Kraus Process - The anaerobically digested sludge and digester supernatant may be added to
the return sludge, thus improving settling of the floc.
  A portion of the return sludge flow from the secondary clarifier is mixed with the
anaerobically digested sludge and the digester supernatant before being combined
with the return sludge stream and recycled back to the aeration basin.
Microorganisms in the Activated Sludge Process

 The activated sludge process is a treatment technique in which wastewater and reused
biological sludge full of living microorganisms is mixed and aerated.

 The biological solids are then separated from the treated wastewater in a clarifier and
returned to the aeration process or wasted.

 The microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the incoming organic as food. As
they grow and are mixed with air, the individual organisms clump together
(flocculate). Once flocculated, they more readily settle in the secondary clarifier.

 The activated sludge is constantly growing and more is produced that can be returned
for use in the aeration basin. Some of this sludge must, therefore be wasted to a sludge
handling system for treatment and disposal.

 The volume of sludge returned to the aeration basins is normally 40 to 60 percent of

the wastewater flow; the rest is wasted.

 A fixed growth of microorganisms develops on synthetic media similar to trickling

filters. By means of sludge recalculation, a population of suspended growth microbes
is developed in addition to the fixed growth on the media.

Activated sludge can be defined as "a mixture of microorganisms which contact and digest
bio-degradable materials (food) from wastewater." Activated sludge consists of a mixed
community of microorganisms that metabolize and transform organic and inorganic
substances into environmentally acceptable forms. The typical microbiology of activated
sludge consists of approximately 95% bacteria and 5% higher organisms (protozoa, rotifers,
and higher forms of invertebrates). The term "activated sludge" refers to a biological process.

 Activated sludge is microorganisms.

 The Activated sludge process is a biological process.
  To properly control the activated sludge process, you must properly control the
growth of microorganism. This involves controlling the items which may affect
those microorganisms.

The Formation of Floc

As bacteria begin growing, they generally develop into small chains or clumps. They
are very active and motile and it is difficult for them to settle. They have not yet developed
the slime layer which aids in their sticking together. So, when mixing occurs, the small
chains or clumps are broken up and the bugs are dispersed, and they will not flocculate or
settle. As the sludge is allowed to age, the bugs lose their motility and accumulate more
slime. Then the clumps and chains are better able to stick together. The clumps grow bigger
and bigger until they form a floc. If the organisms are allowed to develop properly, under
the right conditions, the floc get large and compact and begin to settle. The mixing in the
aeration tank tends to keep the floc small since, even though the bugs are sticky, the bond
formed holding the organisms together is not very strong. This is good because it allows the
cells, food, and oxygen to contact each other.
Unit 5. Environmental protection

Environmental Education and Organisations

Environmental Organization and Agencies

There are number of international and national organizations, agencies and
programmes involved in different areas of environment, forestry, wildlife and other relevant
aspects.

International Bodies:

1. Earthscane :
2. Conventional on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
3. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
4. European Economic Community (EEC).
5. Human Exposure Assessment Location(HEAL).
6. International Council of Scientific Unions (ICUS).
7. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.(IUCN)
8. International Marine Consultative Organization(IMCO).
9. South Asia Co-Operative Environment Programme(SACEP).
10. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, (UNESCO)
11. United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)
12. World Commission on Environment and Development(WCED)
13. Earth Watch Programme
14. Project Earth
15. Earthwalks.
National Organizations:

There are a large number of governmental as well as non-governmental organizations,

agencies, and programmes engaged in environmental studies. A number of non-
governmental, voluntary organization have been doing good job in this area.

Department of environment, forests & wildlife (Govt. of India)

The present integrated Department of Environmental, Forests and Wildlife (D.O.E) in

the Ministry of Environmental and Forests was created in September 1985.
The following items of work are allocated to the Ministry :

1. Environment and ecology.

2. Botanical Survey of Indian and Botanical Gardens.
3. Zoological Survey of India
4. National Museum of Natural History.
5. The water Pollution Act (Act 1974, 1977)
6. The Air Pollution Act, 1981
7. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
8. Biosphere Reserve Programme
9. National Forest Policy and Forestry Development.
10. Forest Policy
11. Indian Forest Service
12. Wildlife Preservation
13. Fundamental Research in Coordination with Higher Education in Forestry
14. Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park
15. National land use and wasteland Development Council
16. Central Ganga Authority
17. National Assistance to Forestry Development Schemes
18. Prevention of Cruetly to Animals and
19. Indian plywood Industries Reserch Institute , Banglore

Other National Organizations

There are many other governmental and non-governmental organizations/agencies involved
in environmental issues. Some of the important ones are as follows

1. Advisory Board on Energy (ABE)

2. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
3. Central Forestry Commission (CFC)
4. Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
5. Industrial Toxicology Research Centre (ITRC)
6. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
7. National Dairy Development Board
8. National Natural Resources Management System
9. National Wetland Management Committee
 10. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
11. Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI)
12. Several Research Institutes under I.C.A.R including
I.G.F.R.I., Jhansi, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL THROUGH LAW

The environmental pollution has now become a global problem. An adequate

preventive legislation has, therefore, become quite essential to control pollution, more
particularly industrial pollution.

