Arc Welding 

Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more

metal parts.
It consists of combination of different welding processes
wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an
electric arc, (mostly without the application of pressure)
and with or without the use of filler metals depending upon
the base plate thickness.

A homogeneous joint is achieved by melting and fusing the

adjacent portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint
has unit strength approximately equal to that of the base
material. The arc temperature is maintained approximately
4400°C.

A flux material is used to prevent oxidation, which decomposes

under the heat of welding and releases a gas that shields the
arc and the hot metal.
Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW) or Stick Welding

This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the

workpiece with an electric arc setup between a flux-coated electrode and the
workpiece. The electrode is in a rod form coated with flux. Figure illustrates the
process.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

This is another type of arc welding process, in which coalescence is produced by

heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup between the bare electrode and the
work piece. Molten pool remains completely hidden under a blanket of granular material
called flux. The electrode is in a wire form and is continuously fed from a reel. Movement
of the weld gun, dispensing of the flux and picking up of surplus flux granules behind the
gun are usually automatic.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This process is similar to the shielded-arc stick welding process with the main
difference being the flux is inside the welding rod. Tubular, coiled and continuously fed
electrode containing flux inside the electrode is used, thereby, saving the cost of
changing the welding. Sometimes, externally supplied gas is used to assist in
shielding the arc.
Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

In this process an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a mixture of
them are used to prevent atmospheric contamination of the weld. The shielding gas is
allowed to flow through the weld gun. The electrode used here is in a wire form, fed
continuously at a fixed rate. The wire is consumed during the process and thereby
provides filler metal. This process is illustrated in Figure.
Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

This process is also known as tungsten–inert gas (TIG) welding. This is similar to the
Gas-Metal Arc Welding process. Difference being the electrode is non consumable and
does not provide filler metal in this case. A gas shield (usually inert gas) is used as in the
GMAW process. If the filler metal is required, an auxiliary rod is used.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

This process is similar to TIG. A non-

consumable electrode is used in this
process. Arc plasma is a temporary state
of gas. The gas gets ionized after the
passage of electric current and becomes
a conductor of electricity. The plasma
consists of free electrons, positive ions,
and neutral particles. Plasma arc welding
differs from GTAW welding in the amount
of ionized gas which is greatly increased
in plasma arc welding, and it is this
ionized gas that provides the heat of
welding.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as
manual metal arc (MMA) welding or informally as stick welding, is a
manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in
flux to lay the weld.

• An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a
welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the
metals to be joined.

• As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors
that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the
weld area from atmospheric contamination.

• Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and
operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding
processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair
industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity,

• SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel structures and

in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels
(including stainless steel) but aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also be
welded with this method
OPERATION
To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the
workpiece in a short sweeping motion and then pulled away slightly. This
initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the
consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be
passed from the electrode to the weld pool.

As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off vapors
that protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In
addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it
travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool,
the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from contamination
as it solidifies.
Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished weld. As
welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically
stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new
electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping
away the slag, reduce the amount of time that the welder can spend laying
the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding processes.

SMAW weld area 
The actual welding technique utilized depends on
• the electrode
• the composition of the workpiece
• the position of the joint being welded.

• The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding
speed.
• Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes
that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds.

• Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and

often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent
the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this
generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the
time required to lay the weld.
 APPLICATIONS
Shielded metal arc welding is one of world's most popular welding processes. Because of its
versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry,
and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication.

In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction
industry and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments.
However, because of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely
remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding
processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.

SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast
iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel
and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminum. The thickness of the material
being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but rarely
does it drop below 0.05 in (1.5 mm). No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation
and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined.
Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used
in any position.
EQUIPMENT
Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current 
welding power supply and an electrode, with an electrode holder, a work clamp, 
and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting the two. 

Schematic illustration of 
SMAW.
Also known as stick 
welding, because the 
electrode is in the shape 
of a stick.
 ELECTRODES

The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors,

including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld
properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux.

Electrode coating has the following basic functions:

- to improve the arc stability.

- to generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding
atmosphere in order to prevent weld contamination.
- to control the rate at which the electrode melts.
- to act as a flux to protect the weld against the formation of oxides,
nitrides and other inclusion and to protect molten–weld pool.
- to add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of
the joint.
• Rutile electrode
These electrodes predominantly contain rutile (TiO2) besides other constituents and
are known to offer almost 100% weld metal recovery, easy arc striking and
restriking. These are found suitable for
a) fillet welds, b) welding of sheet metal, c) good gap bridging capability, d) free
from spatter losses and e) all position welding.
These are recommended for welding low strength steel (<440 MPa). For welding of
high strength steel (>440 MPa) generally weld metal should have low hydrogen
level and therefore weld joints is developed using basic, rutile, basic-rutile and
Zircon-based electrode.

• Cellulosic electrodes
These electrodes are composed of large amount of hydrocarbon compounds and
calcium carbonates besides other constituents and are found suitable for

a) all welding positions especially for vertical and overhead welding position and
b) realizing high mechanical properties in a weld metal of radiographic quality.

These are preferred for vertical downward welding. However, these produce high
hydrogen content in weld metal besides deep penetration.
• Acidic electrode
Acidic electrodes offer
a) easier arc striking than basic electrodes but poorer arc striking than rutile
electrodes, b) moderate welding speed, c) smooth weld bead d) good slag
detachability.
However, acidic electrode has been replaced by rutile electrode and basic electrode
for flat and positional welding respectively.
The ductility and toughness weld metal developed by acidic electrode are better than
those developed from rutile electrodes however yield and ultimate tensile strength
are found inferior. This type of electrode results in minimal penetration which is good
for very thin sheet but these are sensitive to moisture pick up.

• Basic electrode
These electrodes have basic (alkali) coatings containing calcium carbonate /
calcium fluoride. The basic electrodes are preferred over other electrode for
developing weld joints of high strength steel (480-550 MPa) with weld metal having
a) low hydrogen, b) good low temperature toughness, c) resistance to hot and cold
cracking. However, these electrodes suffer from comparatively poor slag
detachability. The welding speed and deposition rate offered by the basic electrodes
especially in vertical welding position is much higher than the rutile and acidic
electrode. Basic electrodes can sustain higher welding current even in vertical
welding position.
 Manual Metal Arc Welding 
AWS A5.1 classification

E XXXX ‐ H
Hydrogen level (HmR)
Tensile Strength H = 5 ml / 100g of WM
in KPSI R = low moisture pick‐up

Useable positions Flux type 
1=all positions 20 = Acidic (iron oxide) 
2=flat + horizontal 10, 11 = Cellulosic
4=vertical down 12, 13 = Rutile
24 = Rutile + iron powder
27 = Acidic + iron powder
16 = basic
18, 28 = basic + iron powder
Classification of Electrodes as per Indian Standard:

Structural steel electrodes were classified as per IS 814:1974 and this code was
revised and the revised code is IS 814:1991.
The corresponding code is given on each packet of electrode.

