myVariable Frequency Drive

by

Pritam Sen
This book is written on my way of understanding a Variable Frequency Drive from
different sources. This contains information of the VFD basic, related technologies
& selection criterion. It may be inadequate for you, I will be happy if you add some
value to this book on your way of understanding a Variable Frequency Drive.

I devote this book to the Electrical Department of TATA Chemicals Ltd., Babrala &
its devoted people.

With love & affection,

Pritam Sen
Introduction: The Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is also known as Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), Variable
Speed Drive (VSD).
A VFD takes the electric power from the feeding network at the standard network frequency. In the first
stage the alternating current (AC) is rectified to direct current (DC) in a rectifier unit. This rectifier can be either
a diode bridge or a thyristor bridge or power transistor bridge, depending on the drive system. Then the DC is
processed in a thyristor or a power transistor bridge type inverter to convert DC to AC. This output AC has a
frequency that can be adjusted & controlled with high precision & speed by means of control circuits &
microprocessor in each drive. When the adjustable frequency current is fed to a normal fixed speed electric
motor, adjusting frequency can control the motor velocity.
Motor-driven systems are often designed to handle peak loads that have a safety factor. This often leads
to energy inefficiency in systems that operate for extended periods at reduced load. The ability to adjust motor
speed enables closer matching of motor output to load and often results in energy savings.

History: Previously electronic controllers used thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectifier-SCR) rectifier which
controlled the voltage & therefore the speed of the DC motors. However, the DC motor is large, expensive &
requires periodic brush maintenance. The AC induction motor is simple, low cost, reliable & widely used
throughout the world. In order to control the speed of the AC induction motor an inverter is required.

Understanding an Induction Motor: An induction motor works like a transformer. When the stator (the fixed,
outer winding) is connected to a three phase power source, a rotating magnetic field is set up, which rotates at
synchronous speed (NS), given as NS =120f/P,where f=supply frequency & P=no of stator pole. The field
crosses the air gap between the stator & rotor & causes voltage to be induced in the rotor winding, according to
the principle of electromagnetic induction & Lenz’s law. As the rotor bars of squirrel cage induction motor
(mostly used in industrial application) are shorted by end rings on both ends, current flows in the rotor cast
winding. This produces a force on the rotor, according to the Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, as the rotor current
interacts with the rotating magnetic field, and the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of the rotating
magnetic field. But the rotor speed (NR) a little lag behind than that of the speed of the rotating magnetic field,
in case of induction motor. This difference in speed is known as “slip” & given as S=(NS- NR)/ NS. Thus, if the
rotor rotates at synchronous speed of the motor, there will be no change in magnetic field & no rotation &
generation of torque
Therefore, the speed of the motor depends on the applied frequency, winding arrangement (i.e. no of
stator poles), and a little on load. Therefore in order to control the motor speed it is necessary to control the
supply frequency, supplied to the motor.
Now, to slow down the motor, with the reduction in frequency, the voltage must be reduced, otherwise
magnetic flux (as Φ∞V/f) will be too high & the motor magnetic circuit will saturate. Thus at low speed
operation torque remains constant. To speed up the motor, with the increment in frequency above normal i.e.
operation at above synchronous speed is possible, but the voltage must be increased, to maintain maximum flux.
But that imposes restriction due to insulation’s voltage withstand capability. Thus at high speed less torque is
available, rather power (∞ torque X speed) will remain constant. This is sometimes called "field weakening"
and, for AC motors, is operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above synchronous speed. E.g. a 75 KW,
415V, 50Hz (V/f=8.3), 1775 rpm motor supplied with 415V, 75Hz (V/f=5.53) would be limited to 5.53/8.3=
66% torque at 150% speed (2662.5 rpm) = 100% power.
In practice, either speed or torque is controlled & we call “speed control” or “torque control”. When
VFD operates in torque control mode, the speed is determined by the load. Likewise, when operated in speed
control, the torque is determined by the load.
Application of VFD:
Variable speed drives are used for two main reasons:
• to improve the efficiency of motor-driven equipment by matching speed to changing load requirements.
Motor-driven centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers offer the most dramatic energy-saving
opportunities. Many of these operate for extended periods at reduced load with flow restricted or throttled.
In these centrifugal machines, energy consumption is proportional to the cube of the flow rate. Even small
reductions in speed and flow can result in significant energy savings. In these applications, significant
energy and cost savings can be achieved by reducing the operating speed when the process flow
requirements are lower.

Examples of Fluid Control

160
THROTTLE CONTROL
140

H 120
E
A
D 100 Pump Curve
- N = 100%
H 80
System Curve
60
SPEED CONTROL N = 60%
40

20

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

(%)
FLOW - Q
• or, to allow accurate and continuous process control over a wide range of speeds.
In some applications, such as conveyers, machine tools and other production-line equipment, the
benefits of accurate speed control are the primary consideration. VFD can increase productivity, improve
product quality and process control, and reduce maintenance and downtime. Decreasing cost and increasing
reliability of power semiconductor electronics are reasons that VFD are increasingly selected over DC
motors or other adjustable speed drives for process speed control applications.
In addition to energy savings and better process control, VFD can provide other benefits:
• A VFD may be used for control of process temperature, pressure or flow without the use of a separate
controller. Suitable sensors and electronics are used to interface the driven equipment with the VFD.
• Maintenance costs can be lower, since lower operating speeds result in longer life for bearings and
motors.
• Eliminating the throttling valves and dampers also does away with maintaining these devices and all
associated controls.
• A soft starter for the motor is no longer required.
• Controlled ramp-up speed in a liquid system can eliminate water hammer problems.
• The ability of a VFD to limit torque to a user-selected level can protect driven equipment that cannot
tolerate excessive torque.
Basic Construction of VFD:

VFD

The supply is converted to DC by the rectifier bridge, which supplies the DC link capacitors. The capacitors
reduce the voltage ripple & supply energy for short breaks in the input supply. The DC voltage is converted
back to AC using Inverter. The desired output current waveform is built up by switching the output transistors
ON & OFF at any fixed frequency (the switching frequency). But the output voltage is still a series of square
wave pulses.
Operation of VFD: When a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor.
The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current
that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch(DOL).
When a VFD starts, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to
accelerate the load without drawing excessive current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop
150% of its rated torque while drawing only 50% of its rated current. When a motor is simply switched on at
full voltage, it initially draws at least 300% of its rated current while producing less than 50% of its rated
torque. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the
current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady
150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed while drawing only 50% current. With a VFD, the
stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor
are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small
amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor
were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking
circuit to dissipate the braking energy or return it to the power source.
Technology:

According to rectifier:

a) 6-pulse
b) 12-pulse
c) 18-pulse
d) Active Front End

According to inverter:

a) Current Source Inverter (CSI)

b) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

According to inverter modulation:

a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)-Sinusoidal

b) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)-Triangular

According to motor control system:

a) V/F control
b) Flux Current Control
c) Vector Control
d) Sensor less Vector Control
e) Direct Torque Control
Rectifier Philosophy:

6-Pulse 18-Pulse AFE or D-D or

PWM rectifier
Configuration

Master-Slave One master bridge & One master bridge & two Equivalent to one
one slave bridges-will slave bridges-will always master & fourteen
always have a total 6 have a total 18 SCR slave bridges.
SCR switching devices. switching devices.
Filter Worlds most common Worlds most common Worlds most
harmonic standards harmonic standards common harmonic
requirements are met in requirements are met in standards
majority of cases majority of cases without requirements are met
without the need of the need of passive filter It requires very little
passive filter filtering( no dv/dt
filter or sine filter) of
harmonics due to
elimination of major
harmonics.
Isolation Multi winding A multi winding isolation Attractive since it
Transformer transformer is not transformer is required to does not require an
required. mitigate the low order isolation transformer
harmonics by phase to meet harmonic
shifting principle. standard.
PWM(selective
harmonic
elimination)
technique is used in
rectifier stage to
eliminate major
harmonics similar to
inverter control.
A rectifier duty
isolation transformer
is required when the
supply voltage is
higher than the drive
rated voltage.
Line side Prone towards lower The 18-pulse solution is Pattern used is a 7-
harmonics order harmonics. superior to 6 or 12-pulse pulse selective
offerings in terms of harmonic elimination
lowering line side (SHE), which
harmonics. eliminates the 5th, 7th
& 11th harmonics.
The input capacitor is
to reduce the higher
frequency current
 harmonics & increase
input PF. The line
reactors provide the
required impedance
to limit the current
during line side short
circuit fault as well as
produces L-C
resonant frequency
below 300Hz where
no characteristic
harmonics exist. Thus
prevents the
excitation of system
harmonic
frequencies.

