History of Pakistan

A map outlining historical sites in Pakistan

The history of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ‬

‫ )ﭘﺎﮐﺴﺘﺎن‬encompasses the history of the

region constituting modern-day Pakistan.
For over three millennia, the region has
witnessed human activity[1] and one of the
world's major civilizations,[2][3][4][5] the
Indus Valley Civilisation. The trade routes
which traverse the Indus Valley linking
Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent and
the Orient have attracted people from as
far as Greece and Mongolia[6] and
countless imperial powers, the last being
the British Empire.

History by chronology and

region
region
History of Azad Jammu & Kashmir
History of Balochistan
History of East Pakistan
History of Gilgit-Baltistan
History of Islamabad
History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
History of Punjab
History of Sindh

Prehistory
Paleolithic period
The Riwatian is a Paleolithic site in upper
Punjab. Riwat Site 55, shows a later
occupation dated to around 45,000 years
ago. The Soanian is archaeological culture
of the Lower Paleolithic, shazi and ali are
brother Acheulean. It is named after the
Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills, near
modern-day Islamabad/Rawalpindi. In
Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 kilometres
(9.9 mi) from Rawalpindi, on the bend of
the Soan River hundreds of edged pebble
tools were discovered. No human
skeletons of this age have yet been found.

Neolithic period
Mehrgarh is an important neolithic site
discovered in 1974, which shows early
evidence of farming and herding,[7] and
dentistry.[1] The site dates back to 7000–
5500 BCE) and is located on the Kachi
Plain of Balochistan. The residents of
Mehrgarh lived in mud brick houses,
stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools
with copper ore, cultivated barley, wheat,
jujubes and dates, and herded sheep,
goats and cattle. As the civilization
progressed (5500–2600 BCE) residents
began to engage in crafts, including flint
knapping, tanning, bead production, and
metalworking. The site was occupied
continuously until 2600 BCE,[8] when
climatic changes began to occur. Between
2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more
arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor
of the Indus Valley,[9] where a new
civilization was in the early stages of
development.[10]

Indus Valley Civilisation

 Indus Valley Civilisation

The "Indus Priest King" statue is carved

from steatite.

The Pashupati seal.

  

Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at

Mohenjo-daro in Sindh.

The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.

The Bronze Age in the Indus Valley began
around 3300 BCE with the Indus Valley
Civilization.[11] Along with Ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia, it was one of three
early civilizations of the Old World, and of
the three the most widespread,[12] covering
an area of 1.25 million km2.[13] It flourished
in the basins of the Indus River, in what is
today the Pakistani provinces of Sindh,
Punjab and Balochistan, and along a
system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed,
rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of
the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in parts
of northwest India.[14][15][16][note 1] At its
peak, the civilization hosted a population
of approximately 5 million spread across
hundreds of settlements extending as far
as the Arabian Sea to present-day
southern and eastern Afghanistan, and the
Himalayas.[17] Inhabitants of the ancient
Indus river valley, the Harappans,
developed new techniques in metallurgy
and handicraft (carneol products, seal
carving), and produced copper, bronze,
lead, and tin.

The Mature Indus civilisation flourished

from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the
beginning of urban civilisation in the Indus
Valley. The civilisation included urban
centres such as Harappa, Ganeriwala and
Mohenjo-daro as well as an offshoot
called the Kulli culture (2500–2000 BCE) in
southern Balochistan and was noted for
its cities built of brick, roadside drainage
system, and multi-storeyed houses. It is
thought to have had some kind of
municipal organisation as well.

During the late period of this civilisation,

signs of a gradual decline began to
emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of
the cities were abandoned. However, the
Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear
suddenly, and some elements of the Indus
Civilisation may have survived.
Aridification of this region during the 3rd
millennium BCE may have been the initial
spur for the urbanisation associated with
the civilisation, but eventually also reduced
the water supply enough to cause the
civilisation's demise, and to scatter its
population eastward.[18][19][16][20][note 2] The
civilization collapsed around 1700 BCE,
though the reasons behind its fall are still
unknown. Through the excavation of the
Indus cities and analysis of town planning
and seals, it has been inferred that the
Civilization had high level of sophistication
in its town planning, arts, crafts, and trade.
Dates Phase Era

7000–
5500 Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic) Early Food Producing Era
BCE
Pre-Harappan
5500–
Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic
3300
Neolithic)
BCE Regionalisation Era
3300– c.4000-2500/2300 BCE
Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase; Hakra
2800 (Shaffer)[21]
Ware)
BCE c.5000-3200 BCE
Early Harappan
2800– (Coningham & Young)[22]
Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase,
2600
Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII)
BCE

2600–
2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
BCE

2450– Mature Harappan

2200 (Indus Valley Harappan 3B Integration Era
BCE Civilisation)

2200–
1900 Harappan 3C
BCE

1900–
1700 Harappan 4
Late Harappan
BCE
(Cemetery H);Ochre Localisation Era
1700–
Coloured Pottery
1300 Harappan 5
BCE

Early history - Iron Age

Vedic period

Archaeological cultures. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper

Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures
associated with Indo-Aryans.

Indus Valley

The Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) is

postulated to have formed during the Indo-
Aryan migration between 1500 BCE to 800
BCE. As Indo-Aryans migrated and settled
into the Indus Valley, along with them
came their distinctive religious traditions
and practices which fused with local
culture.[23] The Indo-Aryans religious
beliefs and practices from the Bactria–
Margiana Culture and the native Harappan
Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley
Civilisation eventually gave rise to Vedic
culture and tribes.[24] [note 3] The initial early
Vedic culture was a tribal, pastoral society
centered in the Indus Valley, of what is
today Pakistan. During this period the
Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,
were composed.[note 4]
Several early tribes and kingdoms arose
during this period and internecine military
conflicts between these various tribes was
common; as described in the Rig Veda,
which was being composed at this time,
the most notable of such conflicts was the
Battle of Ten Kings. This battle took place
on the banks of the River Ravi in the 14th
century BC (1300 BCE). The battle was
fought between the Bharatas tribe and a
confederation of ten tribes:

Abhira Kingdom, centered in the

Cholistan-Thar region.
Bahlika Kingdom, centered in Punjab.
Gandhara grave culture, also called
Swat culture and centered in the Swat
Valley of present-day Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
Kamboja Kingdom, centered in the
Hindu Kush region.
Kasmira Kingdom, centered in present-
day Kashmir Valley.
Madra Kingdom, centered in upper
Punjab, with its capital at Sialkot
Pauravas, a sub-clan of Kambojas
Sindhu Kingdom, centered in present-
day Sindh.
Sudra Kingdom, centered in the
Cholistan-Thar region.
Ganges Plain

After 1200 BCE, some Vedic tribes began

migrating to the Ganges Plain, present-day
India, which was characterized by
increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy
of four social classes, and the emergence
of monarchical, state-level polities.[27][28] In
addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of
Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are
said to have their ultimate origins during
this period.[29] The early Indo-Aryan
presence probably corresponds, in part, to
the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in
archaeological contexts.[30] The end of the
Vedic period witnessed the rise of large,
urbanised states as well as of shramana
movements (including Jainism and
Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic
orthodoxy.[31] Around the beginning of the
Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed
one of the main constituents of the so-
called "Hindu synthesis".[32]

Achaemenid Empire

Much of the area corresponding to modern-day

Pakistan was subordinated to the Achaemenid Empire
and forced to pay tributes to Persia
The main Vedic tribes remaining in the
Indus Valley by 550 BC were the Kamboja,
Sindhu, Taksas of Gandhara, the Madras
and Kathas of the River Chenab, Mallas of
the River Ravi and Tugras of the River
Sutlej. These several tribes and
principalities fought against one another
to such an extent that the Indus Valley no
longer had one powerful Vedic tribal
kingdom to defend against outsiders and
to wield the warring tribes into one
organized kingdom. The area was wealthy
and fertile, yet infighting led misery and
despair. King Pushkarasakti of Gandhara
was engaged in power struggles against
his local rivals and as such the Khyber
Pass remained poorly defended. King
Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire took
advantage of the opportunity and planned
for an invasion. The Indus Valley was
fabled in Persia for its gold and fertile soil
and conquering it had been a major
objective of his predecessor Cyrus The
Great.[33] In 542 BC, Cyrus had led his army
and conquered the Makran coast in
southern Balochistan. However, he is
known to have campaigned beyond
Makran (in the regions of Kalat, Khuzdar
and Panjgur) and lost most of his army in
the Gedrosian Desert (speculated today as
the Kharan Desert).
In 518 BC, Darius led his army through the
Khyber Pass and southwards in stages,
eventually reaching the Arabian Sea coast
in Sindh by 516 BC. Under Persian rule, a
system of centralized administration, with
a bureaucratic system, was introduced
into the Indus Valley for the first time.
Provinces or "satrapy" were established
with provincial capitals:

Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BC

with its capital at Pushkalavati
(Charsadda). Gandhara Satrapy was
established in the general region of the
old Gandhara grave culture, in what is
today Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. During
Achaemenid rule, the Kharosthi
alphabet, derived from the one used for
Aramaic (the official language of
Achaemenids), developed here and
remained the national script of
Gandhara until 200 AD.
Hindush satrapy, established in 518 BC
with its capital at Taxila. The satrapy
was established in upper Punjab
(presumably in the Potohar plateau
region).
Arachosia satrapy, established in 517
BC with its capital at Kandahar.
Arachosia was one of the larger
provinces covering much of lower
Punjab, southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
of modern-day Pakistan and Helmand
province of what is today Afghanistan.
The inhabitants of Arachosia were
referred to as Paktyans by ethnicity, and
that name may have been in reference
to the ethnic Pax̌tūn (Pashtun) tribes.
Sattagydia satrapy, established in 516
BC in what is today Sindh. Sattagydia is
mentioned for the first time in the
Behistun inscription of Darius the Great
as one of the provinces in revolt while
the king was in Babylon. The revolt was
presumably suppressed in 515 BC. The
satrapy disappears from sources after
480 BC, possibly being mentioned by
 another name or included with other
regions.[34]
Gedrosia satrapy, established in 542 BC,
covered much of the Makran region of
southern Balochistan. It had been
conquered much earlier by Cyrus The
Great.[35]

Despite all this, there is no archaeological

evidence of Achaemenid control over
these region as not a single archaeological
site that can be positively identified with
the Achaemenid Empire has been found
anywhere in Pakistan, including at Taxila.
What is known about the easternmost
satraps and borderlands of the
Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the
Darius inscriptions and from Greek
sources such as the Histories of
Herodotus and the later Alexander
Chronicles (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These
sources list three Indus Valley tributaries
or conquered territories that were
subordinated to the Persian Empire and
made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings:
Gandhara, Sattagydia and Hindush.[34]

Ror dynasty

The Ror dynasty (Sindhi: ‫ )روﻫ ا راڄ‬was a

Sindhi Buddhist dynasty which ruled much
of what is today Sindh, Punjab and
northwest India in 450 BC.[36] The Rors
ruled from Rori and was built by Dhaj, Ror
Kumar, a Ror Kshatriya. Buddhist Jataka
stories talk about exchanges of gifts
between King Rudrayan of Roruka and
King Bimbisara of Magadha.[37]
Divyavadana, the Buddhist chronicle has
said that Rori historically competed with
Pataliputra in terms of political
influence.[38] Rori was wiped out in a major
sand storm,[39] which was recorded in both
the Buddhist Bhallatiya Jataka and Jain
annals.

Macedonian Empire
 

Alexander's campaign in the Indus Valley.

In 328 BC, Alexander The Great of

Macedonia and now the king of Persia,
had conquered much of the former
Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire up to
Bactria. The remaining satraps lay in the
Indus Valley, but Alexander ruled off
invading the Indus until his forces were in
complete control of the newly acquired
satraps. In 327 BC, Alexander married
Roxana (a princess of the former Bactria
satrapy) to cement his relations with his
new territories. Now firmly under
Macedonian rule, Alexander was free to
turn his attention to the Indus Valley. The
rationale for the Indus campaign is usually
said to be Alexander's desire to conquer
the entire known world, which the Greeks
thought ended around the vicinity of the
River Indus.

In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited

all the chieftains in the remaining five
Achaemenid satraps to submit to his
authority. Ambhi, then ruler of Taxila in the
former Hindush satrapy complied, but the
remaining tribes and clans in the former
satraps of Gandhara, Arachosia,
Sattagydia and Gedrosia rejected
Alexander's offer. By spring of 326 BC,
Alexander began on his Indus expedition
from Bactira, leaving behind 3500 horses
and 10,000 soldiers. He divided his army
into two groups. The larger force would
enter the Indus Valley through the Khyber
pass, just as Darius had done 200 years
earlier, while a smaller force under the
personal command of Alexander entered
through a northern route, possibly through
Broghol or Dorah Pass near Chitral.
Alexander was commanding a group of
shield-bearing guards, foot-companions,
archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men
and led them against the tribes of the
former Gandhara satrapy.

The first tribe they encountered were the

Aspasioi tribe of the Kunar Valley, who
initiated a fierce battle against Alexander,
in which he himself was wounded in the
shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi
eventually lost and 40,000 people were
enslaved. Alexander then continued in a
southwestern direction where he
encountered the Assakenoi tribe of the
Swat & Buner valleys in April 326 BC. The
Assakenoi fought bravely and offered
stubborn resistance to Alexander and his
army in the cities of Ora, Bazira (Barikot)
and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander
about the resistance put up by the
Assakenoi that he killed the entire
population of Massaga and reduced its
buildings to rubble - similar slaughters
followed in Ora.[40] A similar slaughter then
followed at Ora, another stronghold of the
Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters
reached numerous Assakenians, who
began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located
between Shangla and Kohistan. Alexander
followed close behind their heels and
besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually
capturing and destroying the fort and
killing everyone inside. The remaining
smaller tribes either surrendered or like the
Astanenoi tribe of Pushkalavati
(Charsadda) were quickly neutralized
where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen
were captured by Alexander.[41] Eventually
Alexander's smaller force would meet with
the larger force which had come through
the Khyber Pass met at Attock. With the
conquest of Gandhara complete,
Alexander switched to strengthening his
military supply line, which by now
stretched dangerously vulnerable over the
Hindu Kush back to Balkh in Bactria.
After conquering Gandhara and solidifying
his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander
combined his forces with the King Ambhi
of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in
July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab)
campaign. His first resistance would come
at the River Jhelum near Bhera against
King Porus of the Paurava tribe. The
famous Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum)
between Alexander (with Ambhi) and
Porus would be the last major battle
fought by him. After defeating King Porus,
his battle weary troops refused to advance
into India[42] to engage the army of Nanda
Dynasty and its vanguard of trampling
elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded
southwest along the Indus Valley.[43] Along
the way, he engaged in several battles with
smaller kingdoms in Multan and Sindh,
before marching his army westward
across the Makran desert towards what is
now Iran. In crossing the desert,
Alexander's army took enormous
casualties from hunger and thirst, but
fought no human enemy. They
encountered the "Fish Eaters", or
Ichthyophagi, primitive people who lived
on the Makran coast, who had matted hair,
no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts
made of whale bones, and ate raw
seafood.
Alexander founded several new
settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and
Sindh.[44] and nominated officers as
Satraps of the new provinces:

In Gandhara, Oxyartes was nominated to

the position of Satrap by Alexander in
326 BC.
In Sindh, Alexander nominated his
officer Peithon as Satrap in 325 BC, a
position he would hold for the next ten
years.
In Punjab, Alexander initially nominated
Philip as Satrap from 327 BC to 326 BC.
In 326 BC, he nominated Eudemus and
Taxiles as joint-Satraps until 323 BC
 when Eudemus resigned leaving Taxiles
as Satrap until 321 BC. Porus of Jhelum
then became Satrap of Punjab.
In Gedrosia, Sibyrtius was nominated as
Satrap in 323 BC and remained so until
303 BC.

When Alexander died in 323 BCE, he left

behind an expansive empire stretching
from Greece to the Indus River. The empire
was put under the authority of Perdiccas,
and the territories were divided among
Alexander's generals (the Diadochi), who
thereby became satraps of the new
provinces. However, the Satraps of the
Indus Valley largely remained under the
same leaders while conflicts were brewing
in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Mauryan Empire

Mauryan Empire under Ashoka the Great

Due to the internal conflicts of Alexanders

generals, Chandragupta and his Brahmin
counselor Chanakya saw an opportunity to
expand the Mauryan Empire from its
Ganges Plain heartland in Bihar towards
the Indus Valley between 325 BC to 303
BC. At the same time, Seleucus I now ruler
much of the Macedonian Empire was
advancing from Babylon in order to
establish his writ in the former Persian and
Indus Valley provinces of Alexander.
During this period, Chandragupta's
mercenaries may have assassinated
Satrap of Punjab Philip. They presumably
also fought Eudemus, Porus and Taxiles of
Punjab and Peithon of Sindh. In 316 BC,
both Eudemus and Peithon left Punjab and
Sindh for Babylon, thus ending
Macedonian rule. The Mauryan Empire
now controlled Punjab and Sindh. As the
Seleucid Empire expanded eastwards
towards the Indus, it was becoming more
difficult for Seleucus to assert control over
the vast eastern domains. Seleucus
invaded Punjab in 305 BC, confronting
Chandragupta Maurya. It is said that
Chandragupta fielded an army of 600,000
men and 9000 war elephants. After two
years of war, Seleucus reached an
agreement with Chandragupta, in which he
gave his daughter in marriage to
Chandragupta and exchanged his eastern
provinces for a considerable force of 500
war elephants, which would play a decisive
role at Ipsus (301 BC). Strabo, in his
Geographica, wrote:
"He [Seleucus] crossed the Indus
and waged war with Maurya who
dwelt on the banks of that
stream, until they came to an
understanding with each other
and contracted a marriage
relationship."