IS 815:1974
As per IS 815 electrodes are designated with letters and digits.
PXXXXXXS
• Prefix (P) is either E or R which indicates solid extruded (E) or reinforced extruded
(R) Electrode.
• 1 st digit – Indicates type of coating.
• 2 nd digit – Indicates weld positions in which electrode can be used.
• 3 rd digit – Indicates welding current conditions.
• 4 th and 5 th digit – Indicate UTS and YS of all weld metal.
• 6 th digit – Requirement of minimum % elongation and absorbed energy in
charpy V- notch impact test of weld metal.
Suffix (s) – P – Deep penetration electrode
H – Hydrogen controlled electrode
J, K and L – Amount of metal recovery in case of iron powder electrode
Suffix (s) are optional and may or may not be given if not applicable.
IS 814:1991
As per IS 814 electrodes are designated with letters and digits as given below:
ELXXXXS
In this code
• E indicates extruded solid electrode,
• L is a letter to designate type of coating,
• first digit indicates UTS and YS of deposited weld metal,
• second digit gives percentage elongation and impact values of weld metal
deposited,
• third digit gives welding positions in which electrode can be used and fourth digit
gives the current conditions for the use of electrode.
• Suffix(s) are optional and indicate special characteristics of electrode such as H1,
H2, and H3 indicate hydrogen controlled electrodes with different amount of
diffusible hydrogen J, K, L indicate different amount of metal recovery in weld pool
in case of iron powder electrodes and X means radiographic weld quality.

Note: For details see the above codes published by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS),
Manak Bhawan, Bahadur Shah Jafar Marg, New Delhi .
Electrodes can be divided into three groups—
• those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill“ electrodes
• those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes
• intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow"
electrodes.

Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed
can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that
solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by
preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.
The electric arc
• Electric discharge between 2 
electrodes through ionised gas
– 10 to 2000 amps at 10 to 500 V 
Peak  ‐ arc voltage
Cathode 
temperatures
18,000 K
drop zone • Column of ionised gas at high 
temperature
• Forces stiffen the arc column
– Transfer of molten metal from 
electrode to workpiece
Anode 
drop zone • Can have a cleaning action, 
breaking up oxides on 
+ workpiece

26
 Arc energy
Q = arc energy in kJ/mm
ExI E = current in amps
Q= I = arc voltage
V V = travel speed in mm/min

Low arc energy High arc energy
• Small weld pool size • Large weld pool size
• Incomplete fusion • Low cooling rate
• High cooling rate • Increased solidification  cracking risk
• Unwanted phase transformations • Low ductility and strength
• Hydrogen cracking    • Precipitation of unwanted phases
(corrosion and ductility)

27
 • 103 Watts/cm2 melts most metals
• 106 -107 Watts/cm2 vaporizes most metals
28 • 103 to 106 Watts/cm2 typical for fusion welding
Power sources for welding
• AC power sources
• DC power sources
Welding Power Source Characteristic

33
Power Sources for Welding
AC Arc Welding Power Source
• Shielded (Manual ) Metal Arc Welding
• Electro-Slag Welding
• TIG for Aluminum Alloys (cleaning action)
• Submerged Arc Welding

DC Arc Welding Power Source

• MIG/MAG Welding
• Electro-Gas Arc Welding
• CO2 Gas Arc Welding with Flux Cored Wire
• Self Shielded Arc Welding
• TIG for Steel • Plasma Welding and Cutting
• Stud Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding with small diameter wire
Electromagnetic attractive force causes the cross section of the arc to shrink –
Electromagnetic Pinch Effect.
Arc also shrinks to reduce its surface area to suppress heat loss when the arc
is cooled from ambient – Thermal Pinch Effect
ARC BLOW
SHIELDED/MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING

SMAW or MMAW can use both AC and DC.

• The constant current DC power source is invariably used with all types of
electrode (basic, rutile and cellulosic) irrespective of base metal (ferrous and
non-ferrous).
• However, AC can be unsuitable for certain types of electrodes and base
materials. Therefore, AC should be used in light of manufacturer’s
recommendations for the electrode application.
In case of DC welding, heat liberated at anode is generally greater than the arc
column and cathode side. The amount of heat generated at the anode and
cathode may differ appreciably depending upon the flux composition of coating
base metal, polarity and the nature of arc plasma.
In case of DC welding, polarity determines the distribution of the heat generated
at the cathode and anode and accordingly the melting rate of electrode and
penetration into the base metal are affected.

Heat generated by a welding arc (J) = Arc voltage (V) X Arc current (A) X Welding time (s)

If arc is moving at speed S (mm/min) then net heat input is calculated as:

Hnet= VI (60)/(S X 1000) kJ/mm

• SMAW normally uses constant current type of power source with welding
current 50-600A and voltage 20-80V at 60% duty cycle.

• Welding transformer (AC welding) and generator or rectifiers (DC welding)

are commonly used as welding power sources.

• In case of AC welding, open circuit voltage (OCV) is usually kept 10- 20%
higher than that for DC welding to overcome the arc un-stability related
problems due to fact that in case AC both current magnitude and direction
changes in every half cycle while those remain constant in DC.

• OCV setting is primarily determined by factors like type of welding current

and electrode composition which significantly affect the arc stability.

• Presence of low ionization potential elements (Ca, K) in coating and reduce

the OCV required for stable arc.
• SMAW or MMAW – simplest of all
• Portable equipment, low cost
• Large no. of welding as electrodes availability
• Mostly all position welding (FSMAW)

Limitations:
o Mechanization difficult as length of each electrode
limited, brittle flux coating.
o Changing of electrode time taking.
o Slower than other arc weldings
o Chances of slag entrapment
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) process uses heat generated by an
electric arc established between a bare consumable electrode wire and
the work piece.
• Since in this process, welding arc and the weld pool are completely
submerged under cover of granular fusible and molten flux therefore it is
called so.
• During welding, granular flux is melted using heat generated by arc and
forms cover of molten flux layer which in turn avoids spatter tendency
and prevents accessibility of atmospheric gases to the arc zone and the
weld pool.
• The molten flux reacts with the impurities in the molten weld metal to
form slag which floats over the surface of the weld metal.
• Layer of slag over the molten weld metal results:

(i) Increased protection of weld metal from atmospheric gas contamination

and so improved properties of weld joint
(ii) Reduced cooling rate of weld metal and HAZ owing to shielding of the
weld pool by molten flux and solidified slag in turn leads to
a) smoother weld bead and
b) reduced the cracking tendency of hardenable steel
SAW is known to be a high current (sometimes even greater 1000A) welding process that is
mostly used for joining of heavy sections and thick plates as it offers deep penetration with high
deposition rate and so high welding speed.

