Environmental

Sciences
CHY1002
CDMM304A
 Module II
• Importance, types, mega-biodiversity
• Species interaction-extinct, endemic, endangered and
rare species
• Hot-spots
• GM crops-advantages and disadvantages
• Terrestrial biodiversity and aquatic biodiversity-
significance
• Threats due to natural and anthropogenic activities
and conservation methods
Biodiversity
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Functional diversity
 Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on earth

• It is the measure of variation at the genetic, species and
ecosystem and functional level
• Biodiversity is an important factor for the successful
functioning of the ecosystem
• Current estimates of no. of species on earth:
• 10-14 million
• 1.9 million documented
• ~1 million are insects
• 99.9% (5 billion) of species extinct since the
beginning of life on earth
 Genetic diversity
• Variation in genes within same species. It is the ability of an organism to adapt to
changes in local environment. They adapt by possession of different alleles suitable
to the environment

Importance of genetic diversity

• Ensures the survival and adaptability of the species during unfavourable survival
conditions in the environment such as disease, or climate change
• Eg: the inability of koalas to fight Chlamydia and koala retrovirus (KoRV) is due to
its low genetic diversity
 Origins of genetic diversity
• Larger local populations of a particular species ensures
mixing of genetic material, with lower chances of inbreeding
• Random genetic mutations
• Gene flow: migration of genetic material like by pollination,
migration of birds
 Species diversity
• Number and abundance of different species in a community
Components of species diversity
• Species richness (S): number of species in a particular location
• Taxonomic/phylogenetic diversity: genetic relationship between
different species
• Species evenness (E): measure of how close in numbers each
species in an environment is. It ranges from 0-1, 0 indicating zero
evenness, and 1, indicating complete evenness
Importance of species diversity
• Greater species diversity ensures sustainability in an ecosystem. Since
each species is intertwined intricately uniquely with the ecosystem,
each performing a unique role, extinction of even one species can
have multitudinous ripple effects on the entire ecosystem
 Comparison between ecosystems
Alpha diversity
• The diversity within an area/ecosystem, usually
expressed by the number of species in it
Beta diversity
• It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems,
measured as the amount of species change between
ecosystems
Gamma diversity
• A measure of overall diversity within a large region
Example
 Ecosystem diversity
• Variations in ecosystems in a region, and its overall impact on
human existence and environment
• It considers the variation in complexity of a community
including the number of niches, number of trophic levels
and other ecological processes
• Eg: deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands, oceans
Importance
• Greater diversity ensures sustainability and ecosystems capable
of withstanding environmental stresses like floods, draughts,
pests etc.
• Ecosystem diversity ensures availability of oxygen by
photosynthesis
• In an aquatic environment, water purification is carried out by
the various plant species
• Greater variety of plants, means a greater variety of crops
 Functional diversity
• Functional diversity refers to the variety of biological
processes, functions or characteristics of an
ecosystem
• It is one of the main factors that determine the
resilience and long-term stability of an ecosystem
• Eg: no. of filter feeders in an ecosystem, compared to
the no. of grazers
Types of species
Endemic
Endangered
Extinct
Rare
 Endemic species
• Endemic species are those plants/animals unique to
a defined geographic location, such as an island,
nation, or a defined zone or habitat type
• Due to the geographic restrictions of such species,
endemic species are often endangered
• Ares containing endemic species are often isolated in
some way preventing easy spread of species to other
areas
• E.g. islands in Hawaii, New Zealand and southern tip
of Africa contain almost 90% endemic species
 Asiatic Lion

Lion-tailed macaque

Some endemic species found in India

Purple frog

Sangai Deer
 Extinct species
• Extinction of an animal or plant occurs when no
more individuals of that species are alive anywhere
in the world
• This is a natural part of evolution, but certain
extinctions happen at a much faster rate
• E.g. the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years
ago saw a mass extinction that caused the death of
several plants and animals, including dinosaurs
• Human intervention in the form of hunting, over-
exploitation and habitat destruction is also causing
rapid extinction
 Black-horned rhinoceros

Dodo
Passenger pigeons

Examples of extinct
species

Saber-toothed tiger

Tasmanian Tiger
 Endangered species
• Endangered or threatened species is one that is
considered at the risk of extinction
• A species can be listed as endangered at the state, national
or international level

Examples of some species that have been saved from being

extinct; L: bald eagle; M: grey wolf; R: grizzly bear
 Rare species
• Rare species is a group of organism that is
uncommon, scarce or infrequently encountered. This
is distinct from the term endangered or threatened
• They are normally species with small populations, and
several move into the endangered category if negative
factors operate against them
 Fennec Fox

Himalayan Brown bear

Some rare species

Hornbill

Wild Asiatic Buffalo Giant Panda

Species interactions
Types of interactions
 Types of interactions
• Biological interaction is the effect that a pair of
organisms living together in a community have on each
other. They can be of the same species (intraspecific) or
different species (inter specific)
• The effects may be short-term like pollination and
predation or long-term, strongly influencing the
evolution of the other species
• Long-term interaction is called symbiosis, which can
range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners to
competition, harmful to both
• Interactions can be indirect, through intermediaries such
as shared resources or common enemies
 Predation
• Requires one organism, the predator, to kill and eat
another organism, its prey. In most cases, both are
animals, both of different species (inter-specific); but if
both are of same species, (intra-specific), it is called
cannibalism
• It is a short-lived interaction, but very durable in terms
of influence on the evolution of both partners, resulting
in both partners coevolving
• E.g. predators have sharp claws or jaws to grip the prey,
with other adaptations to improve hunting efficiency
• E.g. prey also adapt with modifications such as warning
coloration, alarm calls, camouflage, defensive spines and
chemicals
 Crocodiles are some of the
evolutionarily oldest and
dangerous predators