Alexander took these away from

the Indo-Aryans and established
settlements of his own, but
Seleucus Nicator gave them to
Sandrocottus (Chandragupta),
 upon terms of intermarriage and
of receiving in exchange 500
elephants.[45]

— Strabo, 64 BC–24 AD

Thus Chandragupta was given Gedrosia

(Balochistan) and much of what is now
Afghanistan, including the modern
Herat[46] and Kandahar provinces, thereby
ending Macedonian control in the Indus
Valley by 303 BC.

Under Chandragupta and his successors,

internal and external trade, agriculture and
economic activities, all thrived and
expanded across the empire thanks to the
creation of a single and efficient system of
finance, administration, and security. The
empire was divided into four provinces,
with the imperial capital at Pataliputra.
From Ashokan edicts, the names of the
four provincial capitals were Tosali (in the
eastern Ganges plain), Ujjain (in the
western Ganges plain), Suvarnagiri (in the
Deccan), and Taxila (in the Indus Valley).
The head of the provincial administration
was the Kumara (royal prince), who
governed the provinces as king's
representative. The kumara was assisted
by Mahamatyas and council of ministers.
The empire also enjoyed an era of social
harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of the sciences and of
knowledge. Mauryans were followers of
Buddhism and Hinduism. Chandragupta
Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased
social and religious renewal and reform
across his society, while Ashoka's
embrace of Buddhism has been said to
have been the foundation of the reign of
social and political peace and non-
violence across the empire.[46] Following
the demise of Chandragupta, Ashoka
became Emperor who ruled between 268
BC – 232 BC. Ashoka was followed for 50
years by a succession of weaker kings. In
185 BC, the Shunga coup took place in
which the emperor was killed, thus ending
Mauryan rule. The fall of the Mauryas left
the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of
invasions followed.

The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius,

capitalized on the break-up, and he
conquered the Indus Valley in around 180
BC, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
By the time Chandragupta's grandson
Ashoka had become emperor, Buddhism
was flourishing in the Indus Valley and
much of the eastern Seleucid Empire. In
250 BC, the eastern part of the Seleucid
Empire broke away to form the Greco-
Bactrian Kingdom by Diodotus of Bactria.
Some of the Greeks apparently also
converted to Buddhism during this period.

Here in the king's domain among

the Greeks, the Kambojas, the
Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the
Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras
 and the Palidas, everywhere
people are following Beloved-of-
the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.
(Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock
Edict, S. Dhammika).

Although Buddhism was flourishing,

Brahminism was resisting Buddhist
advances in the Ganges Plain and when
Ashoka himself converted to Buddhism, he
directed his efforts towards expanding the
faith in the Indo-Iranian and Hellenistic
worlds. According to the Edicts of Ashoka,
set in stone, some of them written in
Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the
Greek lands in Asia and as far as the
Mediterranean. The edicts name each of
the rulers of the Hellenistic world at the
time.

The conquest by Dharma has

been won here, on the borders,
and even six hundred yojanas
(4,000 miles) away, where the
Greek king Antiochos rules,
beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos,
Magas and Alexander rule,
likewise in the south among the
 Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far
as Tamraparni. (Edicts of Ashoka,
13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to Pali sources,

some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek-
Buddhist monks, indicating close religious
exchanges between the two cultures:

When the thera (elder)

Moggaliputta, the illuminator of
the religion of the Conqueror
(Ashoka), had brought the (third)
council to an end… he sent forth
 theras, one here and one there: …
and to Aparantaka (the "Western
countries" corresponding to
Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the
Greek (Yona) named
Dhammarakkhita... and the thera
Maharakkhita he sent into the
country of the Yona.
(Mahavamsa, XII).

When Ashoka died in 232 BC, Mauryan

hold on the Indus began weakening as
Brahminism was attempting to retake
control of the Ganges heartland though
the Shunga revolt. As such, the Mauryans
began retreating out of the Indus back
east towards Pataliputra (Patna) to protect
the imperial capital. This left most of the
Indus Valley unguarded and most
importantly left the Khyber Pass open to
invasion. In 230 BC, Euthydemus
overthrew Diodotus to establish himself as
king. The Greco-Bactrians were allied with
the Mauryans and had kept close relations
with Ashoka.

Following the collapse of the Mauryans,

the first Brahmin emperor of the Shunga
Empire (Pushyamitra Shunga) is believed
to have persecuted Buddhists and
contributed to a resurgence of
Brahmanism that forced Buddhism
outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and
Bactria.[47] Buddhist scripture such as the
Asokavadana account of the Divyavadana
and ancient Tibetan historian Taranatha
have written about persecution of
Buddhists. Pushyamitra is said to have
burned down Buddhist monasteries,
destroyed stupas, massacred Buddhist
monks and put rewards on their heads, but
some consider these stories as probable
exaggerations.[47][48] The Shunga revolt
was viewed as a persecution of Buddhists
by Euthydemus.[49] Demetrius, the son of
Euthydemus, “invaded” the Indus Valley in
180 BC. Historians now suggest that the
invasion was intended to show their
support for the Mauryans and thus, the
Indo-Greek Kingdom was established in
170 BC, in order to prevent the Shungas
from advancing the Indus Valley.

Classical period - Middle

Kingdoms
Indo-Greek Kingdom

Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 BC.

The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155–
130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of
Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush,
becoming king shortly after his victory. His
territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in
modern Afghanistan and extended to the
Punjab region, with many tributaries to the
south and east, possibly as far as
Mathura. The capital Sagala (modern
Sialkot) prospered greatly under
Menander's rule and Menander is one of
the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek
authors.[50] The classical Buddhist text
Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying
there was "none equal to Milinda in all
India".[51] His empire survived him in a
fragmented manner until the last
independent Greek king, Strato II,
disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125
BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles,
son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi
invasion of Bactria and relocated to
Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of
the Jhelum River. The last known Indo-
Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the
Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a
1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the
Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa"
("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the
Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or
"King")). Various petty kings ruled into the
early 1st century CE, until the conquests
by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi,
who founded the Kushan dynasty.

Indo-Scythian Kingdom

The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha

surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra (right) was
found inside a stupa with coins of Azes inside. British
Museum.
The Indo-Scythians were descended from
the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from
southern Central Asia into Pakistan and
Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd
century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They
displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a
kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to
Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers
started to decline in the 2nd century CE
after the Scythians were defeated by the
south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra
Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.[52][53]
Later the Saka kingdom was completely
destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta
Empire from eastern India in the 4th
century.[54]
Indo-Parthian Kingdom

Gandhara Buddhist reliquary with content, including

Indo-Parthian coins. 1st century CE.

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by

the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its
eponymous first ruler Gondophares. They
ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan,
Pakistan,[55] and northwestern India,
during or slightly before the 1st century
AD. For most of their history, the leading
Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the
present Punjab province of Pakistan) as
their residence, but during their last few
years of existence the capital shifted
between Kabul and Peshawar. These kings
have traditionally been referred to as Indo-
Parthians, as their coinage was often
inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they
probably belonged to a wider groups of
Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia
proper, and there is no evidence that all the
kings who assumed the title Gondophares,
which means ”Holder of Glory”, were even
related. Christian writings claim that the
Apostle Saint Thomas – an architect and
skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in
the court of king Gondophares, had built a
palace for the king at Taxila and had also
ordained leaders for the Church before
leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot, for
sailing out to eventually reach Malabar
Coast.

Kushan Empire

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of

Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line),
according to the Rabatak inscription.
according to the Rabatak inscription.

Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a

Kushan devotee, Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara,
and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara.

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what

is now Afghanistan into the northwest of
the subcontinent under the leadership of
their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about
the middle of the 1st century CE. They
came of an Indo-European language
speaking Central Asian tribe called the
Yuezhi,[56][57] a branch of which was
known as the Kushans. By the time of his
grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire
spread to encompass much of
Afghanistan,[58] and then the northern
parts of the Indian subcontinent at least
as far as Saketa and Sarnath near
Varanasi (Benares).[59]

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of

Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded
southward, the deities[60] of their later
coinage came to reflect its new Hindu
majority.[61]

They played an important role in the

establishment of Buddhism in India and its
spread to Central Asia and China.

Historian Vincent Smith said about

Kanishka:

He played the part of a second

Ashoka in the history of
Buddhism.[62]

The empire linked the Indian Ocean

maritime trade with the commerce of the
Silk Road through the Indus valley,
encouraging long-distance trade,
particularly between China and Rome. The
Kushans brought new trends to the
budding and blossoming Gandhara Art,
which reached its peak during Kushan
Rule.

H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting

prelude to the Age of the
Guptas.[63]

By the 3rd century, their empire in India

was disintegrating and their last known
great emperor was Vasudeva I.[64][65]

Sasanian Empire
 Kushanshahr
Paradan
Turgistan

Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire at its maximum extent.