THD 25% current THD & 5.6% current THD & 2% 4.5% current THD &
(L-L) 3% voltage THD voltage THD 1.5% voltage THD

Total THD % 25-27 5-6 4-5

(L-L)

Application When VFD is small %

of total plant load

Total Harmonic Distortion of Different Rectifiers:

Multi Winding Isolation or Converter Transformer:
The Isolation or Converter Transformer performs the following tasks:
- Galvanic isolation between the frequency converter & the feeding network.
- Voltage reduction from the feeding MV or HV network to the rectifier input level, if need be.
- Suppression of harmonics generated by the frequency converter, thus protecting the feeding
network from harmonic contamination by limiting the crest factor to attenuate harmonics by
using good source impedance & through sine wave recombination by phase shifting on
secondary side. Sine wave recombination occurs within the transformer itself at the nodes, the
connection points of the windings or at common bus feeding points of different transformers of
different phase shift. Although delta-wye, delta-zigzag or wye-zigzag- provides an effective
means to prevent triplen (3rd, 9th 15th etc.) harmonics from passing to source side of the
transformer, but by using multi winding phase shifting transformer greatest attenuation of
harmonics is achieved (viz. 7th,17th & 19th harmonics also)
- Common mode voltage(CMV) is eliminated by using a phase shifting multi core isolation
transformer either by grounding the motor neutral or DC link neutral or Y-point of the output
filter capacitor.
- Protection of ambient & the feeding network against radio-frequency interference produced by
the rapidly commutating semiconductors.
- Provision of suitable reactance to ensure the correct commutation of semiconductors.

Design Basis:
- The normal transformers, designed & dimensioned for electricity distribution duty in a utility or
industrial distribution network, do not generally work satisfactorily in a VFD supply duty.
Harmonics frequencies increase the mechanical & dielectric stresses & therefore the
transformers must be specially designed for VFD or converter duty. Over-dimensioning a normal
distribution transformer is not an adequate solution.
- Insulation Class-2200 C , temperature rise-1500 C , cooling class-AA.
- Equivalent KVA is considered- KVA is calculated with rated voltage & defined equivalent
sinusoidal current which will give the same losses in the transformer than the actual load current,
when all its harmonics components are considered in relation they cause losses in the
transformer.

A three winding transformer with a 12- pulse rectifier

 A five winding transformer with a 24- pulse rectifier

- The VFD supply transformer is usually fed by a MV network, but sometimes the transformer
primary voltage may be at LV level. Feeding from an HV level is also possible, but rare.
- Only small VFDs can be connected to an LV network without a transformer due to harmonics &
EMC requirements.
- The input voltages in LV drives are usually between 380V & 900V and for MV drive from 1kV
to 36 kV.
- The rectifiers used in LV VFDs are usually both 6 or 12-pulse rectifiers, & they may be diode
bridges, thyristor bridge or power transistor solution.
- The 6-pulse rectifier is supplied by a two-winding transformer & 12-pulse rectifier needs a three-
winding transformer, having two separate windings with 300 phase shift..
- With higher rating, a higher converter pulse number is needed to limit the network harmonic
distortion to an acceptable level. Pulse number higher than 12 require special phase shifting;
multi-winding transformers or several transformers with phase shifts running in parallel.
Nowadays, the pulse number of a converter system can be up to 48. This requires in total eight
phase-shifting transformers winding supplying the converter system.
- Delta primary with 4-2.5% taps, 1 FCAN, 3 FCBN.
- Power range for LV VFD is 200 to 4000 kVA, for MV VFD is 5000 kVA to 40 MVA. 200 to
4000 kVA is for two-winding transformers & from 160to 5000 kVA for three-winding
transformers.
- Transformers can be of two types: 1. Hermetically sealed flexible corrugated tank: the tank is
full of oil, without a gas cushion, & the oil volume variation is permitted by the flexible tank.
2. Oil conservator style tank: also corrugated, but the oil expansion takes place in the
conservator, & there is no pressure variation in the tank itself. Air breathing into the conservator
is realized through a dehydrator.
- Transformer with lower power rating have mostly corrugated tanks. However, transformers with
ratings of approximately 5000 kVA & above, have tanks with detachable radiators providing
adequate cooling. In order to save space, or for some other special reason, also water cooled heat
exchangers can be used instead of radiators.
- It is recommended , for especially for >12 pulse transformer, to select transformer with no tap-
changer. Typically an off-load tap-changer is provided. Its located in HV windings & the tapping
range is usually +/-2 x 2.2%. Alternatively an on load tap-changer can also be chosen. Tap
r=terminals are located on face of windings with flexible, bolted jumpers.
- Minimum 9% impedance.
- The magnetic circuit is core type with mitered joints. High-B grain oriented, 0.3mm magnetic
steel is most commonly used.
- The winding may either be copper, aluminium or mixed. LV winding is always foil winding ,
which is mechanically extremely strong & so important for VFD transformer.
- An earthed screen is installed between the primary & secondary windings. It is used to eliminate
radio frequency interference.
- The reinforced mechanical bracing of the core & windings are specially designed & tested to
withstand the stresses in VFD duty.
- Special core joints, distributed gaps & air gaps may be used in the core construction to avoid DC
saturation when needed.
- Three different insulating liquids can be chosen for VFD duty transformer: Mineral oil based
inhibited transformer oil for industrial installation. Silicone oils (non-toxic & stable, for reduced
fire risk), Midel® , synthetic ester based insulating liquid (bio-degradable & non-toxic, for
reduced fire risk).
- Fully insulated from phase to ground & neutral to ground & between secondary winding.
- 20 kV basic impulse level(BIL) up to 2400V & 30 kV basic impulse level(BIL) for 3300 to
6600V.
- Normal bushings are used with solid porcelain according to IEC. Outer cone bushing for plug-in
type cable terminations are optional.
- The cable box must be air insulated with IP44 or higher.
- The corrugated tank transformers can either be painted or hot-dip galvanized & painted. The
standard colour is RAL 7035, light grey.
- For hermetically sealed transformers used in VFD duty, the recommended protection &
monitoring devices are : DGPT2- integrated protection device, which combines gas-relay, over-
temperature alarm, trip device & sudden pressure relay function.. Pressure relief device- it
prevents the tank from breaking & spilling oil in the case of an internal fault in the transformer to
give time for the circuit breaker to open with the command received from DGPT2. For the
conservator transformer the recommended protection & monitoring devices are: Thermometer
with alarm & trip contacts, Oil level indicator, Pressure relief device, Buchholz relay, Silica gel
breather.
Difference between Current Source inverter (CSI) & Voltage Source inverter (VSI):
A current source is an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs electric current. Current sources
can be theoretical or practical. Real current sources can be represented as ideal current sources in parallel with a
resistance r, the ideal current source having infinite resistance. The voltage across an ideal current source is
completely determined by the external load.. When connected to a short circuit, there is zero voltage and thus
zero power delivered. When connected to a load resistance, the voltage across the source approaches infinity as
the load resistance approaches infinity (an open circuit). Thus, an ideal current source can supply unlimited
power forever and so represents an unlimited source of energy. Examples of practical current source:

Resistor current source- The simplest current source consists of a voltage source in series with a
resistor. The current available from such a source is given by the ratio of the voltage across the voltage source
to the resistance of the resistor. For a nearly ideal current source, the value of this resistor should be very large
but this implies that, for a specified current, the voltage source must be very large. Thus, efficiency is low (due
to power loss in the resistor)

Inductor current source- These are used to present a source of constant current in Class E (switching)
amplifier, is a highly efficient switching power amplifier, typically used at such high frequencies that the
switching time becomes comparable to the duty time. In Class E amplifier, the transistor is connected via a
serial-LC-circuit to the load, connected via a C to the ground and connected via a large L (inductance) to the
supply voltage. The supply voltage is connected to ground via a large capacitor to prevent any RF-signals
leaking into the supply.

A voltage source is any device or system that produces an electromotive force between its terminals or derives
a secondary voltage from a primary source of the electromotive force. A primary voltage source can supply (or
absorb) energy to a circuit while a secondary voltage source dissipates energy from a circuit. An example of a
primary source is a common battery while an example of a secondary source is a voltage regulator. Real voltage
sources can be represented as ideal voltage sources in series with a resistance r, the ideal voltage source having
zero resistance. That means, it is able to supply or absorb any amount of current. The current through an ideal
voltage source is completely determined by the external load. When connected to an open circuit, there is zero
current and thus zero power. When connected to a load resistance, the current through the source approaches
infinity as the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Thus, an ideal voltage source can supply
unlimited power.

Such ideal voltage and current sources are used in modeling real circuits
 Current Source inverter (CSI)
1. Basically feed current to motor.
2. An inverter, when viewed from load side, the AC
terminals of the inverter functions as a current
source with large internal impedance.
3. The terminal voltage of CSI changes substantially
with change in load. Therefore if used in multi-
motor drive, a change in load on any motor
affects other motors. Hence, CSI rather suitable
for single motor drive.
4. Since the inverter current is independent of load
impedance, it has an inherent protection against
short circuit across its terminals
5 Motor circuit is part of forced commutation of
output inverter stage.
6 Gating pattern requirements: no open circuit on
DC side & no short circuit on AC side
7. Large power harmonics generation back into
power source
8 Cogging below 6Hz due to square wave output.
9 Use of large & costly inductor
10 HV spikes to motor windings.
11 Poor PF due to SCR converter section
Voltage Source inverter (VSI)
1. Basically feed voltage to the output terminals to
the motor.
2. An inverter, when viewed from load side, the AC
terminals of the inverter functions as a voltage
source with low internal impedance.
3. The terminal voltage of VSI remains
substantially constant with change in load.
Therefore suitable for multi-motor drive.
4 Any short circuit across its terminals causes
current to rise very fast, due to low time constant
of its internal impedance. So fault can not be
regulated by current control & must be cleared
by fast acting fuse link.
5 Motor circuit is not part of forced commutation
of output inverter stage.
6 Gating pattern requirements: no open circuit on
AC side & no short circuit on DC side
7. Large power harmonics generation back into
power source
8 Cogging below 6Hz due to square wave output.
9 Inductors are not needed
10 Motor winding is less susceptible to HV spikes.
11 Poor PF due to SCR converter section
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM): In converter power semiconductor devices are controlled in ON/OFF fashion.
This leads to different types of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), which is basic energy processing technique
applied to power converter systems. Its operates at the rate from few kHz (motor control) to several MHz
(resonant converters for power supply).
Basic Parameters of PWM:

Historically, the most known triangular carrier based sinusoidal (CBS) PWM(also called sub
oscillation method) for three phase static converter control was proposed. Later on with the development of
microprocessor, the space vector modulation (SVM) was introduced.

