BRIDGES

Bridges are commonly used in the measurement of components such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors, as well as in the measurement of frequencies. They are design to have four arms
with a very sensitive galvanometer connected between two points and the supply at the other
two ends. The source of power could be either d.c or a.c. In the case of a d.c. bridges are used
in the measurement of resistance only, while a.c bridges are used in the measurement of both
resistance and reactance due to capacitors or inductors connected in any of the arms. Hence
with this, values of resistors, capacitors and inductors could be obtained. Typical example of d.c
bridge is the wheatstore bridge, while examples of a.c bridges are the Maxwell, Owen, De
Santy, Wien and Sehering bridges.
2.1 BASIC D.C WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

R1 (R2 + R4) = R2 (R1 + R3)

 R1 R2 + R1 R4 = R2R1 +R2 R3
R1 R4 = R2 R3

2.2 A.C BRIDGES

As in the case of d.c bridge, a.c bridge has four arms and any of the values of arms could be
obtained. Unlike the former, the later is based on balance obtained when the impedance of the
various arms are considered such that
Z2Z3 = Z1Z4.

Fig 2.2 AC Bridge

In considering the impedance of an a.c bridge for balance, not only should the magnitude be
considered but also the phase balance, such that using the polar form of writing.
Z2 < 2. Z3.< 3 = Z1  1 Z4  4.
Thus at balance
Z2 Z3 = Z1Z4 been the magnitude
2 + 3 = 1 + 4 been phase angle

COMMON A.C BRIDGES

2.3.1 INDUCTANCE BRIDGES
(i) Maxwell’s bridge (L/C)
This is based on the principle of capacitive and inductive reactance, so that the value of an
unknown inductor may be known based on the negative phase angle of the capacitor placed in
the opposite arm. The value of an unknown resistor could also be known using this bridge. It is
important that the time constant of the capacitive arm be equal to that of the unknown arm so
that the phase 1 + 3 = 0.

Fig 2.3 maxwell’s L/C bridge

If Lx and Rx are unknown inductance and resistance respectively
From, Z1.Zx = Z2.Z3
1 1 1
Y  
Z1 R1  jXC1
1 j
 
R1 XC1
1
  jwC1
R1
1 1  jwR1C1

Z1 R1
R1
Z1 
1  jwR1C1
Z x  Rx  jwLx
Z 3  R3
Z 2  R2

At Balance,
R1
 ( Rx  jwLx )  R2 R3
1  jwR1C1
Expanding and seperating the real parts from the imaginary parts gives;
R1 Rx  R2 R3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........ Re al part
Thus,
R2 R3
Rx 
R1
While,
R1 Lx  R1 R2 R3C1 ,......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ... Im aginary part
Thus,
Lx  C1 R2 R3

Thus it is possible to determine the value of the unknown resistance of a coil as well as its
inductance.

Example6

The arms of an a.c Maxwell bridge are arranged as follows: arm AB is a non inductive resistance
of 1000, in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance 0.5µF, BC is a non inductive resistance of
600, CD is an inductive impedance and DA is a non-inductive resistance of 400. If balance is
obtained under these conditions, find the value of the resistance and the inductance of the branch
CD.
Solution:
R1 R3 = R2 R4

R3 = R2 R4/ R1

R3 = (600 x 400)/1000 = 240

Also,

L3 = CR2 R4

=0.5 x 10-6 x 400 x 600

=12 x 10-2

= 0.12H

Maxwell’s (L/L) Bridge

This is base on the principle of positive phase angle compensation by a known impedance with
an equal positive phase angle generated at an adjacent arm to the arm of the unknown
inductance. Unlike the former (Maxwell’s L/C bridge) the Maxwell’s inductance bridge uses an
inductor to produce the required positive phase angle.
A typical Maxwell’s L/L bridge is shown fig 2.4.
Fig 2.4 m,axwell’s L/L bridge
At Balance Z1.Z3 = Z2.Zx
Z1  R1  jwL1
Z 2  R2
Z 3  R3
Z x  Rx  jwLx
At balance ,
( R1  jwL1 ) R3  R2 ( Rx  jwLx )
Expanding and seperating real from imaginary gives;
R1R3  R2 Rx .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... . Re al part
Thus ,
RR
Rx  1 3
R2
L1 R3  Lx R2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... Im aginary part
Thus ,
LR
Lx  1 3
R2
Although Maxwell’s bridges are quite high in precision, they can only be use for medium
inductance, thus values within the range of micros up to a few henrys.