The Gupta Empire existed approximately

from 320 to 600 CE and covered much of
the broad swathe of northern South Asia,
including modern Pakistan but excluding
the southern peninsular region.[66]
Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the
dynasty was the model of a classical
civilization[67] and was marked by
extensive inventions and discoveries.[68]

The high points of this cultural creativity

are magnificent architectures, sculptures
and paintings.[69][70][71] Science and
political administration reached new
heights during the Gupta era.[72] Strong
trade ties also made the region an
important cultural center and set the
region up as a base that would influence
nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri
Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia and
Indochina.[73]

The empire gradually declined due in part

to loss of territory and imperial authority
caused by their own erstwhile feudatories,
and from the invasion by the Hunas from
Central Asia.[74] After the collapse of the
Gupta Empire in the 6th century, South
Asia was again ruled by numerous
regional kingdoms. A minor line of the
Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha
after the disintegration of the empire.
These Guptas were ultimately ousted by
the Vardhana king Harsha, who
established an empire in the first half of
the 7th century.

Rai dynasty

According to Arab chroniclers, the Rai

Dynasty of Sindh (c. 489–632) arose after
the end of Ror Dynasty. They were
practitioners of Hinduism and Buddhism.
At the time of Rai Diwaji (Devaditya),
influence of the Rai-state exdended from
Kashmir in the east, Makran and Debal
(Karachi) port in the south, Kandahar,
Sistan, Suleyman, Ferdan and Kikanan hills
in the north.
Hephthalite Empire

Vishnu nicolo seal representing Vishnu with a

worshipper (probably Mihirakula), 4th–6th century CE.
The inscription in cursive Bactrian reads: "Mihira,
Vishnu and Shiva". British Museum.

The Indo-Hephthalites (or Alchon Huns)

were a nomadic confederation in Central
Asia during the late antiquity period. The
Alchon Huns established themselves in
modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of
the 5th century. Led by the Hun military
leader Toramana, they overran the
northern region of Pakistan and North
India. Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite
Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the
east and Gwalior to the central India.
Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's
merciless persecution of Buddhists and
destruction of monasteries, though the
description is disputed as far as the
authenticity is concerned.[75] The Huns
were defeated by alliance of Indian rulers,
Maharaja (Great King) Yasodharman of
Malwa and Gupta Emperor
Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some
of them were driven out of India and
others were assimilated in the Indian
society.[76]

Brahmin dynasty

The Brahmin dynasty emerged with the

ascent of Chach of Alor, a former
chamberlain of Rai Sahasi II ascended to
the throne by marrying the king's widow.
Chach expanded the kingdom of Sindh,
and his successful efforts to subjugate
surrounding monarchies and ethnic
groups into an empire covering the entire
Indus valley and beyond were recorded in
the Chach Nama. The Chacha dynasty
lasted till 712 when Chacha's son Raja
Dahir was killed in battle against the
Umayyad forces.

Rajput dynasties

The territory of modern Pakistan have

been home to many Rajput dynasties
during 7th to 20th century.[77][78]

Arab Caliphate

The expansion of the Arab Caliphate.

   Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632
   Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–
661
   Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–
750

Although soon after conquering the Middle

East from the Byzantine empire and the
Sassanid Empire, Arab forces had reached
the present western regions of Pakistan,
during the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it
was in 712 CE that a young Arab general
called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered
most of the Indus region for the Umayyad
empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province
with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km
(45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in
Sindh. But the instability of the empire and
the defeat in various wars with north
Indian and south Indian rulers including
the Caliphate campaigns in India, where
the Hindu rulers like the south Indian
Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya
dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara
Dynasty defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they
were contained till only Sindh and
southern Punjab. There was gradual
conversion to Islam in the south,
especially amongst the native Hindu and
Buddhist majority, but in areas north of
Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained
numerous.[79] By the end of the 10th
century CE, the region was ruled by several
Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued
by the Ghaznavids.

Kabul Shahi

The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul

Valley and Gandhara (modern-day
Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the
decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd
century to the early 9th century.[80] The
Shahis are generally split up into two eras:
the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis,
with the change-over thought to have
occurred sometime around 870. The
kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan
or Ratbelshahan from 565-670, when the
capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul,
and later Udabhandapura, also known as
Hund[81] for its new capital.[82][83][84]

The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is

known for his struggles in defending his
kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the
modern-day eastern Afghanistan and
Pakistan region. Jayapala saw a danger in
the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and
invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in
the reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his
son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim
Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.[85]
Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and
he was forced to pay an indemnity.[85]
Jayapala defaulted on the payment and
took to the battlefield once more.[85]
Jayapala however, lost control of the entire
region between the Kabul Valley and Indus
River.[86]

Before his struggle began Jaipal had

raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus.
When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his
army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and
an innumerable host of foot soldiers.
According to Ferishta:

"The two armies having met on

the confines of Lumghan,
Subooktugeen ascended a hill to
view the forces of Jeipal, which
appeared in extent like the
boundless ocean, and in number
like the ants or the locusts of the
wilderness. But Subooktugeen
considered himself as a wolf
about to attack a flock of sheep:
calling, therefore, his chiefs
together, he encouraged them to
glory, and issued to each his
commands. His soldiers, though
few in number, were divided into
squadrons of five hundred men
 each, which were directed to
attack successively, one
particular point of the Hindoo
line, so that it might continually
have to encounter fresh
troops."[86]

However, the army was hopeless in battle

against the western forces, particularly
against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.[86]
In the year 1001, soon after Sultan
Mahmud came to power and was
occupied with the Qarakhanids north of
the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni
once more and upon suffering yet another
defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces,
near present-day Peshawar. After the
Battle of Peshawar, he committed suicide
because his subjects thought he had
brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi
dynasty.[85][86]

Jayapala was succeeded by his son

Anandapala,[85] who along with other
succeeding generations of the Shahiya
dynasty took part in various unsuccessful
campaigns against the advancing
Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The
Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves
to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.[86]
Medieval period
Ghaznavid dynasty

In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler Mahmud of

Ghazni, took over the Ghaznavid dynasty
empire established by his father,
Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting
from the city of Ghazni (now in
Afghanistan), Mehmood conquered the
bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar
against the Hindu Shahis in Kabul in 1005,
and followed it by the conquests of Punjab
(1007), deposed the Shia Ismaili rulers of
Multan, (1011), Kashmir (1015) and
Qanoch (1017). By the end of his reign in
1030, Mahmud's empire briefly extended
from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna
river in the east, and the Ghaznavid
dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary
historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and
Ferdowsi described extensive building
work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud's
support and patronage of learning,
literature and the arts.

Mahmud's successors, known as the

Ghaznavids, ruled for 157 years. Their
kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was
racked by bitter succession struggles. The
Hindu Rajput kingdoms of western India
reconquered the eastern Punjab, and by
the 1160s, the line of demarcation
between the Ghaznavid state and the
Hindu kingdoms approximated to the
present-day boundary between India and
Pakistan. The Ghurid Empire of central
Afghanistan occupied Ghazni around
1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was
shifted to Lahore. Later Muhammad Ghori
conquered the Ghaznavid kingdom,
occupying Lahore in 1187.[87]

Soomra dynasty

The Rajput Soomra dynasty replaced the

Arab Habbari dynasty in the 10th century.
The dynasty lasted until the mid-13th
century. The Soomras are one the longest
running dynasties in the history of Sindh,
lasting 325 years.[88]

Delhi Sultanate

In 1160, Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic ruler,

conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids
and became its governor in 1173. He for
the first time named Sindh Tambade Gatar
roughly translated as the red passage. He
marched eastwards into the remaining
Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the
1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's Hindu
Chaulukya (Solanki) rulers. In 1186–87, he
conquered Lahore, bringing the last of
Ghaznevid territory under his control and
ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad
Ghori's successors established the Delhi
Sultanate. The Turkic origin Mamluk
Dynasty, (mamluk means "owned" and
referred to the Turkic youths bought and
trained as soldiers who became rulers
throughout the Islamic world), seized the
throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several
Central Asian Turkic and a Lodhi Pashtun
dynasty ruled their empires from Delhi: the
Mamluk (1211–90), the Khalji (1290–
1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the
Sayyid (1414–1451) and the Lodhi (1451–
1526).[89] Although some kingdoms
remained independent of Delhi – in
Gujarat, Malwa (central India), Bengal and
Deccan – almost all of the Indus plain
came under the rule of these large
sultanates.

The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed

cordial relations with rulers in the Near
East but owed them no allegiance. While
the sultans ruled from urban centers, their
military camps and trading posts provided
the nuclei for many towns that sprang up
in the countryside. Close interaction with
local populations led to cultural exchange
and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has
left a lasting imprint and legacy in South
Asian architecture, music, literature, life
style and religious customs. In addition,
the language of Urdu (literally meaning
"horde" or "camp" in various Turkic
dialects, but more likely "city" in the South
Asian context) was born during the Delhi
Sultanate period, as a result of the
mingling of speakers of native Prakrits,
Persian, Turkish and Arabic languages.

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the

Sultanate was its temporary success in
insulating South Asia from the Mongol
invasion from Central Asia in the 13th
century; nonetheless the sultans
eventually lost Afghanistan and western
Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate
dynasty). The Sultanate declined after the
invasion of Emperor Timur, who founded
the Timurid Empire, and was eventually
conquered in 1526 by the Mughal Emperor
Babar.