High welding current can be applied in this process owing to three reason a) absence of spatter,
b) reduced possibility of air entrainment in arc zone as molten flux and slag form shield the weld
metal and c) large diameter electrode.

Continuous feeding of granular flux around the weld arc from flux hopper provides shielding to the
weld pool from atmospheric gases and control of weld metal composition through presence of
alloying element in flux. Complete cover of the molten flux around electrode tip and the welding
pool during the actual welding operation produces weld joint without spatter and smoke.
Components of SAW System

 Power source

Generally, submerged arc welding process uses power source at 100 %

duty cycle; which means that the welding is done continuously for minimum
5 min without a break or more.

Depending upon the electrode diameter, type of flux and electrical resistivity
submerged arc welding can work with both AC and DC.

Alternating current and DCEN polarity are generally used with large
diameter electrode (>4mm).

DC with constant voltage power source provides good control over bead
shape, penetration, and welding speed. However, DC can cause arc blow
under some welding conditions. Polarity affects weld bead geometry,
penetration and deposition rate. DCEP offers advantage of self regulating
arc in case of small diameter electrodes (< 2.4mm) and high deposition rate
while DCEN produces shallow penetration.
 Welding Electrode

The diameter of electrodes used in submerged arc welding

generally ranges from 1–5 mm.

The electrode wire is fed from the spool through a contact tube
connected to the power source.

Electrode wire of steel is generally copper coated for two reasons

a) to protect it from atmospheric corrosion and b) to increase
their current carrying capacity. However, stainless steel wires are
not coated with copper.
 SAW Flux
Role of fluxes in SAW is largely similar that of coating in stick electrodes of
SMAW i.e. protection of weld pool from inactive shielding gases generated
by thermal decomposition of coating material.

SAW fluxes can influence the weld metal composition appreciably in the form
of addition or loss of alloying elements through gas metal and slag metal
reactions. Few hygroscopic fluxes are baked (at 250–3000C for 1-2 hours) to
remove the moisture.

There are four types of common SAW fluxes namely fused flux,
agglomerated flux, bonded flux and mechanical fluxes. Manufacturing
steps of these fluxes are given below.

• Fused fluxes: raw constituents-mixed-melted-quenched-crushed screened-

graded
• Bonded fluxes: raw constituents-powdered-dry mixed-bonded using K/Na
silicates-wet mixed-pelletized-crushed-screened
• Agglomerated fluxes: made in similar way to bonded fluxes but ceramic
binder replaces silicate binder
• Mechanically mixed fluxes: mix any two or three type of above fluxes in
desired ratios
• Fused fluxes

Positives
– Uniformity of chemical composition
– No effect of removal of fine particles on flux composition
– Non-hygroscopic: easy handling and storage
– Easy recycling without much change in particle size and composition

Limitation is related with difficulty in – incorporating deoxidizers and ferro alloys

– melting due to need of high temperature

• Bonded fluxes

Positives
– Easy to add deoxidizers and alloying elements
– Allows thicker layer of flux during welding
Limitation
– Hygroscopic
– Gas evolution tendency
– Possibility of change in flux composition due to removal of fine particles
Agglomerated fluxes
These are similar to that of bonded fluxes except that these use ceramic binders

Mechanical fluxes

Positives
– Several commercial fluxes can be easily mixed & made to suit critical application
to get desired results

Limitations
– Segregation of various fluxes during storage / handling in feeder and recovery
system
- inconsistency in flux from mix to mix
The fused and agglomerated types of fluxes usually consist of different
types of halides and oxides such as MnO, SiO2, CaO, MgO, Al2O3, TiO2,
FeO, and CaF2 and sodium/potassium silicate. Halide fluxes are used for
high quality weld joints of high strength steel to be used for critical
applications while oxide fluxes are used for developing weld joints of
non-critical applications.

Some of oxides such as CaO, MgO, BaO, CaF2, Na2O, K2O, MnO etc. are
basic in nature (donors of oxygen) and few others such as SiO2, TiO2,
Al2O3 are acidic (acceptors of oxygen). Depending upon relative amount
of these acidic and basic fluxes, the basicity index of flux is decided.

The basicity index of flux is ratio of sum of (wt. %) all basic oxides to all
non-basic oxides. Basicity of flux affects the slag detachability, bead
geometry, mechanical properties and current carrying capacity as
welding with low basicity fluxes results in high current carrying
capacity, good slag detachability, good bead appearance and poor
mechanical properties and poor crack resistance of the weld metal
while high basicity fluxes produce opposite effects on above
characteristics of the weld.
General Methods:

The SAW can be applied in 3 different modes: Semi-automatic,

Automatic and Machine.

Each method requires the work be positioned so that flux and

the molten weld pool will remain in place until they have
solidified. Fixtures and positioning equipment can be used for
typical requirements.
• Welding parameters

Electrode wire size

Welding voltage
Welding current
welding speed

4 most important parameters (apart from flux) that play a

major role on soundness and performance of the weld
therefore these must be selected carefully before welding.
an increase in size of the electrode decreases the depth of penetration and
increases width of weld bead for a given welding current (Fig). Large
diameter electrodes are primarily selected to take two advantages a) higher
deposition rate owing to their higher current carrying capacity and b) good
gap bridging capability under poor fit-up conditions of the plates to be
welded due to wider weld bead.
Limitations
There are three main limitations of SAW

a) invisibility of welding arc during welding,

b) difficulty in maintaining mound of the flux cover around the arc in odd positions of
welding and cylindrical components of small diameter and
c) increased tendency of melt through when welding thin sheet.

Invisibility of welding arc submerged under un‐melted and melted flux cover in SAW makes
it difficult to ensure the location where weld metal is being deposited during welding.
Therefore, it becomes mandatory to use an automatic device (like welding tractors) for
accurate and guided movement of the welding arc in line with weld groove so that weld
metal is deposited correctly along weld line only.

Applications of SAW process are mainly limited to flat position only as developing a mound 
of flux in odd position to cover the welding arc becomes difficult which is a requisite for 
SAW. Similarly, circumferential welds are difficult to develop on small diameter components 
due to flux falling tendency away from weld zone. Plates of thickness less than 5 mm are 
generally not welded due to risk of burn through.
SAW Applications:

The process is very commonly used in joining the two deep drawn vessels of the
liquefied gas cylinder bodies.