Example 7
Fig. 7.8 Maxwell’s LC bridge
HAY’S BRIDGE
Hay’s bridge is more of a modification of the Maxwell’s bridge and lowers the limitation of the
Maxwell’s bridge; this can be use in measurement of inductors of several henrys. A typical
arrangement is as shown fig 2.5.

Fig 2.5 Hay’s bridge

Obtaining balance and collecting the real part and the imaginary parts produces the
expressions;
R2 R3C1
Lx  2 2
1   2 R1 C1
AND
2
 2 C1 R1 R2 R3
Rx  2 2
1   2 R1 C1

OWEN BRIDGE
The Owen Bridge is one of the most suitable means of measuring inductors. As this is useful for
over a wide range of inductance and is less or unaffected by frequency variation. The figure 2.6
shows a typical arrangement of this type of bridge.
Fig 2.6 Owen bridge
Obtaining balance and collecting the real part and the imaginary parts produces the
expressions;
Lx  C1 R2 R4
AND
C1 R2
Rx 
C4
CAPACITANCE BRIDGES
De Sauty Bridge
The De Sauty bridge is commonly seen as a means of comparing two capacitance, due to the
fact that the bridge has maximum sensitivity when the two capacitors in the adjacent arms are
equal, though this method is quite simple but it is limited by the impossibility of obtaining a
preface balance if the capacitors use are not air capacitors, thus the need to avoid dielectric
loss is very important. The figure 2.7 shows a De Sauty bridge.
Fig 2.7 De Sauty Bridge
Obtaining balance and collecting the real part and the imaginary parts produces the
expressions;
RC
Cx  2 1
R1

SCHERING BRIDGE
This method is most useful and provides a better result as it not only measures the capacitance
but the dielectric loss of a capacitor. The figure 2.8 is an example.
Fig 2.8 Schering Bridge
Obtaining balance and collecting the real part and the imaginary parts produces the
expressions;
C R
Cx  3 1
R2
AND
C1 R2
Rx 
C3

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
WIEN BRIDGE
In the measurement of frequency, the frequency meter has prove to be good though more
expansion the Wien bridge method of frequency measurement can be use in the measurement
of wide range of frequencies although its shortcoming is the fact that its accuracy is nothing
compare to that of the modern frequency meter but give a ready quite acceptable.
Obtaining balance and collecting the real part and the imaginary parts produces the
expressions;
C 2 R3 R1
 
C1 R 4 R 2
AND
1
f 
2 R1 R2 C1C 2
ERRORS IN BRIDGES
Bridges are convenient and accurate means of measurement of resistance, inductance and
capacitance if and only if its limitations and sources of errors are adequately taken care of,
some of these sources of errors are:
(i) Discrepancies between the true and mark values of components of the three arms.
(ii) Personal errors in finding the balance point or null position as well as computation of
value.
(iii) Change in values as a result of self heating.
(iv) Inaccuracy of null point due to insufficient sensitivity of balance detector.
(v) Errors due to connecting leads and joints.