The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal

Empire attracted Muslim refugees, nobles,
technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders,
scientists, architects, artisans, teachers,
poets, artists, theologians and Sufis from
the rest of the Muslim world and they
migrated and settled in the South Asia.
During the reign of Sultan Ghyasuddin
Balban (1266-1286) thousands of Central
Asian Muslims sought asylum including
more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles
due to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia
and Eastern Iran. At the court of Sultan
Iltemish in Delhi the first wave of these
Muslim refugees escaping from the
Central Asian genocide by the Mongol
armies of Genghis Khan, brought
administrators from Iran, painters from
China, theologians from Samarkand,
Nishapur and Bukhara, divines and saints
from the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen
and men and maidens from every region,
notably doctors adept in Greek medicine
and philosophers from everywhere.

Mongol invasions
The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and
later Turkicized khanate that comprised
the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan second
son of Genghis Khan, and his descendants
and successors. Initially it was a part of
the Mongol Empire, but it became a
functionally separate khanate with the
fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after
1259.

The Ilkhanate was established as a

khanate that formed the southwestern
sector of the Mongol Empire, ruled by the
Mongol House of Hulagu Ilk Khanate, that
reached from Afghanistan and western
Pakistan to Turkey.[90]
Samma dynasty

The Rajput Samma dynasty replaced the

Rajput Soomra dynasty. They gained
control of Thatta from the Soomra around
1335 A.D. The dynasty is believed to have
originated in Saurashtra, and later
migrated to Sindh. During the Sammas
saw the rise of Thatta as an important
commercial and cultural center. At the
time the Portuguese took control of the
trading center of Hormuz in 1514 CE, trade
from the Sindh accounted for nearly 10%
of their customs revenue, and they
described Thatta as one of the richest
cities in the world. Thatta's prosperity was
based partly on its own high-quality cotton
and silk textile industry, partly on export of
goods from further inland in the Punjab
and northern India.[91]

The Samma period contributed

significantly to the evolution of the Indo-
Islamic architectural style. Thatta is
famous for its necropolis, which covers 10
square km on the Makli Hill.[92]

Mughal Empire

Mughal Empire at its peak

Mughal Empire at its peak

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of

Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana
Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan), swept
across the Khyber Pass and founded the
Mughal Empire, covering modern-day
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and
Bangladesh.[93] The Mughals were
descended from Central Asian Turks (with
significant Mongol admixture). However,
his son Humayun was defeated by the
Pashtun warrior Sher Shah Suri who was
from Bihar state of India, in the year 1540,
and Humayun was forced to retreat to
Kabul. After Sher Shah died, his son Islam
Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose
death his prime minister, Hemu ascended
the throne and ruled North India from Delhi
for one month. He was defeated by
Emperor Akbar's forces in the Second
Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.

Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler

and an early proponent of religious and
ethnic tolerance and favored an early form
of multiculturalism. He declared "Amari" or
non-killing of animals in the holy days of
Jainism and rolled back the jizya tax
imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu
people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of
the South Asia by 1600. The Mughal
emperors married local royalty and allied
themselves with local maharajas. For a
short time in the late 16th century, Lahore
was the capital of the empire. The
architectural legacy of the Mughals in
Lahore includes the Shalimar Gardens
built by the fifth Emperor Shahjahan, and
the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth
Emperor, Aurangzeb, who is regarded as
the last Great Mughal Emperor as he
expanded the domain to its zenith. After
his demise, different regions of modern
Pakistan began asserting independence.
The empire went into a slow decline after
1707 and its last sovereign, ruling around
Delhi region.
Rise of Sikhism

Guru Nanak, Sikhism's founder, was born

into a Hindu Khatri family in the village of
Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (present day Nankana,
near Sial in modern-day Pakistan). He was
an influential religious and social reformer
in north India and the saintly founder of a
modern monotheistic order and first of the
ten divine Gurus of Sikh religion. At the
age of 70, he died at Kartarpur, Punjab of
modern-day Pakistan.

Durrani Empire
In 1761, following the victory at the Third
battle of Panipat between the Durrani and
the Maratha Empire, Ahmad Shah Abdali
captured remnants of the Maratha Empire
in Punjab and Kashmir regions and had re-
consolidated control over them.[94]

Maratha Empire

In 1758, the Maratha Empire's general

Raghunath Rao attacked and conquered
Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir
and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son
and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. In
1759, the Marathas and its allies decisively
won the Battle Of Lahore, defeating the
Durranis.[95][96] Lahore, Dera Ghazi Khan,
Multan, Peshawar, Kashmir, and other
subahs on the south eastern side of
Afghanistan's border fell under the
Maratha rule.[97]

Sikh Empire

Maharaja Ranjit Singh, born in Gujranwala, Punjab. He

was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".
The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) was formed
on the foundations of the Punjabi Army by
Maharaja Ranjit Singh who was
proclaimed "Sarkar-i-Khalsa", and was
referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".[98]
It consisted of a collection of autonomous
Punjabi Misls, which were governed by
Misldars,[99] mainly in the Punjab region.
The empire extended from the Khyber
Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north,
to Multan in the south and Kapurthala in
the east. The main geographical footprint
of the empire was the Punjab region. The
formation of the empire was a watershed
and represented formidable consolidation
of Sikh military power and resurgence of
local culture, which had been dominated
for hundreds of years by Indo-Afghan and
Indo-Mughal hybrid cultures.

The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during

the time of the Punjabi Army, could be
defined as early as 1707, starting from the
death of Aurangzeb. The fall of the Mughal
Empire provided opportunities for the
Punjabi army to lead expeditions against
the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to a
growth of the army, which was split into
different Punjabi armies and then semi-
independent "misls". Each of these
component armies were known as a misl,
each controlling different areas and cities.
However, in the period from 1762–1799,
Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be
coming into their own. The formal start of
the Sikh Empire began with the
disbandment of the Punjab Army by the
time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801,
creating a unified political state. All the
misl leaders who were affiliated with the
Army were from Punjab's nobility.[99][100]

British colonization

 
Queen Victoria

The entire territory of modern Pakistan

was occupied beginning first by the East
India Company — and continued under the
post-Sepoy Mutiny direct rule of Queen
Victoria of the British Empire — through a
series of wars, the main ones being the
Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the
gruelling Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849)
and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1919),
to remain a part of British Indian Empire
until the independence in 1947.

The physical presence of the British was

minimal; they employed "Divide and Rule"
political strategy to remain in power.[101]
The administrative units of British India
under the tenancy or the sovereignty of
either the East India Company or the
British Crown lasted between 1612 and
1947.

Independence movement
Early period of Pakistan
Movement

In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had formed the

Central National Muhammadan Association
to work towards the political advancement
of the Indian Muslims, who had suffered
grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the
failed Sepoy Mutiny against the East India
Company; the British were seen as foreign
invaders. But the organization declined
towards the end of the 19th century.

Lord Minto met with the Muslim delegation in June

1906. The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 called for
separate Muslim electorates.

In 1885, the Indian National Congress was

founded as a forum, which later became a
party, to promote a nationalist cause.[102]
Although the Congress attempted to
include the Muslim community in the
struggle for independence from the British
rule - and some Muslims were very active
in the Congress - the majority of Muslim
leaders did not trust the party.

A turning point came in 1900, when the

British administration in the United
Provinces of Agra and Oudh acceded to
Hindu demands and made Hindi, the
version of the Hindustani language written
in the Devanagari script, the official
language. The proselytisation conducted
in the region by the activists of a new
Hindu reformist movement also stirred
Muslim's concerns about their faith.
Eventually, the Muslims feared that the
Hindu majority would seek to suppress the
rights of Muslims in the region following
the departure of the British.

Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded

by Shaiiq-e-Mustafa in 30 December 1906,
in the aftermath of division of Bengal, on
the sidelines of the annual All India
Muhammadan Educational Conference in
Shahbagh, Dhaka East Bengal.[103] The
meeting was attended by three thousand
delegates and presided over by Nawab
Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of
safeguarding interests of Muslims and
finalised a programme. A resolution,
moved by Nawab Salimullah and
seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab
Viqar-ul-Mulk(conservative), declared:

The Musalmans are only a fifth in

number as compared with the
total population of the country,
and it is manifest that if at any
remote period the British
government ceases to exist in
India, then the rule of India
would pass into the hands of that
community which is nearly four
times as large as ourselves ... our
life, our property, our honour,
and our faith will all be in great
danger, when even now that a
powerful British administration
is protecting its subjects, we the
Musalmans have to face most
serious difficulties in safe-
guarding our interests from the
grasping hands of our
neighbors.[104]
The constitution and principles of the
League were contained in the Green Book,
written by Maulana Mohammad Ali. Its
goals at this stage did not include
establishing an independent Muslim state,
but rather concentrated on protecting
Muslim liberties and rights, promoting
understanding between the Muslim
community and other Indians, educating
the Muslim and Indian community at large
on the actions of the government, and
discouraging violence. However, several
factors over the next thirty years, including
sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of
the League's aims.[105][106] Among those
Muslims in the Congress who did not
initially join the League was Jinnah, a
prominent statesman and barrister in
Bombay. This was because the first article
of the League's platform was "To promote
among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of
India, feelings of loyalty to the British
Government".