Carrier frequency

PWM Output
Waveform

Average Output
Voltage
 0V

Pulse Width Modulation

After inverter, the output waveform consists of a series of rectangular pulses with a fixed height
& adjustable width. The output voltage rises rapidly from zero to the normal pulse height. The overall patterns
of positive vs. negative pulses is adjusted to control the output frequency. The width of the individual pulses is
modulated so that the effective voltage of the fundamental frequency is regulated in proportion to the
fundamental frequency. One cycle of the out put waveform at a given output voltage can be made narrow pulses
or fewer wider pulses. To generate a waveform containing more pulses, the transistors or other switching
devices in the inverter must switching more often. The rate at which the switches operate is called the switching
frequency or carrier frequency.

The advantages of PWM are

- Low harmonic
- Low motor heating
- Excellent input displacement power factor.
- High efficiencies at 92-96%
- Ability to control multi-motor drives.
Consideration of Different Aspects:
1.Overall Consideration:

• Since the process of converting incoming power from one frequency to another will result in some losses,
energy savings must always come from optimizing the performance of the complete system. The first
step in determining the energy savings potential of a system is to thoroughly analyze the operation of the
entire system. Detailed knowledge of the equipment operation and process requirements are required in
order to ensure energy savings.
• Develop a complete understanding of the process requirements and the equipment to which the
centrifugal machine supplies fluid.
• Obtain complete engineering specifications and performance curves for the centrifugal machine.
• Obtain specifications for all components of the system, including dampers, valves, ducts or pipes, and
heating or cooling coils.
• Develop a load/time profile for the system. This step is critical for calculating accurate energy savings.
For each component, list annual hours, all flow conditions and the input power to the centrifugal
machine.
• For each point in the above step, calculate the input power required by a VFD-driven motor and
centrifugal machine delivering the same flow. Input shaft power can be determined from the centrifugal
machine performance curves.
• For each operating point, calculate the difference in power resulting from adding a VFD, and multiply
each by the number of hours of annual operation. The difference is the energy savings resulting from
installing a VFD.
• Check the current rating of the inverter & the motor.
• Check
Points for in
to be kept correct
mindoperating voltage. of VFD:
during Selection
• Check for correct speed range. Operation above normal supply frequency (50 Hz) is usually only
possible at reduced torque. Operation at low frequency & high torque can cause the motor to overheat
due to lack of cooling.
• Synchronous motors requires de-rating, typically 2-3 times, because of the power factor, & hence the
current, can be very high at low frequency.
• Check overload performance. The inverter will limit current to 150-200% of FLC very quickly.
• If quick braking is required, consider using regenerative braking.
• If the cable length is longer than 50m, or screened or armoured cables longer than 25m, the necessary de-
rating required or fit a choke to compensate for cable capacitance.
• The protection rating of the circuit breaker to be checked. The input current is higher than the output
current to the motor because pf form factor of the current is very high. Inrush currents on the inverter are
typically equal to or less than the FLC, so nuisance tripping is less of a problem.
• If the motor goes in the wrong direction, switch off the supply, wait five minutes or discharge the internal
capacitance, & swap any two of the motor or panel terminals.
• The control system calculation of PWM requirement is very complex, so ASICs are needed.
• The control electronics are often connected to the DC link, which is connected to the supply, so the
customer connections, display etc. must be safely isolated from this.
• The output current must be carefully monitored to protect the inverter & the motor during overload &
short circuit.
• At first switch to the DC link capacitors are discharged, & the inrush current must be limited, usually
using a resistor which is bypassed by a relay after a few seconds.
• An internal power supply with several different output voltages is needed to supply the control
electronics.
• The inverter & rectifier produce heat, which must be dissipated using a fan & heat sink.
• The input rectifier draws current only at the peak of the supply waveform, so the input currents have a
poor form factor. (i.e. the RMS value can be quite high- that does not mean the inverter is inefficient!!)
• If the inverter is to be installed at above >1000m or >2000m above sea level, derating will be required.
2. Supply Side Consideration:

‰ Supply Disturbance—

VFD

• Power factor correction equipment. Unsuppressed switching of capacitor banks can produce very large
voltage transients & is a common for inverter damage.
• High power welding equipment, especially resistance & RF welders.
• Old DC drives, semiconductor heater controllers etc.
- These produces voltage spikes greater than 4kV (above the supply disturbance absorbing capability of
inverter). It will be necessary to suppress this interference, preferably at source or at least by installing
an input choke in the inverter supply. EMC filters do not suppress disturbance with this level of energy.
Over voltage protection products such as metal oxide varistors should be considered.
‰ Ungrounded Supply—

• Certain industrial installations operate with supply that are isolated from the protective earth. This
permits equipment to continue to run following an earth fault. So inverter should operate on grounded
supply & may be fitted with interference suppression capacitors between the supply & ground.

‰ Low Frequency Harmonics —

• VFD in its rectification stage converts AC into DC. The rectifiers conduct only in one direction & the
capacitor in the DC circuit gets charged up. Once the capacitor voltage crosses a certain magnitude, it
stops drawing current any more. This non-continuous nature of current drawing produces distortion in
the current wave & the corresponding load is referred to as “non-linear load”. The distorted current (or
voltage) can affect upstream electrical devices.

• Harmonics (noise caused by the high switching frequency of a VFD) affect the power supply side of the
drive & all circuits connected to that supply. The inverter converts AC to DC using an uncontrolled
diode rectifier bridge. The DC link voltage is close to the peak AC supply voltage. So the rectifier only
conducts for a short time at the peak of waveform. The current waveform therefore has a relatively high
RMS value as high current flows from the supply for a short time. This means that current waveform is
consisted of a series of low frequency harmonics, and this may cause voltage harmonic distortion,
depending on the supply impedance. Sometimes these harmonics need to be assessed in order to ensure
that certain levels (IEEE 519-1992 standard) are not exceeded.
 Excessive harmonics can influence the electrical equipments in the following way. Its effect can range from
annoying hums & flickering lights & computer display to more serious problems such as overheating of cables
or connected devices, nuisance tripping of circuit breakers etc.

Equipment Influences
Capacitor & Overheating, burn out or generation of vibration &
reactor noise due to inflow of excessive current or reduction of
circuit impedance against harmonic currents resulting
from resonance phenomena.
Neutral cables Overheating of neutral lines in 3 phase 4 wire system
due to flow of harmonic current.
Rectifier Faulty control due to phase shifting of control signal.
Relays Faulty operations due to excess of setting level or phase
variation caused by harmonic current or voltage.
MCCB Faulty operations due to excessive harmonic current
Generators & Overheating in coils & cores
Motors
Communication Generation of noise voltage due to electromagnetic
lines induction
Audio equipment Defects. Influence on life & influence on performance
& home of components such as diode, transistor & capacitors,
appliances caused by harmonic current & voltage. Noise &
flickering of video image.
Computer Adverse influence on performance flickering of video
image.
Watt hr meter Measuring error due to non-linear characteristic of
effective voltage & current flux. Burnout of current
coils due to inflow of excessive harmonic current.
Power fuses Blowing out due to excessive harmonic current
Transformer Generation of beat noise due to core’s magnetostriction
phenomena caused by harmonic current. Reduction of
capacity due to increase in core & copper loss caused
by harmonic voltage & current.

The rating of cable & protection equipment must take these high RMS levels into account. In order to
calculate the harmonics in a particular supply system it is essential to know the supply impedance, fault current,
transformer size, installed impedance (viz. line inductors). When supplies have very low impedance (such as
below 1%) an input inductor is recommended in any case to limit peak currents in the drives.
DC reactor should be used to
- Smoothening current flow by providing reactance between AC supply & DC bus capacitor
- Reduce harmonics.
- Current THD % decreases dramatically.
Input Harmonic Current
N = 5th 7th 11th 13th THD %
Without reactor 65 41 8.5 7.7 26.6%
With DC reactor 30 13 8.4 5.0 5.6%
 Input Power Factor
N= 100 50 50
I= 100 100 0
Without reactor 68 63 52
With DC reactor 93 89 68

• Will the power supply source be switched while the VFD is running? This occurs in many buildings,
such as hospitals, where loads are switched to standby generators in the event of a power outage. Some
drives will ride through a brief power outage while others may not. If your application is of this type, it
must be reviewed with the drive manufacturer for a final determination of drive capability.
• Are there power factor correction capacitors being switched or existing on the intended motor loads?
Switching of power factor capacitors usually generates power disturbances in the distribution system.
Many VFD can and will be affected by this. Isolation transformers or line reactors may be required for
these applications. Power factor correction at VFD-powered motor loads is not necessary as the VFD
itself does this by using DC internally and then inverting it into an AC output to the motor. All VFD
manufacturers warn against installing capacitors at the VFD output.