Some other applications of SAW are in the welding of:

• High strength low alloy steels

• Low carbon steels, Stainless steels, Aluminum and Titanium alloys
• Other non-ferrous alloys
• Fabrication of thick plates and thick pipes
• Pressure vessels and heat exchangers,
• Rail road tanks and ship body fabrication
• GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc welding uses

a) electrode primarily made of tungsten and
b) inert gas for shielding the weld pool to prevent
its contamination from atmospheric gases
especially when joining high strength reactive
metals and alloys such as stainless steel,
aluminum and magnesium alloys, wherever high
quality weld joints need to be developed for
critical applications like nuclear reactors, aircraft
etc.
Invention of this process in middle of twentieth century gave a big boost to
fabricators of these reactive metals as none of the processes (SMAW and
Gas welding) available at that time were able to weld them successfully
primarily due to two limitations a) contamination of weld from atmospheric
gases and b) poor control over the heat input required for melting
There are four basic components of TIG welding system

a) DC/AC power source to deliver the welding current as per

needs,

b) welding torch (air/water cooled) with tungsten electrode and

gas nozzle,

c) inert shielding gas (He, Ar or their mixture) for protecting the

molten weld pool contamination from atmospheric gases and

d) controls for moving the welding torch as per mode of

operation (manual, semi-automatic and automatic).
Power source

• TIG welding normally uses constant current type of power source with welding
current ranging from 3-200A or 5-300A or higher and welding voltage ranging from
10-35V at 60% duty cycle.

• Pure tungsten electrode of ball tip shape with DCEN provides good arc stability.

• Moreover, thorium, zirconium and lanthanum modified tungsten electrodes can be

used with AC and DCEP as coating of these elements on pure tungsten electrodes
improves the electron emission capability which in turn enhances the arc stability.

• TIG welding with DCEP is preferred for welding of reactive metals like aluminum to
take advantage of cleaning action due to development of mobile cathode spots in
work piece side during welding which loosens the tenacious alumina oxide layer.
This helps to clean the weld pool. DCEN polarity is used for welding of metal such
as carbon steel that don’t require much cleaning.
TIG Arc Initiation

Direct work piece touch start method of initiating TIGW arc is not considered
as a good approach because it generally leads to many undesirable effects

a) contamination of tungsten electrode,

b) partial melting of electrode tip (due to short circuiting) so reduction in life
of the electrode and
c) formation of tungsten inclusions which deteriorate the mechanical
performance of weld joint.

Therefore, alternative methods of TIG arc initiation have been developed

over the years so as to avoid undesirable effects of touch start method.
Three methods are commonly used for initiating TIG welding arc a) use of
carbon block as scrap material, b) use of high frequency high voltage unit
and c) use of low current pilot arc.
Pilot arc method

Pilot arc method is based on the principle of using low current for initiating
the arc to reduce adverse effects of high heat generation in form of electrode
contamination and electrode melting during the arc initiation. For this
purpose, an additional power source can be used to strike the arc between
the tungsten electrode and auxiliary anode (fitted in nozzle) using low current
called pilot arc. This pilot arc is then brought close to base metal to be
welded so as to ignite the main arc between electrode and work piece. Once
the main arc is established auxiliary power source is taken off.
Maintenance of TIG welding arc

Arc maintenance in TIG welding with DC power supply does not create any problem.
However, in case of AC TIG welding, to have smooth and stable welding arc,
methods like use of high OCV, imposing the high frequency and high voltage pulse at
the moment when current is zero can be used so that arc is not extinguished.

Pulse TIG Welding

Pulse TIG is a variant of tungsten inert gas welding. In this process, welding current
is varied between a high and a low level at regular time intervals. This variation in
welding current between high and low level is called pulsation of welding current.
High level current is termed as peak current and is primarily used for melting of faying
surfaces of the base metal while low current is generally called background current
and it performs two functions
1) maintenance of the welding arc while generating very low heat and
2) allows time for solidification of the weld pool by dissipating the heat to base metal.

This feature of current pulsation associated with this process effectively reduces net
heat input to the base metal during welding which in turn facilitates a) easy welding
especially of thin sheets and b) refinement of grain structure of the weld. Reduction in
net heat input using arc pulsation decreases undesirable effects of comparatively
high heat input of conventional TIG welding such as melt through, wrapping/buckling
and fit-up.
Welding Torch

• TIG welding torch includes three main parts namely non-consumable tungsten
electrode, collets and nozzle.
• A collet is primarily used to hold the tungsten electrodes of varying diameters in
position.
• Nozzle helps to form a firm jet of inert gas around the arc, weld pool and the tungsten
electrode. The diameter of the gas nozzle must be selected in light of expected size
of weld pool so that proper shielding of the weld pool can be obtained by forming
cover of inert gas.
• The gas nozzle needs to be replaced at regular interval as it is damaged by wear and
tear under the influence of intense heat of the welding arc. Damaged nozzle does not
form uniform jet of inert gas around the weld pool for protection from the atmospheric
gases.
• Typical flow rate of shielding inert gas may vary from 5-50 liters/min.

• TIG welding torch is generally rated on the basis of their current carrying capacity as
it directly affects the welding speed and so the production rate. Depending upon the
current carrying capacity, the welding torch can be either water or air cooled. Air
cooled welding torch is generally used for lower range of welding current than water
cooled torches.
Filler wire

• Filler metal is generally not used for welding thin sheet by TIGW. Welding of thick steel plates
by TIG welding to produce high quality welds for critical applications such as joining of
nuclear and aero-space components, requires addition of filler metal to fill the groove.

• The filler wire can be fed manually or using some wire feed mechanism. For feeding small
diameter filler wires (0.8-2.4mm) usually push type wire feed mechanism with speed control
device is used.

• Selection of filler metal is very critical for successful welding because in some cases even
use of filler metal similar to that base metal causes cracking of weld metal especially when
their solidification temperature range is every wide (>50oC).

• Therefore, selection of filler wire should be done after giving full consideration to the following
aspects such as mechanical property requirement, metallurgical compatibility, cracking
tendency of base metal under welding conditions, fabrication conditions etc.

• For welding of aluminium alloys, Al-(5-12wt.%) Si filler is used as general purpose filler
metal. Al-5%Mg filler is also used for welding of some aluminium alloys.

• Welding of dissimilar steels namely stainless steel with carbon or alloy steels for high
temperature applications needs development of buttering layer before welding for reducing
carbon migration and residual stress development related problems.
Shielding gas

Helium, Argon and their mixtures are commonly used as inert shielding gas for
protecting the weld pool depending upon the metal to be welded, criticality of
application and economics.

Helium or hydrogen is sometimes added (1-2%) in argon for specific purposes such
as increasing the arc voltage and arc stability which in turn helps to increase the
heat of arc.