George VI, Emperor of India.

In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners
within the Indian National Congress
movement separated from it and started
to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly.
This group was spearheaded by the
famous trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala Lajpat Rai,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal
of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces
respectively. Their influence spread rapidly
among other like minded Hindus - they
called it Hindu nationalism - and it became
a cause of serious concern for Muslims.
However, Jinnah did not join the League
until 1913, when the party changed its
platform to one of Indian independence, as
a reaction against the British decision to
reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which
the League regarded it as a betrayal of the
Bengali Muslims.[107] After vociferous
protests of the Hindu population and
violence engineered by secret groups,
such as Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot
Jugantar of Aurobindo and his brother etc.,
the British had decided to reunite Bengal
again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in
Mutual co-operation to achieve an
independent, united 'India', although he
argued that Muslims should be
guaranteed one-third of the seats in any
Indian Parliament.
 

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal

The League gradually became the leading

representative body of Indian Muslims.
Jinnah became its president in 1916, and
negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the
Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by
which Congress conceded the principle of
separate electorates and weighted
representation for the Muslim
community.[108] However, Jinnah broke
with the Congress in 1920 when the
Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi,
launched a law violating Non-Cooperation
Movement against the British, which a
temperamentally law-abiding barrister
Jinnah disapproved of. Jinnah also
became convinced that the Congress
would renounce its support for separate
electorates for Muslims, which indeed it
did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a
constitution for India as recommended by
the Simon Commission, but they failed to
reconcile all parties. The British then
turned the matter over to the League and
the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties
Congress was convened in Delhi. The
attempt failed, but two more conferences
were held, and at the Bombay conference
in May, it was agreed that a small
committee should work on the
constitution. The prominent Congress
leader Motilal Nehru headed the
committee, which included two Muslims,
Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi;
Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its
secretary. The League, however, rejected
the committee's report, the so-called
Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals
gave too little representation (one quarter)
to Muslims – the League had demanded
at least one-third representation in the
legislature. Jinnah announced a "parting of
the ways" after reading the report, and
relations between the Congress and the
League began to sour.

Muslim homeland – "Now or

Never"

Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution

with Jinnah and Ali Khan presiding the session
The general elections held in the United
Kingdom had already weakened the leftist
Labour Party led by Prime Minister
Ramsay MacDonald.[109] Furthermore, the
Labour Party's government was already
weakened by the outcomes of World War I,
which fueled new hopes for progress
towards self-government in British
India.[109] In fact, Mohandas K. Gandhi
traveled to London to press the idea of
"self-government" in British India, and
claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly
criticized the Muslim League as being
sectarian and divisive.[109] After reviewing
the report of the Simon Commission, the
Indian Congress initiated a massive civil
disobedience movement under Gandhi; the
Muslim League reserved their opinion on
the Simon Report declaring that the report
was not final and the matters should
decided after consultations with the
leaders representing all communities in
India.[109]

As the leaders of the Indian Congress

were jailed and restrained, the Round-table
conference was held, but these achieved
little, since Gandhi and the League were
unable to reach a compromise.[109]
Witnessing the events in the Round-table
conference, Jinnah had despaired of
politics and particularly of getting
mainstream parties like the Congress to
be sensitive to minority priorities. During
this time in 1930, notable writer and poet,
Muhammad Iqbal called for a separate
and autonomous nation-state, who in his
presidential address to the 1930
convention of the Muslim League said that
he felt that a separate Muslim state was
essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated
South Asia.[110][111]
 

Dream of Iqbal and Ali's Now or Never idealized the

merger of the four provinces into a nation-state, called
Pakistan.

The name of the nation-state was coined

by the Cambridge University's political
science student and Muslim nationalist
Rahmat Ali,[112] and was published on 28
January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or
Never.[113] After coining the name of the
nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an
acronym formed from the names of the
"homelands" of Muslims in northwest
India:

"P" for Punjab

"A" for Afghania (now known as Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa)
"K" for Kashmir
"S" for Sindh
"Tan" for Balochistan; thus forming
"Pakstan".[114][115]

After the publication of the pamphlet, the

Hindu Press vehemently criticized it, and
the word 'Pakstan' used in it.[116] Thus this
word became a heated topic of debate.
With the addition of an "i" to improve the
pronunciation, the name of Pakistan grew
in popularity and led to the
commencement of the Pakistan
Movement, and consequently the creation
of Pakistan.[117] In Urdu and Persian
languages, the name encapsulates the
concept of Pak ("pure") and stan ("land")
and hence a "Pure Land".[118] In 1935, the
British government proposed to hand over
substantial power to elected Indian
provincial legislatures, with elections to be
held in 1937.[119] After the elections the
League took office in Bengal and Punjab,
but the Congress won office in most of the
other provinces, and refused to devolve
power with the League in provinces with
large Muslim minorities citing technical
difficulties.

Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for

independence also felt vindicated by the
presidential address of V.D. Savarkar at the
19th session of the famous Hindu
nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in
1937. In it, this legendary revolutionary -
popularly called Veer Savarkar and known
as the iconic father of the Hindu
fundamentalist ideology - propounded the
seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or
ethnic exclusivism, which influenced
Jinnah profoundly.
1940 Resolution

In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of

the Muslim League in Lahore to discuss
the situation that had arisen due to the
outbreak of World War II and the
Government of India joining the war
without consulting Indian leaders. The
meeting was also aimed at analyzing the
reasons that led to the defeat of the
Muslim League in the general election of
1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In
his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian
Congress and the nationalists, and
espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the
reasons for the demand for separate
homelands.[120] Sikandar Hayat Khan, the
Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the
original resolution, but disavowed the final
version,[121] that had emerged after
protracted redrafting by the Subject
Committee of the Muslim League. The
final text unambiguously rejected the
concept of a United India because of
increasing inter-religious violence[122] and
recommended the creation of independent
states.[123] The resolution was moved in
the general session by Shere-Bangla
Bengali nationalist, AKF Haq, the Chief
Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry
Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was
adopted on 23 March 1940.[124] The
Resolution read as follows:

No constitutional plan would be

workable or acceptable to the
Muslims unless geographical
contiguous units are demarcated
into regions which should be so
constituted with such territorial
readjustments as may be
necessary. That the areas in
which the Muslims are
numerically in majority as in the
North-Western and Eastern zones
of India should be grouped to
constitute independent states in
which the constituent units shall
be autonomous and sovereign ...
That adequate, effective and
mandatory safeguards shall be
specifically provided in the
constitution for minorities in the
units and in the regions for the
protection of their religious,
cultural, economic, political,
administrative and other rights of
the minorities, with their
consultation. Arrangements thus
 should be made for the security of
Muslims where they were in a
minority.[125]

The Working Committee of the Muslim League in

Lahore (1940)

Final phase of the Pakistan

Movement

Important leaders in the Muslim League

highlighted that Pakistan would be a 'New
Medina', in other words the second Islamic
state established after the Prophet
Muhammad's creation of an Islamic state
in Medina. Pakistan was popularly
envisaged as an Islamic utopia, a
successor to the defunct Turkish Caliphate
and a leader and protector of the entire
Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated
over whether it was possible for the
proposed Pakistan to truly become an
Islamic state.[126][127]

While the Congress' top leadership had

been in prison following the 1942 Quit
India Movement, there was intense debate
among Indian Muslims over the creation of
a separate homeland.[127] The majority of
Barelvis[128] and Barelvi ulema supported
the creation of Pakistan[129] and pirs and
Sunni ulema were mobilized by the Muslim
League to demonstrate that India's Muslim
masses wanted a separate country.[130]
The Barelvis believed that any co-
operation with Hindus would be counter
productive.[131] On the other hand, most
Deobandis, who were led by Maulana
Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to
the creation of Pakistan and the two-
nation theory. According to them Muslims
and Hindus could be one nation and
Muslims were only a nation of themselves
in the religious sense and not in the
territorial sense.[132][133][134] At the same
time some Deobandi ulema such as
Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Mufti
Muhammad Shafi and Maulana Shabbir
Ahmad Usmani were supportive of the
Muslim League's demand to create a
separate Pakistan.[135][130]

Muslims who were living in provinces

where they were demographically a
minority, such as the United Provinces
where the Muslim League enjoyed popular
support, were assured by Jinnah that they
could remain in India, migrate to Pakistan
or continue living in India but as Pakistani
citizens. The Muslim League had also
proposed the hostage population theory.
According to this theory the safety of
India's Muslim minority would be ensured
by turning the Hindu minority in the
proposed Pakistan into a 'hostage'
population who would be visited by
retributive violence if Muslims in India
were harmed.[127]

In the Constituent Assembly elections of

1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of
496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling
89.2% of total votes).[107] The Congress
had hitherto refused to acknowledge the
Muslim League's claim of being the
representative of Indian Muslims but
finally acquiesced to the League's claim
after the results of this election. The
Muslim League's demand for Pakistan had
received overwhelming popular support
from India's Muslims, especially those
Muslims who were living in provinces such
as UP where they were a minority.[136]