NULL INDICATOR
The term null indicator refers to a measuring instrument particularly the galvanometer used in
indicating a “no current flow” (Ig = 0) when balance is obtained or the potential between the two
points to which it is connected are all equal, as in the case of a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Instrumentation is the back bone of modern sciences, it can be seen that without a standard
means of measurement, it will be very difficult to really find out what value a particular quantity
takes at a particular time and to achieve accuracies in design and construction of various
devices and equipment. Thus we could define instrumentation as the means by which a quantity
is measured. This goes to say that quantities like length, pressure, voltage, time and frequency
could be measured by means of instrumentation. As we should have known, measuring
instrument is a device used for quantifying quantities.
The importance of instrumentation can be enumerated as:
i. It provides a means of measurement
ii. It is standard and more accurate
iii. Its time saving
iv. It often provides reliability
v. It provides accessibility to non-accessible areas e.g. (furnace, well and ice room).
vi. It helps in regulating and controlling measured quantities.
vii. Instrumentation has of recent aids in keeping records
viii. It saves cost and human life.
Instrumentation has come a long way through history and are used in measuring many
quantities but basically all these quantities are measured through one of the following means or
effects.
i. Magnetic effect
ii. Electrodynamic effect
iii. Electromagnetic effect
iv. Thermal effect
v. Electrostatic effect
vi. Chemical effect
Though these principles are used in measurement of quantities their measured values are
always displayed based on their units or equivalent.
The electrical instruments used in measurements are many but are generally classified into two
categories namely (i) Absolute and (ii) the secondary instrument
Absolute instruments are those that give values of quantity been measured based on their
constants and deflection only. These types of instruments do not require previous calibration or
comparison. Example is galvanometers.
Secondary instruments are those that the values of quantities being measured are obtained
from their deflection, so long as they have been calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument. Examples are water level indicators etc.
These secondary instruments can be divided into three basic groups based on their functions.
Thus they can be considered as either;
i. An indicating instrument
ii. Recording instrument or
iii. A controlling instrument
4.1 Indicating Instrument
The simplest of all measuring instruments is the indicating instrument, just as the name implies
it indicates the value of the quantity being measured. This type of instrument is the cheapest of
the three but the most commonly used.
Indicating instruments can be best explained based on the diagram below;

Fib 4.1 block diagram of an indicating instrument

The principle is that the sensing device which is a transducer (microphone, mechanism,
thermistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) converts the variation of the measured quantity e.g
temp. pressure, length or light into a corresponding electrical signal (in the case of an electrical
measuring device). It is expected that the change in other variables should not affect the output
of the sensing device.
The output of the sensing device is fed to a signal processing device, which in electrical
measuring devices are usually electronic circuits made to condition, amplify, attenuate, filter or
convert the signal into a digital form. This is usually done to meet up with the requirement of the
output display, processor stages includes the shunts, multipliers, operational amplifiers,
decoders and encoders etc.
The (output) display unit is the indicating part of system, which could be a CRT, a pointer, light
emitting diode, mark or a loud speaker to indicate the output signal.
Typical examples of such types of an indicating instruments are the thermometers, ammeters,
voltmeters, rulers etc
Consider the thermometer for example.
Fig 4.2 thermometer as indicating instrument
Here we can see that the measured quantity is temperature, the sensor (sensing device) is the
glass surface of the thermometer and the processing device is mercury liquid which expands
with increase in temperature to reach a higher value based on the marking on the scale which
now serves as our display.
Indicating instrument are quite easy to use but this require that the user be present when
measurement is required as his/her absence may deny him the opportunity to get actual reading
at the time of his absence. It also denies the user the opportunities of controlling the measured
quantity if the need arises. Owing to these disadvantages other measuring instruments were
deviced.
4.2 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS
Owing to the need of a permanent record of the state of phenomenon being investigated by
measuring instruments, recording instruments were designed to produced such records. May be
the amplitude of a voltage, current, frequency or any other quantity at a particular time in its
existence is needed or that the waveform of voltage against current during the period of test is
required for study. To achieve these, three basic instruments were designed namely:
i. The strip chart recorders
ii. The X –Y recorders (function plotters).
iii. The instrumentation line printers.

4.2.1 THE STRIP CHART RECORDERS

Strip-chart recorders are instruments for the graphic recording and portrayal of phenomena
varying with respect to time. such instrument generally comprise of a stylus moving horizontally
in proportion to the amplitude or magnitude of the phenomenon, and a chart, running vertically,
driven at a suitable rate to achieve the desired record.