The selection of inert gases to be used as shielding gas in GTAW and GMAW
process depends upon the type of metal to be welded and criticality of their
applications.

Carbon dioxide is not used with GTAW process, at high temperature in arc
environment, the thermal decomposition of the carbon dioxide produces CO and O2.
Generation of these gases adversely affect the quality and soundness of the weld
joint and reduces the life of tungsten electrode.
Inert Gases

Argon and helium are the mostly commonly used shielding gases for developing high
quality weld joints of reactive and ferrous metals. Small amount of hydrogen or helium
is often added in argon to increase the penetration capability and welding speed.

A. Heat of welding arc

The ionization potential of He (25eV) is higher than Ar (16eV). Therefore, application
of He as shielding gas results in higher arc voltage and hence different VI arc
characteristics of arc than when argon is used as shielding gas. In general, arc voltage
generated by helium for a given arc length during welding is found higher than argon.
This results in hotter helium arc than argon arc. Hence, helium is preferred for the
welding of thick plates at high speed especially metal systems having high thermal
conductivity and high melting point.

B. Arc efficiency
Helium offers higher thermal conductivity than argon. Hence, He effectively transfers
the heat from arc to the base metal which in turn helps in increasing the welding speed
and arc efficiency.
C. Arc stability
He is found to offer more problems related with arc stability and arc initiation than Ar as
a shielding gas. This behaviour is primarily due to higher ionization potential of He than
Ar. High ionization potential of helium means it will result in presence of fewer charged
particles between electrode and work piece required for initiation and maintenance of
welding arc. Therefore, arc characteristics are found to be different for Ar and He.

With argon as shielding gas the welding current corresponding to the lowest arc
voltage is found around 50A while that for helium occurs at around 150A (Fig.).

Reduction in welding current below this critical level (up to certain range) increases the
arc voltage; which permits some flexibility in arc length to control the welding operation.
D. Flow rate of shielding gas

Argon (density 1.783g/l) is about 1.33 and 10 times heavier than the air and the helium
respectively. This difference in density of air with shielding gases determines the flow
rate of particular shielding gas required to form a blanket over the weld pool and arc
zone to provide protection against the environmental attack. Helium being lighter than
air tends to rise up immediately in turbulent manner away from the weld pool after
coming out of the nozzle. Therefore, for effective shielding of the arc zone, flow rate of
helium (12-22 l/min) must be 2-3 times higher than the argon (5-12 l/min).

Flow rate of shielding gas to be supplied for effective protection of weld pool is
determined by the size of molten weld pool, sizes of electrode and nozzle, distance
between the electrode and work piece, extent of turbulence being created ambient air
movement (above 8-10km/hr). For given welding conditions and welding torch,
flow rate of the shielding gas should be such that it produces a jet of shielding gas so
as to overcome the ambient air turbulence and provides perfect cover around the weld
pool. Unnecessarily high flow rate of the shielding gas leads to poor arc stability and
weld pool contamination from atmospheric gases due to suction effect.
Advantages of Ar over He as Shielding Gas

For general, purpose quality weld, argon offers many advantages over helium a) easy
arc initiation, b) cost effective and good availability c) good cleaning action with
(AC/DCEP in aluminium and magnesium welding) and d) shallow penetration
required for thin sheet welding of aluminium and magnesium alloys.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
It is a fusion welding process wherein the coalescence is produced by
heating the work with a constricted arc established between a non
consumable tungsten electrode and work piece or between a non
consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. The shielding of the weld pool
is obtained by the hot ionized gas produced by passing inert gas through the
arc and constricted nozzle. Filler material may or may not be applied.

Low velocity plasma and diffused arc is generated in the TIG welding while in
case of PAW very high velocity and coherent plasma is generated. Large
surface area of the arc exposed to ambient air and base metal in case of TIG
welding causes greater heat losses than PAW and lowers the energy density.
Therefore, TIG arc burns at temperature lower than plasma arc.
Principles of Operation:
In the PAW process, the workpiece is cleaned and edges are prepared. An arc is
established between a non consumable tungsten electrode and workpiece or between
a non consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. An inert gas is passed through
the inner orifice surrounding the tungsten electrode and subsequently the gas is
ionized and conducts electricity. This state of ionized gas is known as plasma. The
plasma arc is allowed to pass through the constricted nozzle causing high energy and
current density. Subsequently high concentrate heat and very high temperatures are
reached. The low flow rate (0.25 to 5 l/min) of the orifice gas is maintained as
excessive flow rate may cause turbulence in the weld pool. However the orifice gas at
this flow rate is insufficient to shield the weld pool effectively. Therefore inert gas at
higher flow rate (10-30 l/min) is required to pass through outer gas nozzle surrounding
the inner gas nozzle to protect the weld pool.
Plasma arc welding is of two types: Non-transferred plasma arc welding process and
transferred arc welding process. In the former, the arc is established between the
electrode and the nozzle and in the latter process the arc is established between the
electrode and the workpiece.

Depending upon the current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter
following variants of PAW has been developed such as:
• Micro-plasma (< 15 Amperes)
• Melt-in mode (15–400 Amperes) plasma arc
• Keyhole mode (>400 Amperes) plasma arc
Equipment and Consumables:

Power source: A conventional DC current power supply with drooping V-I

characteristics is required. Both rectifier or generator type power source may
be used; however, rectifier type power source is preferred. The general
range of the open-circuit voltage and current is 60-80V and 50-300A
respectively.

Plasma torch: It consists of non consumable tungsten electrode, inner

nozzle (constricting nozzle) and outer gas nozzle. The torch is water cooled
to avoid heating of the nozzle. It is of two types: transferred arc and non
transferred arc welding torch.

Filler material and shielding gases:

Filler material used in this process is the same as those used in the TIG and
MIG welding processes. The selection of the gases depends upon the
martial to be welded. The orifice gas must be an inert gas to avoid
contamination of the electrode material. Active gas can be used for shielding
provided it does not affect the weld quality. In general, the orifice gas is the
same as the shielding gas.
Applications of PAW:
This process is comparatively new and hence the potential of the process is yet to be
understood/ accepted. This process can be used to join all the materials those can be
welded by welding TIG process. Present applications of the process include:
1) Piping and tubing of stainless and titanium,
2) Submarine, aeronautical industry and jet engine manufacturing,
3) Electronic components.
Advantages of PAW:
1) Welding speed is higher.
2) Penetration is more.
3) Higher arc stability.
4) The distance between torch and workpiece does not affect heat concentration on
the work up to some extent.
5) Addition of filler material is easier than that of TIG welding process.
6) Thicker job can be welded.
7) Higher depth to width ratio is obtained resulting in less distortion.
Disadvantages of PAW:
1) Higher radiations.
2) Noise during welding.
3) Process is complicated and requires skilled manpower.
4) Gas consumption is high.
5) Higher equipment and running cost.
6) Higher open circuit voltage requiring higher safety measures to take.
 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

• Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

• Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding
CO2 welding or MAG welding

• CO2 used as shielding gas

• Used for welding carbon and low-alloy steels
• Produces deeper penetration than argon
• Overcomes the restriction of using small lengths of electrodes as in SMAW and the
inability of SAW to welds in various positions.