The British had neither the will, nor the

financial resources or military power, to
hold India any longer but they were also
determined to avoid partition and for this
purpose they arranged the Cabinet
Mission Plan.[137] According to this plan
India would be kept united but would be
heavily decentralized with separate
groupings of Hindu and Muslim majority
provinces. The Muslim League accepted
this plan as it contained the 'essence' of
Pakistan but the Congress rejected it.
After the failure of the Cabinet Mission
Plan, Jinnah called for Muslims to observe
Direct Action Day to demand the creation
of a separate Pakistan. The Direct Action
Day morphed into violent riots between
Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. The riots
in Calcutta were followed by intense
communal rioting between Hindus and
Muslims in Noakhali, Bihar,
Garhmukteshwar and Rawalpindi.
The British Prime Minister Attlee
appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten as
India's last viceroy, to negotiate the
independence of Pakistan and India and
immediate British withdrawal. British
leaders including Mountbatten did not
support the creation of Pakistan but failed
to convince Jinnah otherwise.[138][139]
Mountbatten later confessed that he
would most probably have sabotaged the
creation of Pakistan had he known that
Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis.[140]

In early 1947 the British had announced

their desire to grant India its independence
by June 1948. However, Lord Mountbatten
decided to advance the date. In a meeting
in June, Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad
representing the Congress, Jinnah
representing the Muslim League, B. R.
Ambedkar representing the Untouchable
community, and Master Tara Singh
representing the Sikhs, agreed to partition
India along religious lines...

Independence from the British

Empire

On 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in

1366 of the Islamic Calendar) Pakistan
gained independence. India gained
independence the following day. The two
provinces of British India: Punjab and
Bengal were divided along religious lines
by the Radcliffe Commission. Mountbatten
is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe
Commission to draw the line in India's
favour.[141][142] Punjab's mostly Muslim
western part went to Pakistan and its
mostly Hindu/Sikh eastern part went to
India but there were significant Muslim
minorities in Punjab's eastern section and
likewise there were many Hindus and
Sikhs living in Punjab's western areas.

Intense communal rioting in the Punjab

forced the governments of India and
Pakistan to agree to a forced population
exchange of Muslim and Hindu/Sikh
minorities living in Punjab. After this
population exchange only a few thousand
low-caste Hindus remained in Pakistan's
side of Punjab and only a tiny Muslim
population remained in the town of
Malerkotla in India's part of Punjab.[143]
Political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed says that
although Muslims started the violence in
Punjab, by the end of 1947 more Muslims
had been killed by Hindus and Sikhs in
East Punjab than the number of Hindus
and Sikhs who had been killed by Muslims
in West Punjab.[144][145]
More than ten million people migrated
across the new borders and between
200,000-2,000,000[146][147][148] people died
in the spate of communal violence in the
Punjab in what some scholars have
described as a 'retributive genocide'
between the religions.[149] The Pakistani
government claimed that 50,000 Muslim
women were abducted and raped by Hindu
and Sikh men and similarly the Indian
government claimed that Muslims
abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and
Sikh women.[150][151][152] The two
governments agreed to repatriate
abducted women and thousands of Hindu,
Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated
to their families in the 1950s. The dispute
over Kashmir escalated into the first war
between India and Pakistan. With the
assistance of the United Nations (UN) the
war but it became a hitherto unresolved
Kashmir dispute.

Post-Independence

On 12 March 1949, the second constituent

assembly of Pakistan passed the
Objectives Resolution which proclaimed
that sovereignty over the entire universe
belongs to Allah alone.[153] The
promulgation of the Constitution in 1956
led to Pakistan declaring itself an Islamic
republic (official name) with the adoption
of a parliamentary democratic system of
government. The constitution transformed
the Governor-General of Pakistan into
President of Pakistan (as head of state).
Subsequently, Iskander Mirza became the
first Bengali president in 1956, but the
democratic system was stalled after
President Mirza imposed a military coup
d'état and appointed Ayub Khan as an
enforcer of martial law. Two weeks later,
President Mirza was ousted by Ayub Khan;
his presidency saw an era of internal
instability and a second war with India in
1965. Economic grievances and political
disenfranchisement in East Pakistan led to
violent political tensions and armed
repression, escalating into a civil war[154]
followed by the third war with India.
Pakistan's defeat in the war ultimately led
to the secession of East Pakistan and the
birth of Bangladesh.[155]

In 1972 the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party

(PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to
power and in 1973 Pakistan's elected
parliament promulgated the 1973
Constitution which proclaimed that no
Pakistani law could contradict Islamic
laws from the Quran and Sunnah.[156]
Bhutto faced vigorous opposition which
united under the banner of Nizam e
Mustafa (Rule of the Prophet) and
demanded the establishment of an Islamic
state.[157] In 1977 Bhutto was deposed in a
bloodless coup by General Zia-ul-Haq, who
became the country's third military
president. Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to
the establishment of Sharia law in
Pakistan.[158]

With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in

1988, new general elections saw the
victory of PPP led by Benazir Bhutto who
was elevated as the country's first female
Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next
decade, she alternated power with the
conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N
(PML(N)) led by Nawaz Sharif, as the
country's political and economic situation
deteriorated. Military tensions in the Kargil
conflict[159] with India were followed by yet
another coup d'état in 1999 in which
General Pervez Musharraf assumed
executive powers.

Appointing himself President after the

resignation of President Rafiq Tarar,
Musharraf held nationwide general
elections in 2002 to transfer the executive
powers to newly elected Prime Minister
Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was
succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz.
During the election campaign of 2007,
Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which
led to a series of important political
developments including the left-wing
alliance led by the PPP. Historic general
elections held in 2013 marked the return
of PML(N) with Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif assuming the leadership of the
country for the third time in its history.

See also
History of Asia
History of South Asia
Islam in Pakistan
List of Presidents of Pakistan
List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan
 Meluhha
Muslim conquest in the Indian
subcontinent
Politics of Pakistan
Timeline of Karachi
Timeline of Lahore
Timeline of Peshawar
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization

Notes
1. Cite error: The named reference
Giosan was invoked but never defined
(see the help page).
2. Cite error: The named reference
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3. Archaeological cultures identified with
phases of Vedic culture include the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara
Grave culture, the Black and red ware
culture and the Painted Grey Ware
culture.[25]
4. The precise time span of the period is
uncertain. Philological and linguistic
evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the
oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly
between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred
to as the early Vedic period.[26]