Fig. 4.3 Strip chart recorder

Figure 4.3 above shows the basic elements of an electrical stylus-positioning system and paper
drive with some form of electrical system which moves the stylus in a nearly exact replica or
analog of the varying input signal.
4.2.2 X-Y RECORDERS
An X –Y recorder is an instrument for the graphic recording of the relationship between two
variables. It usually consists of a pair of servo systems driving a recording pen in two axes
through a suitable sliding-pen and moving arm arrangement, with reference to a fixed-paper
chart.
Fig 4.4 X-Y Recorder
Figure 4.4 is a block diagram of a typical X –Y recorder. In each channel, when a signal enters
an input attenuator where it is adjusted to the inherent recorder full scale range, the signal is
passed to a balance circuit where it is compared with an internal reference voltage. The
difference resulting from this comparison is fed to a chopper or vibrator, which effects
conversion of the signal to alternating current. The signal is then amplified for actuation of a
servomotor which balances the system and holds it in balance as the value of the measured
parameter changes. This action takes place in both axes simultaneously and thus a record is
made of one variable with respect to another. Thus this instrument can be used for
measurement of speed against torque, resistance against temperature etc.
Recording instruments offer the opportunity to read the value of the measured quantity at any
time, though such instruments are more expensive than the indicating instruments.
Typical examples of such instruments are computers and a more general block diagram of
recording instrument is as shown.

Fig. 4.5 Block diagram of a Recorder

4.3 CONTROLLING INSTRUMENT
The instruments described in the first two cases require that the operator takes the information
supplied or indicated by the instrument and then make use of it in controlling or maintaining a
specific level of input signal. This is known as and open loop instrumentation. However the
system could be designed to include a feedback path which is known as a close loop system,
where the measured value or some derivative of it is used to effect changes in other parts of the
main system. This type of systems are of vast applications in manufacturing and processing
industries, where automation, increase in speed of production and reduction in wage bill are
important. A simplify block diagram of a controlling system is shown fig.4.6

Fig 4.6 Block diagram of a closed loop system

Typical examples of controlling system are electric irons, air conditioners; room heaters, Blast
furnaces, etc consider the example of a temperature control system as shown in fig 4.7.

Fig 4.7 Temperature control system

4.3.1 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

In the above diagram, the furnace temperature is sensed by the thermocouple which converts
the temperature variations into electrical signal variations, this electrical signal is sent to the
signal conditioner which could be an amplifier which upgrades the signal to a level or form
usable by the display system. The output of display is compared with a pre-determined
reference signal in a comparator. The output of the comparator is sent to the controller which
controls the valve opening. If for example the output signal is less than the reference level, the
error signal will be negative and the controller increases the valve opening thereby increasing
the gas flow to the furnace and the temperature increases. If on the other hand the furnace
temperature is too high the output signal will be greater than the reference signal. The error will
be positive causing the valve to reduce or close thereby reducing the furnace temperature.
Thus it can be seen that by this system the user does not need to from time to time adjust the
valve.

DIGITAL VOLTMETERS
The digital voltmeter commonly refer to as DVM is an instrument used in the measurement of
both AC and DC voltages and displayed in a simple discrete numeral, instead of the pointer
deflection on a continuous scale as in analog devices. This has provided numerous advantages
to users as it;
i. Reduces human error due to reading, interpolation and parallax error
ii. It provides a faster readout result and is more comparable to other devices than its
analog counterparts.
iii. With the present existence of integrated circuits, its cost is greatly reduced as well as
its power consumption. Though they are more expensive than their analog
counterparts.
iv. Input impedance of DVM is usually high in order of 10M with typically an input
capacitance of 40PF.
v. They are also capable of measuring voltages from 1V to 1000V and have
internally built automatic over range selection.
vi. Its accuracy level in quite high about 0.005% of reading.
vii. The stability of DVM is high since its power consumption is low.
Digital voltmeters are quite versatile and can also be used in the measurement of resistance
and current by using suitable means of conversation.
The basic stages in producing a digital display in DVM are:
i. Sampling
ii. Encoding
iii. Display
And the general principles of operations include
i. Successive approximation method
ii. Ramp or voltage to time conversion
iii. Voltage to frequency techniques
iv. Dual slop techniques

Successive Approximation
Digital voltmeters capable of giving 1000 readings per second or more are now available. These
instruments generally use the successive approximation conversion to perform the digitization. A
simplified block diagram of such DVM is as shown in fig.5.1.