During the welding operation when CO2 is exposed to the high temperature of the
electric arc, it decomposed into CO and O2 and molecular oxygen changes to its atomic
form. This increases the amount of oxygen in the weld zone and atomic oxygen being
very active may react with iron and other alloying elements of base metal.

• When CO2 is used as shielding gas, the electrode wire must contain deoxidizers like
Mn, Si that readily combine with oxygen and prevent it from combining with weld
metal. SiO2, MnO pass into slag.
METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING
This process is based on the principle of developing weld by melting faying surfaces
of the base metal using heat produced by a welding arc established between base
metal and a consumable electrode. Welding arc and weld pool are well protected by
a jet of shielding inactive gas coming out of the nozzle and forming a shroud around
the arc and weld.

MIG weld is not considered as clean as TIG weld. Difference in cleanliness of the
weld produced by MIG and TIG welding is primarily attributed to the variation in
effectiveness of shielding gas to protect the weld pool in case of above two
processes.

Effectiveness of shielding in two processes is mainly determined by two

characteristics of the welding arc namely stability of the welding arc and
length of arc besides other welding related parameters such as type of
shielding gas, flow rate of shielding gas, distance between nozzle and work-
price.
The MIG arc is relatively longer and less stable than TIG arc. Difference in stability of
two welding arcs is primarily due to the fact that in MIG arc is established between
base metal and consumable electrode (which is consumed continuously during
welding) while TIG welding arc is established between base metal and non-
consumable tungsten electrode. Consumption of the electrode during welding slightly
decreases the stability of the arc. Therefore, shielding of the weld pool in MIG
welding is not as effective as in TIG welding.

Metal inert gas process is similar to TIG welding except that it uses the automatically
fed consumable electrode therefore it offers high deposition rate and so it suits for
good quality weld joints required for industrial fabrication. Consumable electrode is
fed automatically while torch is controlled either manual or automatically. Therefore,
this process is found more suitable for welding of comparatively thicker plates of
reactive metals (Al, Mg, Stainless steel). The quality of weld joints of these metals
otherwise is adversely affected by atmospheric gases at high temperature.
Power source for MIG welding

Depending upon the electrode diameter, material and electrode extension required, MIG
welding may use either constant voltage or constant current type of the welding power
source. For small diameter electrodes (< 2.4 mm) when electrical resistive heating controls
the melting rate predominantly, constant voltage power source (DCEP) is used to take
advantage of the self regulating arc whereas in case of large diameter electrode constant
current power source is used with variable speed electrode feed drive system to maintain
the arc length
Shielding gases for MIG welding

Like TIG welding, shielding gases such as Ar, He, CO2 and their mixtures are used for
protecting the welding pool from the atmospheric gases. Effect of the shielding gases
on MIG weld joints is similar to that of TIG welding. Inert gases are normally used
with reactive metal like Al, Mg and while carbon dioxide can be used for welding of
steel for reasonably good quality of weld joints. Application of CO2 in welding of
reactive none-ferrous metal is not preferred as decomposition of CO2 in arc
environment produces oxygen. Interaction of oxygen with reactive metals like Al and
Mg (which show greater affinity to the oxygen) form refractory oxides having higher
melting point than the substrate which interferes with melting as well as increases the
inclusion formation tendency in the weld metal. Moreover, shielding gases in MIGW
also affect the mode of metal transfer from the consumable electrode to the weld pool
during welding
MIG welding with Ar as shielding gas results in significant change in the mode of metal
transfer from globular to spray and rotary transfer with maximum spatter while He
mainly produces globular mode of metal transfer. MIG welding with CO2 results in
welding with a lot of spattering. Shielding gas also affects width of weld bead and depth
of penetration owing to difference in heat generation during welding.

Effect of MIG welding process parameters

Among various welding parameters such as welding current, voltage and speed
probably welding current is most influential parameters affecting weld penetration,
deposition rate, weld bead geometry and quality of weld metal.

However, arc voltage directly affects the width of weld bead. An increase in arc
voltage in general increases the width of the weld.

Welding current is primarily used to regulate the overall size of weld bead and
penetration. Too low welding current results pilling of weld metal on the faying surface
in the form of bead instead of penetrating into the work piece. These conditions
increase the reinforcement of weld bead without enough penetration.

Excessive heating of the work piece due to too high welding current causes weld sag.
Optimum current gives optimum penetration and weld bead width.
• Stick out of the electrodes (electrode extension) affects the weld bead
penetration and metal deposition rate because it changes the electrode heating
due to electric resistance.

• Increase in stick out increases the melting rate and reduces the penetration
due to increased electrical resistive heating of the electrode itself.

• Selection of welding current is influenced by electrode stick out and electrode

diameter. In general, high welding current is preferred for large diameter
electrodes with small electrode extension in order to obtain optimal weld bead
geometry.

• Increase in welding speed reduces the penetration.

Metal transfer in MIG welding
Metal transfer during MIG welding depending up on the welding current, electrode
diameter and shielding gas can take place through different modes

1. Short Circuit (Short Arc)

2. Globular Transfer
3. Spray Arc Transfer
4. Pulse Spray Transfer
Short Circuit (Short Arc)
• Operates at low voltages and welding current
• Small fast-freezing weld puddle obtained
• Useful in joining thin materials in any position, as well as thick materials in vertical
and overhead positions
• Metal transfer occurs when an electrical short circuit is established
• This cycle can repeat itself between 20 and as much as 250 times per second.

A - Electrode is short circuited to base metal. No

arc, and current is flowing through electrode wire
and base metal.
B - Resistance increases in electrode wire
causing it to heat, melt and “neck down”.
C - Electrode wire separates from weld puddle,
creating an arc. Small portion of electrode wire is
deposited which forms a weld puddle.
D - Arc length and load voltage are at maximum.
Heat of arc is flattening the puddle and increasing
the diameter tip of electrode.
E - Wire feed speed overcomes heat of arc and
wire approaches base metal again.
F - Arc is off and the short circuit cycle starts
again.
Advantages

All-position capability, including flat, horizontal, vertical-up, vertical-down and

overhead.
Handles poor fit-up extremely well, and is capable of root pass work on pipe
applications.
Lower heat input reduces weldment distortion.
Higher operator appeal and ease of use.
Higher electrode efficiencies, 93% or more.