3.Motor Considerations —

• Motor speed is determined by the applied frequency. The motor slows down a little as the load increases
& the slip increases. If the load is too great the motor will exceed the maximum torque & stall or “pull
out”. Most of the motors & inverter will operate at 150% load for a short time, (60 sec for instance).
• Motor is usually cooled by built in fan that runs at motor’s speed. This is designed to cool the motor at
full load & base speed. If a motor runs at lower frequency & full torque- that is high current- cooling
may be inadequate. Motor manufacturers will give the necessary de-rating information, but typically de-
rating curve would limit output torque to 75% at zero frequency rising to full capability at 50% of base
speed. Ensure that these limitations are not exceeded.
 • Consider using I2t function or PTC for protection of the motor.
• High speed operation of standard motor is usually limited to twice the normal operating speed of a two-
pole motor because of bearing limitations. However, because the flux level will reduce above base speed
(because the output voltage is limited to approximately the input voltage) the maximum torque will also
fall inverse proportion to the speed above the base speed. However, if the motor is connected as a low
voltage motor (‘delta’) & operated on a higher voltage inverter, full torque may be obtained up to 1.7
times base frequency. The correct V/f curve may be defined by setting appropriate motor voltage (e.g.
400V) & frequency (87 Hz).

• Shaft Voltage:-Moving charge in the motor’s stator induces a charge in its rotor, so it might induce
themselves elsewhere- motor shaft, bearings also. The resulting EMF due to high switching frequency of
the VFD, normally contains large amount of harmonics. Both the wave-shapes & the magnitudes of the
induced voltage depends on the type & size of the machine & they also vary with the loading. If the
energy of these pulses is high enough, metal can transfer from the balls & race to the lubricant & cause
bearing fluting( a rhythmic pattern on the bearing’s race). It depends up on the bearings impedance,
load, speed, temperature & lubricant used. Impedance is a non-linear function of, so high frequency
bearing current damage is generally associated with higher voltage/ higher kW motors. Normally, the
induced voltage will be 0.5-20V.

-Moreover, shaft voltages caused by magnetic asymmetries: These AC type voltages present between
the ends of the generator shaft are caused by the magnetic asymmetries due to:
a) Rotor eccentricities
b) Asymmetries in the stator laminations and improper selection of number of segments.
c) Axial ventilation channels in the stator
-Shaft voltage caused by residual magnetism: These DC type voltages are caused by residual magnetic
fluxes and can cause considerable damage. They occur due to:
a) Short circuited rotor turns
b) Eccentric location of the rotor in the stator bore
c) Unfavourable connection of the stator winding during heating procedure by DC current in
order to dry up the stator insulation
d) DC component of a severe short circuit current can occur, if the current in one or more phase
windings encloses the shaft. This is possible in case of an internal short circuit of the generator or if the
arrangement of the winding connections is not properly balanced. Axial magnetism of the rotor may also
be amplified by self-excitation, when two points of the shaft (turbine or generator) have contact to the
earth protection.
-Shaft voltages caused by static excitation systems: These impulsive type voltages, consisting of very
steep spikes followed by a lower frequency oscillation are caused by system for the rectification of the field
voltage by means of thyristors and by the capacitive couplings between the excitation winding and the generator
shaft.
The damage caused can be minimised by making use of capacitive filters between the rotor windings
and the ground besides insulating at least one bearing(NDE) from the earth. High frequency spikes due to the
static excitation system are super-imposed on the basic shaft voltage, causing considerable damage. This calls
for frequent maintenance and replacement of grounding brushes besides the damage caused to the bearings.

Why only NDE side of the bearing:

• Bearings (ball, roller & sleeve) are designed to float on a microscopic film of grease or oil while in
operation. In some cases, low rotational speed will allow the balls & the race to come into contact during
operation & accelerate bearing wear. This is even more of a problem when the motor has a high radial
load (belt drive etc.)
• Thermal Stress on Motor Insulation -Sometimes low speed applications can cause a motor to
overheat(thermal stress) because the normal heat removal process is limited by the motor (hence fan)
speed. This is not usually considered in centrifugal pump applications because it requires less power at
lower speed (i.e. variable torque) & heat tends to be a function of power generated by the motor & its
electrical efficiency. Still under adverse conditions (high ambient temperature etc.) heat build up can be
a problem a less than 50 Hz frequencies.

• Partial Discharge & Corona:

The voltage spikes can also cause partial discharge(PD) phenomena in the air filled voids that
occurs in any insulation system. Repeated PD breakdowns will eventually destroy the insulation.
Another phenomena cause by the voltage spikes is known as a corona discharge. A corona discharge
ionizes the air between windings & the highly reactive ions those are formed can cause insulation to
deteriorate over the time. This type of discharge occurs more often in hot & humid environment.
These voltage spikes can occur in VFD operation due to one or any combination of three
different conditions:

tr= the time required for the voltage to rise from 10% to 90% of the peak voltage.
EDC= Rectified DC voltage.

- Voltage Overshoot: The inherent rise times of late generation IGBTs used in VFDs create an
effect called voltage overshoot. It occurs when the DC pulse ‘over shoots’ the maximum peak
voltage required by the motor. At the beginning of the pulse, voltage rise rapidly & typically
exceeds peak voltage before it settles down. If the turn-ON time of the output device is slow, the
capacitance of the motor has an opportunity to charge & discharge along with the IGBT.
However, if the output device’s turn-ON time is fast, the capacitance of the motor is not able to
keep up with the charge & discharge with IGBT. Instead, the voltage applied across the lead
increases. Therefore, more energy is stored, resulting in more voltage overshoot. Voltage
 overshoot can be 10-20% greater than peak voltage but usually does not cause a problem by
itself because standard motor(415V) insulation is designed to handle up to 600V continuously.

- Reflected Voltage: It occurs when a wave travels down a transmission line & is reflected back
& combines with the incoming wave (similar to ripples traveling across a pond that strike a
barrier). This reflection is caused by the difference between line & load (motor) impedance. If
they are the same there is no reflection. If there is a large difference, the amplitude of the
reflected wave will approach that of the original wave. Under certain conditions the reflected
wave will combine with the original wave resulting in a much higher voltage at motor.
The output pulse travels from PWM controller to the motor at about half the speed of
light, it is possible that the time required for a pulse to reach the motor may be more than half the
rise time of the pulse. This is the case when the length of the motor cable is greater than or equal
to the ‘critical length’. The critical length can be estimated a ½ of the speed that the pulse travels
from the drive to the motor multiplied by the rise time:

L critical(feet) =(V cable X t r (μs))/2

where V cable=propagation factor, is the speed that the pulse travel from the drive to the
motor in feet per μs. The value of V cable depends on type of cable, type of conduit or cable tray
& other details of cable installation. Moreover, as the characteristic impedance is significantly
less for the larger motor than it is for smaller motors while there is smaller range of values for
typical cable impedance. This means the magnitude of the reflected voltage is significantly less
for the larger motors as compared to smaller motors, as shown in graphs. It is often estimated as
500 feet per μs.

- Ringing: It is the result of the capacitance & inductance of the cable, motor & the output circuit
of VFD. Together they can create a resonant circuit that can cause edges of the voltage circuit to
assume an under damped waveform. When combined with reflection, ringing can result in
voltage peaks at the motor of 2-3 times the normal peak voltage. An oscilloscope tracing of the
output of a 460V VFD is shown. The darker blue spikes peak around 650V (460V peak voltage)
but some of the light blue spikes peak close to 1500V.
The larger spikes are due to combination of overshoot, reflection & ringing.
The easiest way to eliminate or reduce the insulation stress due to heat, regardless of its cause, is
to use a motor with higher grade of insulation. Some motor manufacturers use Class-B,F of even H
insulation or Inverter Duty motors (In accordance with section IV of NEMA Standard MG 1-1993 “
Performance Standards Applying To All Machines” Part 31 for “Definite-purpose Inverter-fed Motors”)

• An ID motor is designed to run at speed range of 10% to 100% of the standard nominal speed. At
lower speeds the fan of a regular AC induction motor will run slower & not provide adequate
cooling. An ID motor is designed with special cooling even at lower speed without overheating.
• The VFD produces harmonics at its output waveform. In such case, the reflected & an incident
waveform effectively double the voltage at the motor terminals. The ID motor is designed to
withstand more than twice the nominal voltage, often by using Phelps Dodge’s “Thermaleze QS-
Quantum shield”, Essex’s “Ultra shield”, Rea’s “Pulse shield” Inverter Spike Resistant(ISR) wire-
they have an insulation enamel chemistry designed to with stand the voltage pulses or spikes from
inverter without increasing enamel thickness(efficiency not reduced due to less copper) without
compromising other insulation functions.
 • It uses extra heavy insulation & filler or slot top wedge stick in the slots.
• Extra end-turn bracing.
• Full tape the end turns.
• Glass-felt wrapping of coils at slots.