Fig 5 .1 Block Diagram of a Successive Approximation DVM

The operation of the system is as follows:
At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start/stop
multivibrator. This sets a 1 in the most significant bit (MSB) of the control register and a 0 in all
bits of less significance. Assuming an 8-bit control register, its reading would then be 10000000.
This initial setting of the control register causes the output of the D/A converter to be one half
the reference supply voltage (½V). The converter output is compared to the unknown input by
the comparator. If the input voltage is larger than the converter reference voltage, the
comparator produces an output that causes the control register to retain the 1 setting in its MSB,
and the converter continues to supply its reference output voltage of ½V.
The ring counter next advances one count shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control register,
and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its reference
output by one increment to ½V, and another comparison with the unknown input voltage takes
place. If in this case the accumulated reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the
comparator produces an output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to 0.
The converter output then returns to its previous level of ½V and awaits another input from the
control register for the next approximation. When the ring counter advances another count, the
third MSB of the control register is set to 1 and the converter output rises to ½V + 1/8V. The
measurement cycle thus proceeds through a series of successive approximation as shown in fig
below retaining or rejecting the converted output in the manner described.
Finally, when the ring counter reaches its last count, the measurement cycle stops and the
digital output is considered as the input voltage.

Fig 5.2
Note: converter reference voltages are switched to the comparator in an 8–4–2–1 sequence
and are rejected if the accumulated converted output exceeds the input voltage. The accuracy
of this method is dependent on the resolution, thus the reference voltage and the number of bits
of the control register, as well as the digital to analog converter.
VOLTAGE TO TIME CONVERSION

Fig 5.3: Block Diagram of a Voltage to time Conversion DVM

Fig 5C: Waveforms of a voltage to time conversion

The accuracy of this system depends on the stability of the clock frequency and the linearity of
the ramp.
The operation of this system is such that the ramp voltage starting below the zero level (usually
Vref) opens a gate as it passes through the zero line (in the case of a positive input signal) this
will hold the gate open until the input signal to the instrument and the ramp voltage are equal at
this instance the gate in closed, while the gate is open, the clock pulses at a constant frequency
passes through to a counter which counts, after which it is processed and displayed in digital
form. The number of pulses which passes through depends on the time the gate remain open,
which in turn depends on the difference between the lower level and the upper level of the input
signal. The clock pulses counted are then calibrated to give the magnitude of the signal.
VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY METHOD