The U.N. Conference at Stockholm on Environment in 1972 focused the attention of

the international community on environment issues. India‟s role drew the support of the
developing nations to the environmental issues. The United Nations Environmental
Programme provided, for the first time, a global information and action set up on
environmental matters. In December 1972, the General Assembly sponsored the U.S.
Environmental Programme with global jurisdiction with headquarters at Nairobi. At the
international level the assessment function is being performed through the annual reports on
the global environment published by the UNEP.

Acts for protection of Indian environment since 1857.

The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857

The Serais Act, 1867

The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873

The Obstruction in Airways Act, 1881

The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897

The Indian Ports Act, 1901

The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905

The Explosives Act, 1908

The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912

The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917

The Mysore Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1917

The Poison Act, 1919

The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pests & Diseases Act, 1919

The Indian Boilers Act, 1923

The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation & Improvement) Act, 1946

The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1947

The Damodar Valley Corporation (Prevention of Pollution of Water) Regulation Act,

1948

The Factories (Pollution and Pesticides) Act, 1948

The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948

The Andhra Pradesh Improvement Schemes (Land Utilisation) Act, 1949

The Industries (Development And Regulation) Act,1951

The Calcutta Municipal Act, 1951

The Madhya Pradesh Control of Music and Noises Act, 1951

The Maharashta Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1953

The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Colaba) Act, 1953

The Orissa River Pollution & Prevention Act, 1953

The Assam Agricultural Pests and Disease Act, 1954

The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

The U.P. Agricultural Pests & Disease Act, 1954

The Acquisition Of Land For Flood Control And Prevention Of Erosion Act, 1955

The Bihar Control of the Use and Play of Loudspeakers Act, 1955
The River Boards Act, 1956

The Ancient Monuments and Archeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958

The Kerala Agricultural Pests & Disease Act, 1958

The Atomic Energy Act, 1962

The Major Port Trusts Act, 1963

The Gujarat Smoke Nuisance Act, 1963

The Rajasthan Noise Control Act, 1963

The Delhi Restriction of Land Uses Act, 1964

The Beedi and Cigar Works Act, 1966

The Insecticides Act, 1968

The Maharashtra Water Pollution Prevention Act, 1969

Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage (Prevention & Control of Water Pollution)
Act, 1970

The Merchant shipping (Amendment) Act (Harbour and Coastal Water Dumping of
Oil , etc.), 1970

The Cattle Trespass Act, 1971

The Wild life (Protection) Act, 1972

The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Urban Land Act (Ceiling and Regulation), 1976

The Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Basti Kshetra (Sudhar Tatha Nirmulan) Adhiniyam,
1976

The Territorial Waters, continental shelf, exclusive Economic Zone and other
Maritime Zone Act, 1976

The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

 The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1978

The Coast Guard Act, 1978

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Fairways Act, 1981

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

Motor Vehicles Act, 1988

CENTRAL LEGISLATIONS

I Air Pollution
1. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
2. Motor Vehicle Act, 1939 (Repealed by Act No. 59 of 1988)
3. The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development ) Act, 1947
4. The Factories Act, 1948
5. The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951
6. The Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981 (amended in 1987)

II Water Pollution
1. The River Boards Act, 1956
2. The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1970
3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act, 1974 (amended in 1988)
4. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 (amended in
1991)

III Radiation
1. The Poison Act, 1919
2. The Factories Act, 1948
3. The Insecticides Act, 1968
Miscellaneous
1. The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
2. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
3. The prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
4. The Ancient Monuments and Archeological sites and Remains Act, 1958
5. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended in 1983, 1986 and 1991)
6. The Urban Land (Ceilings and Regulation) Act, 1976
7. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (amended in 1988)
8. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

STATE LEGISLATIONS

I Smoke Control
7. The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905
8. The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912
9. The Gujarat Smoke Nuisance Act, 1963

II Water Pollution
1. The Orissa River Pollution Prevention Act, 1953
2. The Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969

III Noise Pollution

1. The Madhya Pradesh Control of Music and Noise Act, 1951
2. The Bihar Control of the Use and Play of Loudspeakers Act, 1955
3. The Rajasthan Noise Control Act, 1963
4. Grants of Permission under the Himachal Pradesh Instruments (Control of Noise )
Act, 1969

IV Pest Control
1. The Mysore Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1917
2. The A.P. Agricultural Pest and Disease Act, 1919
3. The Assam Agricultural Pests and Disease Act, 1954
4. The U.P. Agricultural Pests and Disease Act, 1954
5. The kerala Agricultural Pests and Disease Act, 1958
V Land Utilisation and Land Improvement
1. The Bihar Waste Lands (Reclamation, Cultivation and Improvement) Act, 1946
2. The A.P. Improvement Schemes Act, 1949
3. The Delhi Restriction of Uses of Land Act, 1964

THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

The Environment Act, 1986 was presented by our late Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi
which received the President‟s assent on May 23, 1986. The Act refers to the Stockholm
Conference of 1972 and is based on Article 253 of the Constitution.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the Act is to protect and improve the environment and matters
connected therewith.

POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

To protect and improve the quality of the environment and for preventing, controlling
and abating the environmental pollution, the Act (Section 3) empowers the Central
Government to take the following necessary measures :

- Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention,

control and abatement of environmental pollution ;
- Laying down standards for the quality of environment ;
- Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes shall
not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards;
- Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents
which may cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such
accidents ;
- Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling hazardous
substances ;
- Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances
which are likely to cause environmental pollution ;
- Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to
problems of environmental pollution ;
 - Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or
other process; materials or substances;
- Establishment of recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes ;
- Collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating
to environmental pollution ; and
- Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention,
control and abatement of environmental pollution.

PENALTIES
Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of the Act shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term, which may extend to five years or with fine up to
Rs. 100,000/-, or both. In case of continuing offences, it provides for an additional fine up to
Rs. 5,000/-for every day during which such failure or contravention continues. If the failure
or contravention continues beyond a period of one year, the offender shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term extending to seven years.

AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

POWERS OF THE STATE BOARDS

i. Power to declare air pollution control areas.
ii. Power to give instruction to the concerned authority under the Motor Vehicles
Act, 1939 for ensuring emission standards for automobiles;
iii. Power to restrict establishment or operation of any industrial plant in an air
pollution control area.
iv. Power to enter and inspect any place for compliance with the provisions of the
Act;
v. Power to call for any information with regard to the type and level of the air
pollutants emitted into the atmosphere; and
vi. Power to take samples of air or emissions for analysis.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BOARDS

The Act empowers the Central and State Boards to perform the following functions:

i. To advise, plan and execute nationwide programmes, provide technical assistance

and guidance, carry out investigations and research, plan and organise the training
of persons, organize through mass media comprehensive programmes, collect,
 compile, and publish technical and statistical data, prepare manuals, codes or
guides regarding prevention, control and abatement of pollution;
ii. Lay down standards for quality of air; and
iii. To establish or recognise laboratories for the above purposes.

PENALTIES
Whoever fails to comply with the provisions of the Act under Section 21 (5) or
Section 22 or with directions issued under this Act, shall be punishable with imprisonment
for a period which many extend to three months or with fine up to Rs. 10,000/- or with both.
In case of continuing offences, it provides with an additional fine up to Rs. 100/- for every
day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first such failure.

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) CESS ACT, 1977

According to the Water act, 1974, the Central Government and the state Governments
have to provide funds to the respective Boards for the implementation of the provisions of the
Act. The water Act, however is silent as how to raise funds to meet heavy and ever increasing
expenditure. Also, due to pressure on the limited resources, the State Governments are unable
to provide adequate funds for the effective functioning of their respective Boards. Therefore
it was proposed to levy a cess on local authorities which are entrusted with the duty of
supplying water under the law by, which they are constituted and to certain specific industries
on the basis of the water consumed. As a consequence of this, „The water(Prevention and
Control of pollution) cess Act, 1977‟ was enacted by the Parliament to augment the resources
of the Boards.

OBJECTIVES OF THE CESS ACT:

The water Cess Act, 1977 is a fiscal measure to raise revenue for augmenting the
resources of the Pollution Control Boards. The Cess is payable by every person carrying on
any industry and every local authority entrusted with the duty of supplying water. It is
calculated on the basis of water consumed . The central Government may revise the rates
from time by notification in the Official Gazette.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STRATEGY

The future strategy of the Ministry and Environment and forest under Environment
Action Programme will be to
 (a) improve the rate of Cess collection from all categories of industrial units, rather than
confine collections to thermal power stations, integrated steel plants, fertilizer plants,
petroleum refineries etc, and
(b) extend the ambit of the cess to cover more sectors in the rural areas including
agriculture after careful assessing the implications.
Major activities through pollution control laws.

The main areas being looked after for pollution control through law are as follows:

1. Air quality monitoring

2. Assessment of water quality
3. Assessment of coastal water quality
4. Preparation of environmental standards.
5. Enforcement of standards
6. Ganga action plan.

There is a separate Ganga project Directorate (GPD) in the ministry of Environment

and Forests for regeneration and development work on this major river basin of country. The
Central Ganga Authority was constituted in February 1985 to guide and oversee the
implementation of a programme for restoring the quality of river Ganga.

Work on monitoring of water quality in the river is in progress. There are 27 stations
along the river at Rishikesh, kanpur, Allahabd, Varanasi, Patnaand Rajmahal. BOD values
have been recorded and work on other parameters is in progress. There are efforts to involve
the public men in the Ganga Action Plan.