• Phase insulation between each coil on the end turns- not just between phases.

• Only lap or diamond winding with round wire- not continuous phase.
• Double dip & bake polyester varnish.
• An ID motor is designed to run at speed range of 10% to 100% of the standard nominal speed. At
lower speeds the fan of a regular AC induction motor will run slower & not provide adequate
cooling. An ID motor is designed with special cooling even at lower speed without overheating.
• The VFD produces harmonics at its output waveform. In such case, the reflected & an incident
waveform effectively double the voltage at the motor terminals. The ID motor is designed to
withstand more than twice the nominal voltage, often by using Phelps Dodge’s Inverter Spike
Resistant(ISR) wire.
• It uses extra heavy insulation in the slots.
• Extra end-turn bracing.
• Three dip & bake polyester varnishing or two Vacuum Pressure Impregnation(VPI).

Also by following the NEMA cable length guide lines or by installing load reactor( simple inductors in
series with the motor) or dv/dt filters( a tuned RL circuit that forms a damped, low-pass filter at motor terminals
with rating limited to 10 volts per microseconds) or cable termination filter( to match the impedance at the
motor to the impedance of the cable) between VFD & motor the voltage spike problem can be eliminated or
reduced. The above oscilloscope tracing shows the same 460V VFD output after cable length & filter
corrections. The 1500V spikes have been reduced to nearly that of the 650V pulses.
• Resonant Frequency- The Resonant Frequency or the frequency at which an object undergoes natural
vibration, is often overlooked when applying a VFD to a pumping application. In the VFD environment
this is often referred to as the critical speed or critical frequency. At some rotating speed or speeds, one
or more of its components will begin to vibrate. This is not problem when a standard, fixed speed pump
is used. If resonance occurred at its designed speed, it would have been detected & eliminated during the
testing phase. When that same pump is used in a VFD application, however, it could, very well, exhibit
vibration at speeds above or below its normal fixed speed. It is difficult to predict, as a rule of thumb:
frame mounted pumps are more likely to exhibit this form of vibration than are close coupled units.
Likewise, multistage pumps & those with elongated shafts also tend to be more vulnerable. There is
however, a simple way of testing for resonance & avoiding it, if it occurs. With the VFD in manual
mode, simple scroll through each frequency value from the lowest to the highest. Let the pump run at
each frequency for 5 seconds or so. If a resonate frequency is encountered, noticeable vibration will
occur. Once these critical speeds or speed ranges have been determined, the drive can be programmed to
bypass them. Although the pump will still pass through these points it will not remain there long enough
to cause vibration. The torque pulsation to the output shaft of the mechanical system shall be less than
1% to minimize the possibility of exciting a resonance.

4. Load Consideration — The VFD must have ample current capability for the motor so that the motor can
produce the required torque for the load. Remember that machine torque is independent of motor speed
and that load KW increases linearly with rpm. The inverter & motor requirements are determined by the
speed range & torque requirement of the load. The relationship between speed & torque is different for
different loads.
• Variable Torque Application: Variable torque loads are most often found in variable flow applications.
That is torque increases with the speed. E.g. centrifugal blowers, centrifugal pumps, propeller pumps,
turbine pumps, agitators, axial compressors & fans. In these applications the load is proportional to the
square of the speed, & therefore the power is proportional to the cube of the speed. This means that at
reduced speeds there is a great reduction of power & therefore energy saving- a major advantage of
VFD applied to pumps & fans. E.g. if the motor speed is reduced 20%, motor KW is reduced to a cubic
relationship (0.8 X 0.8 X 0.8) or 51% of the original power.

Because the power in greatly reduced, the voltage applied to the motor can also be reduced & additional
energy saving achieved. A separate ‘quadratic’ or pump & fan’ voltage to frequency relationship can
usually be programmed in inverter. It is not generally useful to run pumps or fans above base speed as
the power will rise excessively & the fan or pump may become inefficient. Therefore when the
‘quadratic’ voltage to frequency curve is selected, the overload capability of the inverter is often
reduced. This allows a higher continuous rating output current to be achieved. Many inverters,
particularly at higher powers, are dual rated, and the higher rating available for pump & fan operation
can give an additional capital cost saving in these applications.
• Constant Torque Application: These loads represent 90% of all general industrial machines (other than
pumps and fans). Examples of these load types include general machinery, hoists, conveyors, printing
presses, positive displacement pumps, some mixers and extruders, reciprocating compressors, as well as
rotary compressors. Some pumps e.g. peristaltic displacement or some screw pumps require a constant
torque, & therefore are not suitable for use with quadratic V/f curves. Conventional linear relationships
should be used.

• Other Torque Application: Many other loads have non-linear or varying torque relationships. The
torque requirement of the load should be understood before the inverter & the motor is selected. By
comparing the load/speed requirement with the motor capability, the correct motor can be selected.
Remember, a different pole pair arrangement may give a better match to the load needs.
• Constant Power Application. These loads are most often found in the machine-tool industry and centre
driven winder applications. Examples of constant KW or HP loads include winders, core-driven reels,
wheel grinders, large driller machines, lathes, planers, boring machines, and core extruders.
Traditionally, these loads were considered DC drive applications only. With high-performance flux
vector VFD now available, many DC drive applications of this type can be now handled by VFD.
• Starting torque may need special consideration. If a high starting torque is required this must be
considered during rating.

• Both load torque and load KW must be carefully examined for sizing a VFD drive for an application.
The purpose of the motor is to develop enough torque to meet the requirements of the load. The different
motor torques to be considered:
- Break-away torque: torque required to start a load in motion (typically greater than the torque
required to maintain motion).
- Accelerating torque: torque required to bring the load to operating speed within a given time
- Running torque: torque required to keep the load moving at all speeds.
- Peak torque: occasional peak torque required by the load, such as a load being dropped on a
conveyor.
- Holding torque: torque required by the motor when operating as a brake, such as down hill loads
and high inertia machines.

Define the operating profile of the load to which the VFD is to be applied. Include any or all of the
"torques" discussed above. Using a recording true rms ammeter to record the motor's current draw under
all operating conditions will help in doing this.

• Obtain the highest "peak" current readings under the worst conditions. Also, see if the motor has been
working in an overloaded condition by checking the motor full-load amps (FLA). An overloaded motor
operating at reduced speeds may not survive the increased temperatures as a result of the reduced
cooling effects of the motor at these lower speeds. Size the VFD to the motor based on the maximum
current requirements under peak torque demands. Do not size the VFD based on KW ratings of motor or
load. Many applications have failed because of this. Remember, the maximum demands placed on the
motor by the load must also be met by the VFD. Evaluate the possibility of required over sizing of the
VFD. Be aware that motor performance (break-away torque, for example) is based upon the capability
of the VFD used and the amount of current it can produce. Depending on the type of load and duty cycle
expected, over sizing of the VFD may be required.
- Continuous run current rating: This is the maximum rms current the VFD can safely handle
under all operating conditions at a fixed ambient temperature (usually 40 [degrees] C). Motor
ball load sine wave currents must be equal to or less than this rating.
- Overload current rating: This is an inverse time/current rating that is the maximum current the
VFD can produce for a given time frame. Typical ratings are 110% to 150% over current for 1
 min, depending on the manufacturer. Higher current ratings can be obtained by over sizing the
VFD. This rating is very important when sizing the VFD for the currents needed by the motor for
break-away torque.
- Line voltage: As with any motor controller, an operating voltage must be specified. VFD are
designed to operate at some nominal voltage such as 240VAC or 480VAC, with an allowable
voltage variation of plus or minus 10%. Most motor starters will operate beyond this 10%
variation, but VFD will not and will go into a protective trip. A recorded voltage reading of line
power deviations is highly recommended for each application.
• Determine why the load operation needs to be changed. Very often VFD have been applied to
applications where all that was required was a "soft start" reduced voltage controller. The need for the
VFD should be based on the ability to change the load's speed as required. In those applications where
only one speed change is required, a VFD may not be necessary or practical.
• Will the VFD operate more than one motor? The total peak currents of all motor loads under worst
operating conditions must be calculated. The VFD must be sized based on this maximum current
requirement. Additionally, individual motor protection must be provided here for each motor.
• Will the load be spinning or coasting when the VFD is started? This is very often the case with fan
applications. When a VFD is first started, it begins to operate at a low frequency and voltage and
gradually ramps up to a preset speed. If the load is already in motion, it will be out of sync with the
VFD. The VFD will attempt to pull the motor down to the lower frequency, which may require high
current levels, usually causing an over current trip. Because of this, VFD manufacturers offer drives
with an option for synchronization with a spinning load; this VFD ramps at a different frequency.
• Are starting or stopping times critical? Some applications may require quick starting or emergency
stopping of the load. In either case, high currents will be required of the drive. Again, over sizing of the
VFD maybe required.