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121. Tinker, Hugh (1987). Men who
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124. Qutubuddin Aziz. "Muslim's struggle
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2007.
125. Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short
history of Pakistan. Karachi: University of
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126. "Was Pakistan sufficiently imagined
before independence? - The Express
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127. Ashraf, Ajaz. "The Venkat Dhulipala
interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah
and Ambedkar were on the same page' " .
Scroll.in. Retrieved 2017-03-08.
128. Long, Roger D.; Singh, Gurharpal;
Samad, Yunas; Talbot, Ian (2015). State and
Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam
and Security . Routledge. p. 167.
ISBN 9781317448204. “In the 1940s a solid
majority of the Barelvis were supporters of
the Pakistan Movement and played a
supporting role in its final phase (1940-7),
mostly under the banner of the All-India
Sunni Conference which had been founded
in 1925.”
129. John, Wilson (2009). Pakistan: The
Struggle Within . Pearson Education India.
p. 87. ISBN 9788131725047. “During the
1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas
in favour of the Muslim League.”
130. " 'What's wrong with Pakistan?' " .
Dawn. 13 September 2013. Retrieved
10 January 2017. “However, the
fundamentalist dimension in Pakistan
movement developed more strongly when
the Sunni Ulema and pirs were mobilised to
prove that the Muslim masses wanted a
Muslim/Islamic state...Even the Grand Mufti
of Deoband, Mufti Muhammad Shafi, issued
a fatwa in support of the Muslim League’s
demand.”
131. Cesari, Jocelyne (2014). The
Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion,
Modernity, and the State . Cambridge
University Press. p. 135.
ISBN 9781107513297. “For example, the
Barelvi ulama supported the formation of
the state of Pakistan and thought that any
alliance with Hindus (such as that between
the Indian National Congress and the
Jamiat ulama-I-Hind [JUH]) was
counterproductive.”
132. Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A History
of Pakistan and Its Origins . Anthem Press.
p. 224. ISBN 9781843311492. “Believing
that Islam was a universal religion, the
Deobandi advocated a notion of a
composite nationalism according to which
Hindus and Muslims constituted one
nation.”
133. Abdelhalim, Julten (2015). Indian
Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād
in Everyday Life . Routledge. p. 26.
ISBN 9781317508755. “Madani...stressed
the difference between qaum, meaning a
nation, hence a territorial concept, and
millat, meaning an Ummah and thus a
religious concept.”
134. Sikka, Sonia (2015). Living with
Religious Diversity . Routledge. p. 52.
ISBN 9781317370994. “Madani makes a
crucial distinction between qaum and
millat. According to him, qaum connotes a
territorial multi-religious entity, while millat
refers to the cultural, social and religious
unity of Muslims exclusively.”
135. Khan, Shafique Ali (1988). The Lahore
resolution: arguments for and against :
history and criticism . Royal Book Co. p. 48.
Retrieved 10 January 2017. “Besides,
Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, along with his
pupils and disciples, lent his entire support
to the demand of Pakistan.”
136. Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007).
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook .
ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9.
“In the elections of 1946, the Muslim
League won 90 percent of the legislative
seats reserved for Muslims. It was the
power of the big zamindars in Punjab and
Sindh behind the Muslim League
candidates, and the powerful campaign
among the poor peasants of Bengal on
economic issues of rural indebtedness and
zamindari abolition, that led to this massive
landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even
Congress, which had always denied the
League's claim to be the only true
representative of Indian Muslims had to
concede the truth of that claim. The 1946
election was, in effect, a plebiscite among
Muslims on Pakistan.”
137. Barbara D. Metcalf; Thomas R. Metcalf
(2002). A Concise History of India .
Cambridge University Press.
pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-521-63974-3
138. McGrath, Allen (1996). The Destruction
of Pakistan's Democracy . Oxford University
Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-577583-9.
“Undivided India, their magnificent imperial
trophy, was besmirched by the creation of
Pakistan, and the division of India was
never emotionally accepted by many British
leaders, Mountbatten among them.”
139. Ahmed, Akbar S. (1997). Jinnah,
Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search
for Saladin . Psychology Press. p. 136.
ISBN 978-0-415-14966-2. “Mountbatten's
partiality was apparent in his own
statements. He tilted openly and heavily
towards Congress. While doing so he
clearly expressed his lack of support and
faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan
idea.”
140. Ahmed, Akbar (2005). Jinnah, Pakistan
and Islamic Identity: The Search for
Saladin . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-75022-
1. “When Mountbatten was asked by Collins
and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged
Pakistan if he had known that Jinnah was
dying of tuberculosis, his answer was
instructive. There was no doubt in his mind
about the legality or morality of his position
on Pakistan. 'Most probably,' he said
(1982:39).”
141. K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab
Boundary Award, Inretrospect Archived 17
January 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
142. Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs
of a British civil servant Christopher
Beaumont . BBC News (10 August 2007).
143. KHALIDI, OMAR (1998-01-01). "FROM
TORRENT TO TRICKLE: INDIAN MUSLIM
MIGRATION TO PAKISTAN, 1947—97" .
Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339–352.
144. Ahmed, Ishtiaq. "The Punjab Bloodied,
Partitioned and Cleansed" .
145. Butt, Shafiq. "A page from history: Dr
Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges" .
146. "Murder, rape and shattered families:
1947 Partition Archive effort underway" .
Dawn. 13 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January
2017. “There are no exact numbers of
people killed and displaced, but estimates
range from a few hundred thousand to two
million killed and more than 10 million
displaced.”
147. Basrur, Rajesh M. (2008). South Asia's
Cold War: Nuclear Weapons and Conflict in
Comparative Perspective . Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-134-16531-5. “An estimated
12–15 million people were displaced, and
some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition
(never without a capital P) remains strong
today ...”
148. Isaacs, Harold Robert (1975). Idols of
the Tribe: Group Identity and Political
Change . Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-44315-0. “2,000,000 killed
in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the
partition of India and the creation of
Pakistan”
149. Brass, Paul R. (2003). "The partition of
India and retributive genocide in the Punjab,
1946–47: means, methods, and purposes"
(PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. Carfax
Publishing: Taylor and Francis Group.
pp. 81–82 (5(1), 71–101). Retrieved
16 August 2014. “In the event, largely but
not exclusively as a consequence of their
efforts, the entire Muslim population of the
eastern Punjab districts migrated to West
Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu
populations moved to East Punjab in the
midst of widespread intimidation, terror,
violence, abduction, rape, and murder.”
150. Daiya, Kavita (2011). Violent
Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National
Culture in Postcolonial India . Temple
University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-59213-
744-2. “The official estimate of the number
of abducted women during Partition was
placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh
predominantly) women in Pakistan, and
50,000 Muslim women in India.”
151. Singh, Amritjit; Iyer, Nalini; Gairola,
Rahul K. (2016). Revisiting India's Partition:
New Essays on Memory, Culture, and
Politics . Lexington Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-
1-4985-3105-4. “The horrific statistics that
surround women refugees-between
75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh
women who were abducted by men of the
other communities, subjected to multiple
rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced
marriages and conversions-is matched by
the treatment of the abducted women in the
hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent
Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of
the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in
India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of
the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women
abducted, 12,000 were recovered.”
152. Abraham, Taisha (2002). Women and
the Politics of Violence . Har-Anand
Publications. p. 131. ISBN 978-81-241-
0847-5. “In addition thousands of women
on both sides of the newly formed borders
(estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000
Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu
and Sikh women) were abducted, raped,
forced to convert, forced into marriage,
forced back into what the two States
defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart
from their families once during partition by
those who abducted them, and again, after
partition, by the State which tried to
'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.”
153. Hussain, Rizwan. Pakistan . The
Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.
“The first important result of the combined
efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the
ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives
Resolution in March 1949, whose
formulation reflected compromise between
traditionalists and modernists. The
resolution embodied "the main principles on
which the constitution of Pakistan is to be
based." It declared that "sovereignty over the
entire universe belongs to God Almighty
alone and the authority which He has
delegated to the State of Pakistan through
its people for being exercised within the
limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust,"
that "the principles of democracy, freedom,
equality, tolerance and social justice, as
enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed,"
and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to
order their lives in the individual and
collective spheres in accord with the
teaching and requirements of Islam as set
out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna." The
Objectives Resolution has been reproduced
as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956,
1962, and 1973.”
154. Cite error: The named reference
civilwar was invoked but never
defined (see the help page).
155. Cite error: The named reference
uscsbn was invoked but never defined
(see the help page).
156. Iqbal, Khurshid (2009). The Right to
Development in International Law: The Case
of Pakistan . Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-
134-01999-1. “The constitution proclaims ...
that all existing laws shall be brought in
accordance with the injunctions of Islam as
laid down in the Quran and Sunnah, and no
law shall be enacted which is repugnant to
such injunctions.”
157. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (1996).
Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic
Revivalism. New York, Oxford: Oxford
University Press. pp. 45–6. ISBN 0-19-
509695-9.
158. Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of
Political Islam (2006 ed.). I.B.Tauris.
pp. 100–101. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
159. Cite error: The named reference
kargil was invoked but never defined
(see the help page).
The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol,
1908–31), highly detailed description of
all of Pakistan & India in 1901. complete
text online
 Jalal, Ayesha ed. The Oxford Companion
to Pakistani History (Oxford University
Press, 2012) 558 pp. Topical essays by
leading scholars online review

Surveys

Burki, Shahid Javed. Pakistan: Fifty Years

of Nationhood (3rd ed. 1999)
Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A history of
Pakistan and its origins. London: Anthem
Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-149-2.
Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short
history of Pakistan. Karachi: University of
Karachi.
 Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History
(2010) ISBN 0230623042.
Ziring, Lawrence (1997). Pakistan in the
twentieth century : a political history.
Karachi; New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577816-8.

Further reading

Ahmed, Akbar S. (1976). Millennium and

charisma among Pathans : a critical
essay in social anthropology . London;
Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
ISBN 978-0-7100-8348-7.
Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, F. Raymond
(1982). The rise of civilization in India
and Pakistan. Cambridge; New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0-521-24244-8.
Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan (1977).
History of the Baluch race and
Baluchistan. Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab.
Weiner, Myron; Ali Banuazizi (1994). The
Politics of social transformation in
Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.
Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2608-4.
Bhutto, Benazir (1988). Daughter of the
East. London: Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-
241-12398-0.
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1963). The
Ghaznavids; their empire in Afghanistan
and eastern Iran, 994 : 1040. Edinburgh:
University Press.
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1977). The
later Ghaznavids: splendour and decay.
New York: Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-04428-8.
Bryant, Edwin F. (2001). The quest for
the origins of Vedic culture : the Indo-
Aryan migration debate. Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-513777-4.
Cohen, Stephen P. (2004). The idea of
Pakistan. Washington, D.C.: Brookings
Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-1502-3.
Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama
(2007): The Political Crisis of Pakistan in
2007 - EPU Research Papers: Issue
08/07, Stadtschlaining
Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford
history of Islam. New York, N.Y.: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-
9.
Gascoigne, Bamber (2002). A Brief
History of the Great Moguls. New York:
Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-
7867-1040-9.
Gauhar, Altaf (1996). Ayub Khan,
Pakistan's first military ruler. Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-577647-8.
Hardy, Peter (1972). The Muslims of
British India. London: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08488-
8.
Hopkirk, Peter (1992). The Great Game :
the struggle for empire in Central Asia.
New York: Kodansha International.
ISBN 978-4-7700-1703-1.
Iqbal, Muhammad (1934). The
reconstruction of religious thought in
Islam. London: Oxford University Press.
Kahn, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The
Making of India and Pakistan (2008)