Limitations

Restricted to sheet metal thickness range and open roots of groove joints on
heavier sections of base material.
Poor welding procedure control can result in incomplete fusion. Cold lap and cold
shut are additional terms that serve to describe incomplete fusion defects.
Poor procedure control can result in excessive spatter, and will increase weldment
cleanup cost.
To prevent the loss of shielding gas to the wind, welding outdoors may require the
use of a windscreen(s).
Globular Transfer

Welding current and wire speed are increased above maximum for short arc
Droplets of metal have a greater diameter than the wire being used
Spatter present
Welding is most effectively done in the flat position when using globular transfer

• Globular transfer is often a high voltage, high amperage, high wire feed speed
transfer, and is the result of using CO2 shielding gas (or 75% AR-25% CO2) with
parameters higher than the short circuiting range
Advantages

Uses inexpensive CO2 shielding gas, but is frequently used with argon/CO2 blends.
Is capable of making welds at very high travel speeds.
Inexpensive solid or metal-cored electrodes.
Welding equipment is inexpensive.

Limitations

Higher spatter levels result in costly cleanup.

Prone to cold lap or cold shut incomplete fusion defects, which results in costly
repairs.
Weld bead shape is convex, and welds exhibit poor wetting at the toes.
High spatter level reduces electrode efficiency to a range of 87 – 93%.
Less desirable weld appearance than spray arc transfer
Welding is limited to flat positions and horizontally fillet welds
Welding is limited to metal 1/8 inch (3 mm) or thicker
Spray Arc Transfer

 Occurs when the current and voltage settings are increased higher than that
used for Globular Transfer
 Used on thick sections of base material, best suited for flat position due to large
weld puddle
 Spatter is minimal to none
 Uses 5% to 10% co2 mix with argon or oxygen.
 Forms very small droplets of metal
 Very good stability
 Very little spatter

Spray arc transfer “sprays” a stream of tiny molten droplets across the arc, from the
electrode wire to the base metal. Spray arc transfer uses relatively high voltage,
wire feed speed and amperage values, compared to short circuit transfer.
Advantages

High deposition rates.

High electrode efficiency of 98% or more.
Employs a wide range of filler metal types in an equally wide range of electrode
diameters.
Excellent weld bead appearance.
High operator appeal and ease of use.
Requires little post weld cleanup.
Absence of weld spatter.
Excellent weld fusion.
Lends itself to semiautomatic, robotic, and hard automation applications.

Limitations

Restricted to the flat and horizontal welding positions.

Welding fume generation is higher.
The higher-radiated heat and the generation of a very bright arc require extra welder
and protection.
The use of axial spray transfer outdoors requires the use of a windscreen(s).
Pulse Spray Transfer

GMAW-P was developed for two demanding reasons: control of weld spatter and
the elimination of incomplete fusion defects common to globular and short-circuiting
transfer.
The welding current alternates between a peak current and a lower background
current.
This faster-freezing weld puddle is what allows the pulsed spray transfer to be used
fort thinner metals,
better control on out-of-position work.
allows for larger wire sizes to be used on varied metal thicknesses.

In pulse spray transfer (GMAW-P) the welding power source’s pulse control pulses the
welding output with high peak currents (amperage) which are set at levels which will
cause the transfer to go into a spray. The background current (amperage) is set at a
level that will maintain the arc, but is too low for any metal transfer to occur.
Advantages

Absent or very low levels of spatter.

More resistant to lack of fusion defects than other modes of GMAW metal transfer.
Excellent weld bead appearance and offers an engineered solution for the control of
weld fume generation.
Reduced levels of heat induced distortion and tendency for arc blow
Ability to weld out-of-position and handles poor fit-up.
When compared to FCAW, SMAW, and GMAW-S, pulsed spray transfer provides a
low cost high-electrode efficiency of 98%.
Lends itself to robotic and hard automation applications.
Is combined for use with Tandem GMAW or other multiple arc scenarios.
Capable of arc travel speeds greater than 50 inches per minute (1.2 m/min.).

Limitations

Equipment to support the process is more expensive than traditional systems.

Blends of argon based shielding gas are more expensive than carbon dioxide.
Higher arc energy requires the use of additional safety protection for welders and
bystanders.
Adds complexity to welding.
Requires the use of windscreens outdoors.
• ELECTROSLAG WELDING

It has found very difficult to classify this special electroslag welding

process, because it is neither the arc welding process nor it is the
resistance welding process.

But here it is a combination of the both where the heat is generated

first by establishing the arc between the electrode and the base
material. Once the heat generated is sufficient for melting of the flux,
a pool of the flux is formed. Then the flow of current from the
electrode to the base material through the molten flux leads to the
development of the heat by electrical resistance heating.
So, this process uses the combination of the heat generation by both the arcing
and the electrical resistance heating however the arcing is mainly used in the
initial stage for bringing the flux in the molten state. Once the flux a pool is
generated, the heat is generated by the electrical resistance heating

Electroslag welding (ESW) is a highly productive, single pass welding

process for thick (greater than 25 mm up to about 300 mm) materials in a
vertical or close to vertical position.
This process is typically characterized by the uphill welding process, because
during the welding the weld joint made is made in the vertically upward
direction. So, edges of the plates to be welded are brought in aligned state
vertically

Then joint is made in one pass so and this one pass is made in vertical upward direction
and because of this uphill this is typically known as uphill welding process. Means the
typical nature of this process is uphill welding in and it is made between the plates which
are held vertically and the weld joint is completed in one pass. The weld metal is
deposited into the weld cavity by melting the electrode, which uses the heat being
developed by the flow of current. So, heat development and the melting of the base
material related aspects will be further covering in the remaining portion.

The water cooled copper shoes are used in both the sides of the weld region, which is
being made to avoid the flowing out of the weld metal. This process can be the single or
multi electrode process through which current is passed and the heat is generated
continuously for developing very thick, for developing the weld joint between a very thick
plates.
Applications:

Capability wise the electroslag welding is used mainly in heavy

engineering industry for joining very thick sheets ranging from
25 mm or even thicker sections can be welded easily in one
pass using the electroslag welding process.

This process has been widely used for joining large castings
forgings to produce very large composite structures of steels.
Titanium and aluminium alloys applications are of the
construction of thick walled large diameter pipes pressure
vessels storage tanks and the ships these are areas where it
can be used.
Electrode fed into the cavity and an arc is initiated through a small amount of
flux.

Additional flux is added which on melting results in a flux bath. It extinguishes

the arc.

Then heat generated by electrical resistance heating causes melting of wire and
edges of plates.
The flow of current through flux molten flux leads to the resistance this leads to
resistance heating this electrical resistance heating causes the heat generation
in this weld molten flux zone. So, heat being generated is used heat being
generated by the molten flux heat being generated by the molten flux, because
of the electrical resistance heating transfers the heat to the base material as well
as causes the melting of the electrode.