5. Acceleration & Braking Consideration —

There are several possibilities to control braking & stopping using inverter, stated as follows:
• Ramping Down & Regenerative Braking: When the output frequency of the inverter is reduced (i.e.
ramps down), the motor will slow down. If the output frequency of the inverter falls rapidly, the motor
may no longer ‘motor’, but may act as a generator. If the motor & load have a high inertia, the motor
will take longer time to slow down so generation is more likely to occur. The generated energy returns
to the inverter (i.e. regenerates) as a negative current. This is known as regeneration. The current is
returned to the DC link, but can not return to the supply because of the blocking action of the input
rectifier. Therefore the current charges the DC link capacitors and if the DC link voltage becomes too
high the inverter will protect itself from over voltage tripping. If the inverter trips there is no more motor
flux, so it is no longer regenerates & comes to an uncontrolled stop.
 In many cases, there is insufficient regeneration to cause excessive voltage; in fact very fast ramp down
rates can often be used in certain processes without problem. In many cases the energy is absorbed by other
losses, such as gear box or rolling friction. The ramp down time, controlled by the inverter allows
predictable deceleration & stopping times. When regeneration does cause trips, several solutions are
possible. Using of controlled bridge rectifier, a resistor connected across the DC link of the inverter to
dissipate the regenerated energy(by a controller switch, ‘braking chopper’, which switches ON & OFF to
maintain the DC link voltage at a constant level) external brake, DC braking or Compound braking may be
used.
The AFE has inherent regenerative braking capability, the drive can provide 100% continuous full
current regenerative braking capabilities without putting thermal stress on the motor.

• DC Braking: If a controlled DC voltage is applied to the motor, a braking & holding torque is produced
in the rotor. During DC braking the stored energy of the motor & the load is dissipated in the rotor itself,
s there is no regeneration back to the inverter. However, because no frequency is applied, there is no
control over the motor speed. & it is not possible to predict the stopping time of the motor & load. The
torque on the rotor is maintained even in stand still, so DC braking can be used to hold the rotor & load
for short periods of time if required. In practice it is not possible to calculate the braking torque this will
produce. Continuous use of DC braking will cause overheating in the motor & suitable protection
systems must be considered.

• Compound Braking: If DC braking & regenerative braking are combined, braking with minimal
regeneration but with controlled motor speed is possible. This consists of a reducing frequency with DC
component to be added to it. Compound Braking can prove very effective, combining the best of DC
braking & regenerative braking. As with DC braking, the load energy is dissipated in the motor, &
therefore excessive, frequent braking can lead to overheating
• If the load has high inertia & there is a requirement for fast acceleration or braking, the load due to
inertia must be considered.
• During acceleration, additional torque will be needed. The total torque needed will be the sum of the
steady state torque & this additional torque.
• During braking, the inertia energy of the load must be dissipated. If a mechanical brake is used this is no
problem, providing the inverter is disabled during brake operation. If the motor is decelerated by
reducing the inverter output frequency, the energy from the load will be returned to the inverter. Other
options such as DC braking & Compound braking will minimize regeneration to the inverter, but in this
case the energy will be dissipated in the motor windings.

6. Environmental Consideration —

• Check that the airflow through the inverter will not be blocked by wiring etc.
• Make sure the temperature of the air does not exceed 500C.

De-rating to be done as follows:

De-ration Factor (per degree rise) = _100% - A%_
(Y deg - X deg)

100 Percentage Current Capacity

at Max Ambient Temperature

A%

Rated Output Current (%)

Ambient Temperature at which
current ratings are declared

Max Ambient
Temperature
Inverter can Handle

0
X Y
Intake Air Temperature of Inverter ( C)

• Check for protection level.

• Check for shock & vibration.
• Check for corrosive atmosphere.
• Give due consideration to Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), such as:
 a. Will the inverter be protected from the effects of power equipment such as power factor
correction equipment, resistance welding equipment etc?
b. Will the inverter be well grounded?

• How will the inverter and any control equipment (contactor, PLC, relays, sensors etc.) interact?

7. Protection System Consideration —

• Electronic trip: This is very fast current limit which operates if there is a short circuit (L-L or L-E) on
the output. It is a fixed level trip & operates within a few microseconds.
• Overload limit: This is a fast limit, which operates within a few microseconds, & removes some of the
output pulses to limit the current & protect the inverter. If this pulse dropping occurs during overload,
the operating condition will usually recover & the motor continues to operate without tripping.
• Long term overload limit: This is a slower limit, which allows an overload of at least 60 seconds when
the current lies above the motor limit, but below the instantaneous limit values described above.
Overload Specifications as per IEC - 146 for Semiconductors
Class - I : 100% Continuous
Class - II : 100% Continuous
150% for 60 sec
Class - IV : 100% Continuous
125% for 2 Hours
200% for 10 sec
Class - V : 100% Continuous
150% for 2 Hours
200% for 60 sec
Class - VI : 100% Continuous
150% for 2 Hours
300% for 60 sec
Majority Inverters manufactured globally meet Class II i.e. 100% continuous and 150% for 60 sec
Overload Specifications. This is recommended for most applications where VFD is proposed to be used.
• Continuous limit: This is the level set as the maximum continuous motor current. The inverter will
control the current to this level after the overload described above have time out.
• I2t protection: When the motor is running at low speed & high load, the built in cooling fan may not
provide enough cooling & the motor may overheat. Parameters can be set to calculate the motor
temperature, based on a motor model & operating history such that y=the inverter will take action to
protect the motor under these conditions.
• PTC resistor protection: Many motors are available with a PTC( Positive Temperature Coefficient)
resistor built into the motor windings. The resistance of the PTC rises rapidly at a particular temperature,
and this can be detected by the inverter. Then input terminals of the inverter may be configured to accept
a PTC signal & trip the inverter in the event of over heating.
• Over voltage: If the inverter is connected to a high voltage, or if the internal voltage is forced high by
energy from an external load, then the inverter will trip. Over voltage usually occurs as a result of
braking or regenerative load
• Internal temperature: The inverter is protected from over heating. The heat sink temperature is
monitored using a PTC & if the maximum temperature exceeded the inverter will trip. Over temperature
in the inverter is usually caused by a high ambient temperature, a faulty or blocked fan or blocked air
inlet or outlet.
• Are external motor disconnects required between the motor and the VFD? Service disconnects at motor
loads are very often used for maintenance purposes. Normally, removing a load from a VFD while
operating does not pose a problem for the VFD. On the other hand, introducing a load to a VFD by
closing a motor disconnect while the VFD is operational can be fatal to the VFD. When a motor is
Started at full voltage, as would happen in this case, high currents are generated, usually about six times
the full load amps of the motor current. The VFD would see these high currents as being well beyond its
 capabilities and would go into a protective trip or fail altogether. A simple solution for this condition is
to interlock the VFD run permissive circuit with the service disconnects via an auxiliary contact at the
service disconnect. When the disconnect is closed, a permissive run signal restarts the VFD at low
voltage and frequency.

8. Cable Consideration--
Cable selection is affected for VFD due to: Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Ground Current,
Common Mode Current, Reflected Waves. The following are to be considered:
• Continuous Corrugated Welded (CCW)Armour general Cable.
• Compressed concentric copper conductor
• High dielectric strength of crossed linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation.
• Three insulated conductors cable with three symmetric bare copper ground wires or fillers.
• Overall PVC jacket prevents metallic sheath from coming in contact with ground in the route to the
motor.
• Completely self contained cable & conduit system.
• Impervious to moisture, gas & liquids.
• Aluminium sheathe provides an excellent shield for high frequencies & retains good shielding capability
as the cable ages.
• VFD internal power connections shall be made with tin plated copper bus or 8kV(minimum) insulated
power cable, with continuous current rating of 1200-3000 A.
• Low voltage control wire TEW tinned, 600V AC rated.

9. Earthing Consideration—
• The drive inverters can be operated on all three line supply system (TN,TT,TI)
• Only permanent connected line supply connections are permitted.
• Drive inverter must always be earthed- both though the cable as well as through the frame or chassis.
• Drive & motor should be connected to a common earth-grid to have same earthing potential throughout
the system.
• Every drive inverter must be separately fused as the fuses are used in cable protection.
• Only B type(300mA)RCCB(Residual Current Circuit Breaker) may be used-one RCCB for each drive
inverter.

10. Thermal Overload relay Consideration—

When circuit breaker or thermal overload relay is used downstream from a frequency converter
with pulsed voltage, influences arises in switching devices which could lead to the unwanted triggering
of the circuit breaker or thermal overload relay. The high frequency current attributes towards
development of eddy current, induced by harmonics & also skin effect to heat up the coil or bimetallic
relay. Both lead to triggering of the overload release even at lower currents. The higher the frequency of
the converter & the smaller the setting range, the greater the reduction in the tripping current.Variable
speed drives incorporate DC voltage link capacitors which cause high making current peaks unless there
are no suppression measures provided inside the frequency converter. If those peaks are higher than the
short circuit release tripping value then tripping of breaker is the consequence. Frequency converters
generate harmonics which can react to the load side with a greater or lesser extent after EMI filtration.
These harmonics heterodyne the line frequency and cause stringent thermal charge of overload releases
and conductors. The effective current is the significant quantity to be measured. It can not be evaluated
with conventional measurement tools like current probes as these only operate correctly at usual net
frequencies around 50 Hz. Moving coil instruments are most suitable due to their operating principle
working independent of shape and frequency of signal curve.
11. Slip Compensation Consideration—
• The motor speed is reduced depending on the load & slip increases. Slip can cause a speed regulation by
as much as 10% with small motors. The inverter can compensate for this by increasing the output
frequency slightly as the load increases. The inverter measures the current & increases the output
frequency to compensate for the expected slip. This can give speed holding of better than 1%.
• Slip compensation has no effect during Sensor less Vector Operation, as compensation is inherent.
• Slip compensation is a positive feedback effect (increasing load increases output frequency), & too
much compensation may cause slight instability. It is set up on a trial & error basis.