Fig 5.4: Block diagram of voltage to frequency

This method consist of an oscillator whose frequency depends on he input voltage. Thus it is
precisely related to the difference in the input voltage levels. Its mode of operation is
fundamentally different but uses the ramp principle to count. It operates such that the frequency
converter passes through the gate which remains open for a certain pre-determine time interval
(as set by fixed Time Generator) the pulse are counted and scaled then displayed as
representing the input signal.
DUAL SLOP TECHNIQUE
The dual slop method, is an attempt to combine the advantages and remove the disadvantages
of the two preceding methods, Hence it has quite a number of advantages.
DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER
Fig 5.5: Block Diagram of a Simplified Frequency Counter
The crystal oscillator is used as the frequency standard. The basic frequency of the crystal is
divided to give different standard time intervals the signals of the dividers are to control the gate.
when the gate is open the signal from the input is passed through the gate after suitable wave
shaping. The cycles of the input signals are then counted by the decade counter. When the
gate is open, counting starts and continues as long as the gate remains open. The display
keeps changing is accordance with the value held in the counter. When the gate closes further
pulses are stopped from reaching the counter, the display is then held giving the required
frequency reading.
INSTRUMENT SECTION AND SPECIFICATION
The considerations for selecting an instrument may be regarded as falling into two categories:
either an engineer is selecting the most suitable instrument from those within a department or
establishment to perform a particular measurement, or he is undertaking the purchase of a new
instrument to perform a particular measurement and possibly at the same time extend the
measurement capabilities of the department or establishment in which he works. Many of the
criteria in selecting an instrument are the same, whether an engineer is selecting an instrument
off the shelf or purchasing new equipment.
The treatment of the instrument and the measurement system characteristic can be divided into
two distinct categories namely;
(i) Static characteristic
(ii) Dynamic characteristic
Static characteristics are those characteristics of instrument which does not change with
dynamic time response of signal or devices been consider during test. While the dynamic
characteristic are the time changing respose of measuring instruments with the applications of
signals.
The general criteria for selecting an instrument may be summarized by the following
factors, which although it will be more suitable when considering a moderately sophisticated
instrument, could prove valuable as a guide in selecting the right instrument on every occasion.
Some important factors to be considered when selecting measuring instruments are explain as
follows.
6.1 Scale; This is the indicating chart which is displayed by a pointer in analog instruments, it
displays the minimum and the maximum value of data an instrument can measure. This entails
the scale range and the scale span
With the difference between the greatest and the least values of data an instrument can
measure effectively known as the scale span while the extend (limits) to which an instrument
displays is commonly known as the range.
In considering an instrument for selection what should come to mind are;
(i)what are the maximum and minimum magnitude of the values to be measured?.
(ii)Will a single range or multi-range instruments be the most suitable?
(iii)Is a linear scale required.?
(iv) is the accuracy of the instrument base on the range selected?
6.2 Accuracy: This is the closeness in which an instrument approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured. Most designers specify accuracy as (a) point accuracy (b) accuracy
as a percentage of scale range or (c) accuracy as a percentage of true value.
(i)what is the accuracy required in the measurement?
(ii)Is the same accuracy required over the entire range of measurement?
(iii) what type accuracy is specified?
(iv) What is the maximum tolerance acceptable?
(v)Is the resolution of the instrument consistent with its specified errors?
6.3 Precision: It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, is a measure of the
degree of agreement within a group of measurements. precision is composed of two
characteristic namely; (a) conformity (b) number of significant figures.
In considering an instrument the questions that should come to mind are;
(i) is the instrument capable of reproducing the same result any time any where for same
quantity?
(ii) how many number of significant figures are requied?
6.4 Response: This is the first reaction of an instrument’s output display to the input signal
when a quantity is being measured changes with time.
This comprises of the (a) linearity (b) hysteresis (c) threshold (d) dead time (e) dead zone (f)
Stability
In considering an instrument the questions that should come to mind are;
(i)What response time is required?
(ii)What bandwidth is required?
(III)For a.c instruments, to what aspect of the waveform should the instrument respond i.e peak,
mean or r.m.s values?
(iv)For auto range (for example d.v.m) instruments must include the time for range and polarity
changes.
(v)what is the maximum acceptable settling time?
(ii)If the instrument to be operated is unattended to for a long period what is the effect?.
6.5 Reliability: this is the opposite of the probability of failure, it is the measure of the
instrument ability to produce result with less error and to perform even when certain parts have
failed.
In considering an instrument the questions that should come to mind are;
(i)What is the required reliability?
(ii)What will be the consequences of failure , and will a standby instrument be required?
(iii)What are the maintenance requirements and will any special equipment be required?
(iv)Are there any cost limitations on the choice of instrument?
6.6 Sensitivity: this is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal or response to the
magnitude of the input signal or the quantity being measured.
In considering an instrument the questions that should come to mind are;
(i)Is the quantity being measured floating or has it one side earthed?
(ii)Are there likely to be stray electromagnetic or electrostatic fields?
(iii)What are the required common mode and normal mode rejection ration ratio?
6.7 Input and output impedance;
The effect of the impedance offered by an instrument to the signal being measured or to the
device being driven is of great importance, this though could be mechanical or electrical
however electrical characteristics are consider more easier to analyzer and are commonly used
to represent these effects. Being that input impedance is the magnitudes of the impedance of an
element connected across a signal source while the output impedance is the equivalent
impedance as seen by the load. It is generally preferred that the input impedance be higher
while the output impedance be lower to reduce the power consumption of instrument.