Also, heat being generated by the flow of current through the molten flux is
transferred to the base material. This leads to the little melting of the base
material, also the continuous melting of the, as soon as the melting of the base
material starts.
This one is completely covered by the copper shoes from the sides, so there are
two plates, there are two plates and which are kept vertically the wire is fed arc
is striked. So, striking of the arc leads to the melting of the flux and by electrical
resistance heating heat is generated, which is transferred to the base material.
So, the heat being transferred to the base materials causes the melting of the
edges of the plates to be welded. Once this starts the solidification of weld
metal is generated and it starts to settling down in the bottom portion.

So, once the base metal starts settling down in the bottom portion, the sides
will be well covered both the sides open sides of the base material are well
covered by the copper shoes. These copper shoes are in contact of the
molten metal and the molten flux. So, to maintain them these copper shoes
from both the sides are water cooled continuously. So, that they can be
maintained within the temperature within the safe temperature limit, once the
sufficient size of the pool of the molten metal.

As soon as solidification starts of the weld metal, these copper shoes are
moved in upward direction. So, here we can say these are the two copper shoes
to prevent the flowing out of the flowing of the molten metal away from the weld
area. So, as soon as the weld is completed in one location these copper shoes
are moved in upward direction and once the upward movement is complete.
This upward movement will be completed only when the entire length of the
plates to be welded is weld joint is completed in the entire length of the weld.
If the gap between the plates to be welded is normally kept of the 30 mm and to
have the uniform distribution of the heat between the plates to being welded,
sometimes the arc this electrode is oscillated between the plates being welded.
Uniform distribution of heat both the sides of the edges of the plates being
welded can be ensured. We can see here these are the water cooled copper
shoes and these are cooled continuously by circulation of the water, so that the
temperature of the copper shoes can be maintained within the safe limits.
THERMIT WELDING

Thermit welding is a chemically reaction welding process. The weld joint is

produced by pouring of superheated molten metal around the joint to be
welded, applying with or without of pressure. Thermit welding basically called
a mixture of finely divided metal oxide and a metal reducing agent as
aluminium
Thermit welding principle:
• Thermit welding is based on casting and foundry practice, and
consists essentially of providing, by means of a chemical (thermit)
reaction, a volume of molten weld metal which is poured into the joint
to be welded.
• The necessary heat for joining metal of thermit welding is obtained
from chemical reaction of metal oxide and metal reducing agent.
• Usually iron oxide is used as a metal oxide and aluminium or
magnesium is used as metal reducing agent.
• The strong chemical attraction of aluminium for oxygen is the basis
for thermit process. First the thermit mixture is ignited by a burning
magnesium ribbon.
• The ignited temperature of thermit is about 1200ºC. When ignited in
one spot of mixture, the heat reaction spreads through the mass. The
aluminium merging with the oxygen of metal oxide and setting free
the iron, which is deposited on joint portion into the mold as a highly
superheated liquid metal.
• If theoretical temperature is about 3000ºC of thermit, due to chilling
effect of crucible the temperature is reduced about 2500ºC. So it is
sufficient for welding temperature.
Thermit Welding Mixtures

Thermit mixtures most commonly used for the welding of ferrous materials are:

1. Plain Thermit is a mixture of iron oxide and finely divided aluminum. It is the
basis of most thermit mixtures and yields one of the highest temperatures for
thermit welding.

2. Mild Steel Thermit is plain thermit with the addition of mild steel punchings
to augment (i.e., increase) the metal produced. Carbon and manganese are also
added to adjust the chemistry of the thermit mixture.

3. Cast Iron Thermit

(a) A plain thermit is available with additions of ferrosilicon and mild steel
punching and is used for welding cast iron. Unless the weld area is post heat
treated, this weld metal is generally not machinable. This thermit is used where
the length of the cast iron part is less than 8 times its width because of the
differential in contraction between the mixture and the cast iron parent metal.

(b) Another thermit produces an average cast iron weld metal analysis and
gives machinable weld metal. It is used when the ratio between the length of
weld and its width is greater then 8 : 1.
4. Thermit for Welding Rails consists of plain thermit with additions of
carbon and manganese to adjust the hardness of the deposited metal to the
hardness of the rail being welded. Alloying elements may be added to act
as grain refiners and to control resistance to abrasion.

5. Thermit for welding electric connections consists of copper oxide and

aluminium.
Thermit welding reactions

The chemical or thermit reaction takes place between a metal oxide

(usually iron oxide) and a metal reducing agent (usually aluminium but
sometimes magnesium also). The chemical affinity of aluminium for
oxygen is the basis for the thermit process.

Thermit reaction is an exothermic one. A few typical thermit reactions are

given below:

3 Fe3O4 + 8 Al -> 9 Fe + 4 Al203 + Heat

3 FeO + 2 Al -> 3 Fe + Al203 + Heat
Fe203 + 2 Al -> 2 Fe + Al203 + Heat
(i) 3Fe3O4 + 8Al--> 9Fe + 4Al2O3 (3088°C) 719.3 kcal
(ii) Fe2O3 + 2Al--> 2Fe + Al2O3 (29600C) 181.5 kcal
(iii) 3CuO + 2Al -->3Cu + Al2O3 (4865°C) 275.3 kcal
Various Methods of Thermit Welding

The heat of the thermit reaction may be utilised in the following ways to join
metal sections.

1. It may heat and fuse the metal parts to be welded. The thermit mixture
acts as the filler metal also. This process is called fusion welding

2. It may heat the metal parts to be welded and raise them to the forging
temperature, when the weld faces are forced together to forge a bond of
the heated parts. This process is known as pressure welding.

Heat of the thermit reaction may be utilised for the purpose of brazing also.
ADVANTAGES

• The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly 
power supply is required. Therefore broken parts (rails etc.) can be welded on the site 
itself.
• For welding large fractured crankshafts.
• For welding broken frames of machines.
• For building up worn wobblers.
• For welding sections of castings where size prevents there being cast in one piece.
• For replacing broken teeth on large gears.
• Forgings and flame cut sections may be welded together to make huge parts.
• For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls and pinions.
• For welding cables for electrical conductors.
• For end welding of reinforcing bars to be used in concrete (building) construction.
LIMITATIONS

1. Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of

heavy sections, i.e., mill housings and heavy rail sections.

2. The process is uneconomical if used to weld cheap metals or

light parts.

• Uses and Applications of Thermit Welding – Thermit

welding is used chiefly in the repair or assembly of large parts
1. For repairing fractured rails (railway tracks).
2. For butt welding pipes end to end.