12. Pulse Frequency Selection —

• The switching, or PWM frequency does not change with output frequency.(See PWM figure). The
switching frequency of the inverter can be selected between 2 & 16 kHz. A high switching frequency
has higher losses & produces more Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). A lower switching frequency
may produce audible noise. The switching frequency can be changed to suit the application, but some
de-rating, may be necessary on certain units.
• The acoustic noise generated has a frequency of twice the switching frequency, except at light loads,
where there is some fundamental frequency content. Therefore a switching frequency of 8 kHz will
often be inaudible.

13. Voltage Boost Option-

• At low output frequency the output voltage is low to keep the flux level constant. However, the voltage
may be too low to overcome losses in the system. The voltage can be increased only to produce boost
during ramping, & is therefore useful for additional torque during acceleration. Boost has no effect
during vector operation because the inverter calculates continuously the optimum operating conditions.
The amount of boost is calculated from the stator resistance value & the nominal current setting
14. Consideration of Problems with VFD-

‰ Electromagnetic Compatibility(EMC)- All electronic & electrical equipment generate unwanted

signals. These signals can be emitted from the product either via cables that are connected to the product
(Input, output, signal etc.) or via electromagnetic radiation ‘radio transmission’. These signals can be
received by other products (via the same routes) & can interfere with the correct operation of the
product.
Any particular product gives out a certain level of emissions, & has a certain level of immunity to
incoming signals from other products. If the immunity of all products is higher than their emissions, all
is well. If this is not, severe problems can occur, causing quality problems, damage, or in extreme cases
injury.
Electromagnetic Compatibility concerns how equipment works together. Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI) refers to the unwanted signals themselves. EMI has become a more serious
problem recently as more electronic systems (which may prove to have low immunity) are used in
industrial applications, & as power electronic products such as drives, generates high frequency signals,
which can produce high levels of interference.
• The output of all inverters generates high frequency, high voltage switching waveform in the output
cables between the motor & inverter.
• A lot of EMI occurs at high frequency. At high frequencies the shape & length of the cable has a big
effect on its impedance. Therefore short, thick braided leads will be most effective in grounding as star
point grounding and high quality screened cable, grounded at both ends, will be needed to limit effects
on signal leads.

• RFI filter can be used in the converter supply.

• Choke can be fitted to the input of the inverter to reduce harmonic distortion & to reduce the effect of
supply disturbance on the inverter. Choke are also recommended where supply impedance is less than
1%. Choke are fitted to the output of the inverter to allow operation with long cables. The choke
compensates for the stray capacitance of the cables. Recommended chokes for different cable lengths &
inverter are available.
• If equipment is badly grounded, high levels of EMI may connect from the power part of equipment into
the control connections. Similar effects can occur when badly grounded equipments are connected
together & EMI is conducted via the control cables.
• Particular care is needed when equipment is used with low signal sensors, such as load cells &
capacitive sensors.
• Conducted interference is more likely to cause problems than radiated interference.
• The signal & control leads in any electronic system are generally low voltage, high impedance, & are
therefore particularly sensitive to the high level of EMI present in industrial systems. Separate control
cables from the power connections )e.g. supply & motor connections), using separate trunking etc.

• Switching inductive loads, such as electro-mechanical brakes, relay & contactor coils generate severe
EMI. Suppress relay, contactor coils etc. using R-C suppressor, flywheel diode, or varistor suppressers
fitted a coils.

• Consider connecting the 0V of the inverter to the protective earth. This can reduce noise in the 0V
system.
• EMC filter is to reduce the conducted levels of interference from the inverter to the supply. It is not
intended to reduce radiated interference of attenuate interference of the inverter. It should be fitted to the
input supply to the inverter & will be damaged if installed in the inverter output.
 ‰ Common mode Voltage Phenomenon:

In balanced 3-phase AC system:

a. The sum of three phase to ground voltages is always equal to zero.
b. Load neutral to ground voltage Vng is always equal to zero i.e. no neutral offset.

In unbalanced 3-phase AC system:

c. The sum of three phase to ground voltages is not always equal to zero.
d. Load neutral to ground voltage Vng is not always equal to zero i.e. neutral offset

Common mode voltage is eliminated by using a phase shifting multi core isolation transformer either by
grounding the motor neutral or DC link neutral or Y-point of the output filter capacitor, but the high level CMV
that would otherwise be impressed on the motor is now impressed on the transformer & cable. This requires
extra transformer & cable insulation. In case of Active Front End Drive to Drive technology the integrated DC
choke is used to block the CMV & mitigate motor neutral to ground voltage, so it is suitable for existing or new
motors & cables without any extra insulation & mitigates stress on the drive input & does not require an
isolation transformer.

‰ Carrier Frequency Problem- The rate at which the switches in the inverter operates is called
‘switching frequency’ or ‘carrier frequency’. As the inverter’s carrier frequency is increased, the output
current waveform supplied to the motor becomes more sinusoidal. This improved output current
waveform decreases motor heating thus improving motor insulation life. At higher carrier frequency,
however, more individual voltage pulses are output & for a given cable length-hence cable impedance,
rise time & motor surge impedance, the potential for voltage overshoot increases. The power generated
during this overshoot will be dissipated in the motor’s windings, and insulation life will be decreased.
The insulation life of a generic motor, when both cable length & inverter carrier frequency (fc) are varied
is shown in graph:
15. Closed Loop Control-
Closed Loop Control(CLC) uses a feedback signal from the process (such as temperature, pressure,
speed) a desired value from a set point(often set manually) & a control system that compares the two &
derives an error signal. The error signal is then processed & used to control the inverter & motor to try to
reduce the error.
The error signal processing can be very complex because of delay in the system. The signal is usually
processed using a Proportional(P), Integral(I) & Differential(D) calculator, & these parameters can be
adjusted to optimize the performance & stability of the system. Once a system is set up & stable, very
efficient & accurate control can be achieved.
The closed loop is not suitable for fast response control systems, but is ideal where the controller
variables change slowly, or where transient errors are not critical( e.g. temperature or pressure control).
Where fast response & accuracy are critical, external PID control system should be considered.

The set point usually derived from a fixed frequency has adjustable ramp rate that can be set before
being compared with feedback signal. The feedback signal, which is usually a 0-10V or 4-20mA signal
derived from a transducer connected to the analog input, is also pre-processed with threshold time. The
difference between the set point & the feedback signal (the error) is then amplified & filtered using gain &
integration constants. These are usually known as P & I terms. In this case a differential term (D) is not
included as it is rarely needed. Before P & I processing the error signal is optionally corrected (“transducer
type”). This correction is to determine whether to speed up or slow down the motor to reduce the feedback
signal. That is, increasing the speed of a vacuum pump will decrease pressure; increasing the speed of a
compressor will increase the pressure.
After processing with P & I terms, the resulting signal is passed to the inverter which increases or
decreases the output frequency as required, subject to certain limitations, such as acceleration &
deceleration times.
 • Motor Control Philosophy-

• Voltage to frequency (V/f) Control using PWM or Scalar Control: A simple open loop inverter drive
outputs a variable voltage & frequency to the motor, with an addition voltage boost to overcome losses
& non-linearity at low frequency. In this case, voltage rises linearly as the frequency increases by PWM
simulation of variable AC sine wave using modulator , which theoretically maintains correct flux level
in the motor up to the base frequency. Both voltage & frequency reference are fed into a modulator. In
this case load dictates torque. For pump & fan applications the load is reduced at frequencies below base
frequency, so a reduced voltage is acceptable. In these cases a quadratic (pump & fan curve) can be
specified.

Advantage:
• Low cost
• As no feedback is required the controller is simple.
Disadvantage:
• Field orientation not used.
• Rotor status ignored- no speed or position signal feedback.
• Torque is not controlled with any degree of accuracy.
• Modulator needed- the modulator slows down communication between the incoming voltage &
frequency signals & the need for the motor to respond to this changing signal. As the frequency &
voltage are needed to go through several stages before being applied to the motor.
These voltage levels are suitable for many applications. However, for higher performance a
better control strategy ,in particular, to offer the same capability as a DC drive & motor (fast response,
torque control, low speed operation) complex mathematical models of motor are needed. The processing
power to achieve this has only become available recently at low cost solutions such as Flux Current
Control (FCC) & Full or Sensor-less Vector Control (VC).

• Flux Current Control (FCC): This is an improved current monitoring system, which allows accurate
measurement of the output current with reference to the motor voltage. This enables the monitoring
system to separate the total output current into the (load) & imaginary (flux) part.
 The flux part can then be controlled, & therefore the flux on the motor optimized for all
conditions. This is Flux Current Control (FCC). It has proved very successful in a wide variety
applications. It offers improved motor efficiency, better torque & transient response compared to
standard V/f control. But it is not as effective as full vector control or sensor-less vector control.

• Flux Vector Control using PWM: It is best understood by considering the operation of a DC machine.
A DC machine consists of a field winding & armature winding. Therefore the armature current (torque)
& field current (flux) can be controlled independently. Independent control of torque & flux producing
currents permits optimum performance-torque at zero speed, rapid response to load change etc.

In an AC machine, the stator winding currents set the torque & flux; therefore it is difficult to control
the torque & flux separately. Hence it is necessary to control the magnitude & phase-the vector-of the
current. To control the phase with reference to the rotor, the rotor position must be known, for full
vector control, an encoder must be installed to tell the inverter the rotor position. Also the motor’s
electrical characteristics are mathematically modeled with microprocessors used to process data. It is
possible to achieve performance equal to that of DC machine provided the full parameters of the motor
are known & the inverter is able to model its performance. Torque controlled indirectly.
Advantage:
• Good torque response.
• Accurate speed control.
• Full torque at zero speed.
• Performance approaching DC drives.
Disadvantage:
• Feedback is needed.
• Costly.
• Modulator needed- the modulator slows down communication between the incoming voltage &
frequency signals & the need for the motor to respond to this changing signal. As the frequency &
voltage are needed to go through several stages before being applied to the motor.
However, most of the AC motors are not fitted with encoders & the additional cost & complexity is an
unnecessary expense. Recent development in motor control & modeling have allowed sensor-less ( i.e. without
encoder feedback) vector operation is possible. Sensor-less Vector Control predicts the rotor position by
mathematical modeling the motor by measuring the motor flux rather than predicting it. To do this the inverter
must:
a. Monitor the output voltage & current very accurately.
b. Know the motor parameters (stator, rotor resistance, leakage reactance etc.)
c. Know the motor history, i.e., the previous load etc. in order to predict the motor temperature.
d. Be able to calculate very rapidly.

• Direct Torque Control:

ABB has been carrying out research into DTC since 1988 following the publication of the theory in
1971 & 1985 by German doctor Blaschke and his colleague Depenbrock. DTC leans on the theory of field
oriented control of induction machines and the theory of direct self control. ABB has spent over 100 man
years developing the technology.
Direct Torque Control (DTC) is an optimised AC drives control principle where inverter switching
directly controls the motor variables i.e. torque & speed based on the electromagnetic state of the motor. In
practice, either one of them is controlled and we call it “torque control” or “speed control”. Then VFD
operates in torque control mode, the speed is determined by load. Likewise, when operates in speed control,
the torque is determined by the load. In this case the field orientation is achieved without pulse encoder
feedback from the motor shaft, rather using advanced motor theory to calculate the motor torque directly &
without using modulator. The controlling variables are motor magnetising(stator) flux and torque. It uses
motor parameters directly to control torque. The measured motor current and voltage are inputs to an
adaptive motor model which produces an exact actual value of flux and torque every 25 microseconds, by
using fastest digital signal processing hardware available. Motor torque and flux two-level comparators
compare the actual values to the reference values produced by torque and flux reference controllers. The
outputs from these two level controllers are updated every 25 microseconds & they indicate whether the
torque or flux has to be varied. Depending on the outputs from the two-level controllers, the optimum pulse
selector directly determines the optimum inverter switch positions. Therefore every single voltage pulse is
determined separately at “atomic level”. The inverter switch positions again determine the motor voltage
and current, which in turn influence the motor torque and flux and the control loop is closed.
 Because torque & flux are motor parameters that are being directly controlled, there is no need for a
modulator, as used in PWM drives, to control the frequency and voltage. This in effect, cuts out the middle
man and dramatically speeds up the response of the drive to changes in required torque. DTC also provides
precise torque control without the need for a feedback device. The torque response time in DTC drive is
typically 10 times faster than any AC or DC drives. The dynamic speed accuracy of DTC drive is 8 times
faster than any open loop AC drives & comparable to DC drive that uses feedback.

Torque response of a DTC drive, compared with flux vector control & open loop PWM

How DTC Works: It has two control loops: Speed Control Loop & Torque Control Loop
Speed Control Loop Torque Control Loop
Advantages:
• Appendix:
 Features:
Output Sine Filter- LC / sinusoidal filters:
LC or sinusoidal filters have almost the same configuration as L (inductive) C (capacitive) filters.
Differences between the two filters consist in the distortion factor. Since there are no standards limiting
distortion in sinusoidal fiters, it is allowed to name every filter as sinusoidal filters which have a
sinusoidal output voltage waveform.
The sinusoidal filter reduces the additional motor stresses, as a result of the following
- it generates an almost sinusoidal motor voltage and an absolutely sinusoidal motor current,
- reduces the voltage rate of rise (gradient) at the motors terminals to values dv/dt << 500 V/µs,
- prevents transition voltage spikes at the motor terminals,
- reduces the supplementary losses in the motor, and
- reduces the motor noise.
At the same time for long motor cables, the sinusoidal filter reduces the charging current spikes that at
additionally stress the drive inverter as a result of the periodic recharging of the cable capacitances
- Ensures sinusoidal voltage & current output on the motor side
- Provides compatibility with standard asynchronous motors.
- Avoids need to derate motor.
- Eliminates voltage stress & common mode voltages to motor insulation.
- Reduce motor noise.
- Allows using existing non-shielded cables.
-
dv/dt filters:
Generally, the dv/dt filter is configured as a pure L filter. This filter has the task of limiting the voltage
rates of rise (gradients) and the transient voltage peaks (dv/dt) at the motor winding to non-critical
values for the motor insulation. At the same time, for long motor cables, the dv/dt filter reduces the
charging current spikes that additionally stress the drive inverter due to the periodic re-charging of the
cable capacitances. It is a “high-end” device to limit the voltage overshoot and for this reason must be
connected to the DC link of the drive inverter.

Cogging: Pulsating symptom of a motor while operating at a very low frequency, usually 2 to 6 Hz.
Shaft of motor jerks in a rotational manner. The term "cogging" comes from gear cogs.

Torque:
• Break-away torque : Torque required to start a motor.
• Accelerating torque: Torque to bring load to operating speed within a given time.
• Running torque: torque required to keep the load moving at all speeds.
• Peak torque: occasional peak torque required by the load, such as a load being dropped on a conveyor.
• Holding torque: torque required by the motor when operating as a brake, such as down hill loads and
high inertia machines.

ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit.

Snubber Circuit: RC networks are used to control voltage transients that could falsely turn-ON( Static
dV/dt turn-ON) a thyristor. These networks are called Snubbers. The simple snubber consists of a series
resistor & capacitor placed around thyristor. These components along with load inductance form a series
RLC circuit. Now the static dV/dt turn-ON happens due to Miller effect & regeneration. A change in
voltage across the junction capacitance induces current through it. This current is proportional to the rate
of change of voltage (dV/dt). It triggers the device ON when it becomes large enough to raise the sum of
the NPN & PNP transistor alphas to unity.
 Transients occurring at line crossing or when there is no initial voltage across the thyristor are
worst case. The collector junction capacitance is greater then because the depletion layer widens at
higher voltage. Small transients are incapable of charging the self-capacitance of the gate layer to its
forward biased threshold voltage. Capacitance voltage divider action between the collector & gate-
cathode junctions & built-in resistors that shunt current away from the cathode emitter are responsible
for this effect.

Static dV/dt does not depend strongly on voltage for operation below the maximum voltage &
temperature rating. Avalanche multiplication will increase leakage current & reduce Static dV/dt
capability. Heat increases current gain & leakage, lowering Static dV/dt, the gate trigger voltage & noise
immunity.

Commutation: When thyristor is conducting & attempts to turn-OFF with an inductive load, the current
& voltage are out of phase & as the current drop below the holding value due to an attempt to turn-OFF,
the line voltage still remains high as it is in the opposite polarity to the direction of conduction.
Successful turn-OFF requires the voltage across the thyristor to rise to the instantaneous line voltage at a
rate slow enough to prevent retriggering of the device.
IGBT Fuse in VSI: A DC-link location for fuses assure a protection against all faults. DC link capacitor
stores more energy, which can cause rupturing of high speed fuses. So IGBT based fuses are required.
IGCT: Specifically Designed for Medium Voltage. ABB is keenly aware of the need for a power-
switching device that displays:
• High-speed switching like an IGBT
• Low-loss conduction like a GTO
• Reliability in a wide range of medium voltage applications

ABB has developed the simple solution based on proven technology: the Integrated Gate
Commutated Thyristor (IGCT). This evolutionary technology consists of a redesigned GTO, which
incorporates significant design breakthroughs. The new IGCT delivers fast, homogeneous switching and
inherently low losses. The IGCT is used with Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) topology which is
intrinsically less complex and more efficient compared to other topologies. The IGCT-based drives
meets the complex medium voltage drive challenge.

IGBT: Both low voltage and high voltage IGBTs have been used in medium voltage drives. IGBTs are
fast switching but conduction losses are high at medium voltage levels and complicated series
connections of multiple IGBTs are required. High voltage IGBTs have fewer series-connected devices
relative to low voltage IGBTs, but conduction losses are even higher. Overall parts count increases
resulting in bigger drives. Costs go up. Reliability goes down.

IEEE 519-1992 standard:

THD %:
Standards:

G5/4
Tests:

Insulation Test Control Test Power Equipment Test Load

Test
-End-