Sharp thorns on the

branch of a tree, used
as anti-herbivory
defense

A carnivorous pitcher
plant that preys upon
insects by luring them
into the elongated
tube where the insects
get trapped, die and
are then digested
 Pollination
• Pollinators, some insects (entomophily), some birds
(ornithophily) and some bats, transfer pollen from a
male flower part to female, enabling fertilization, in return
for a reward for pollen or nectar
• Both organisms have co-evolved over millions of years.
• E.g. insect-pollinated flowers are adapted with shaped
structures, bright colours, patterns, scent, nectar and
sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and
deposit pollen and reward them with nectar for the
service
• E.g. pollinator insects like bees are adapted to detect
flowers by colour, pattern and scent to collect and
transport pollen (pollen baskets on their hind legs) and
collect nectar
 Symbiosis
• Symbiosis is a long-term interaction. It can be of 6
types, depending on degree or benefit or harm they
cause each partner
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Parasitism
• Neutralism
• Amensalism
• competition
 Obligate vs facultative
• Mutualism is an interaction between 2 species, both
of which benefit from it, also called co-operation
• Each beneficiary is called a symbiont
• Relationship can be obligate, wherein, one or more
symbionts depend on each other for survival
• E.g. in lichens, which consist of fungal and
photosynthetic symbionts, fungi cannot survive on
their own
• Relationship is called facultative (optional), when
the symbionts can survive independently
 Commensalism
• Commensalism is a relationship between two
organisms where one benefits and the other is not
significantly harmed or helped

Hermit crabs using Bird gets benefited from Plants that grow on limbs of
gastropod shells to eating parasites from larger trees for sunlight and
protect their bodies elephant’s back, while the rain, but do not harm the tree
latter is unaffected
 Parasitism
• Parasitism is a relationship between species where one
organism, the parasite, lives on/in another organism,
the host, causing it harm, and is adapted structurally
to this way of life

Tomato hornworm covered with

cocoons of pupating braconid wasps,
parasitic to the former, causing it to die
 Neutralism vs Amensalism
Neutralism
• Neutralism is the relationship between two species
that interact without effecting the evolutionary fitness
of the other
• E.g. plants provide food, shelter and oxygen to
animals, who in tern provide carbon dioxide to plants,
disperse their seeds and pollen
Amensalism
• Amensalism is a relationship where an organism
harms another without any benefit to itself
• E.g. sheep/cattle trample grass
 Competition
• Competition is an interaction between organisms
wherein the fitness of one is lowered by the presence
of the other
• Competition is often for a resource such as water,
food, territory or access to females for reproduction
• Competition can be either intra or interspecific
• According to evolution theory, the species less suited
to compete for resources should either adapt or die
out; competition plays an important role in natural
selection
Examples of intra-species competition among L: cranes; M: ibex; R: sea anemones

Examples of inter-specific competition

GM crops
 Genetically modified crops
• Genetically modified/transgenic crop is a plant that
has a novel combination of genetic material
obtained by modern biotechnology
• GM crops contain gene(s) artificially inserted instead
of the plant acquiring it through pollination
• The first genetically modified plant was introduced in
1982, which was an antibiotic-resistant tobacco
plant
• The first commercially produced GM plant was
introduced in the US in 1994, the FlavrSavr tomato,
which had longer shelf-lives
 Advantage of GM crops
Traditional breeding methods
• Traditional plant breeding techniques allows for gene
exchange via transfer of male (pollen) of one plant to the
female organ of another
Disadvantages
• Limited to exchanges between same or very closely related
species
• Time consuming to achieve desired set of traits, which
may or may not be available in related species
Advantages of GM technology
• GM technology enables plant breeders to bring together
useful genes for the creation of superior plant varieties,
from a wide range of living sources, not limited to closely
related species
 Steps in
producing
GMO
 Methods of producing GM crops
Crossing
• Traditional method of crossbreeding that involves
taking flowers and pollen from a plant with a desired
trait, (like resistance to viruses, bacteria, fungi etc.)
and crossing them with another plant that is
susceptible, but has good traits (like high yield),
resulting in a hybrid
• E.g. plumcot (plum and apricot), rabbage (cabbage
and radish)
Mutations
• Introduction of genetic changes using radiation or
chemicals. E.g. radiation was used to produce a deeper
colour in red grapefruit
DNA insertion
• Gene guns
• Agrobacterium methods
• Electroporation
• Microinjection
Gene silencing
• This method allows for turning off certain genes without
affecting other protein-encoding DNA, via insertion of
RNA
Gene editing
• CRISPR
• TALEN
 DNA insertion methods
Gene guns
• DNA is bound to gold or tungsten, and shot into
plant tissue or cell under high pressure and
speed, allowing them to penetrate cell wall and
membranes. The DNA separates from the metal
and integrates into plant DNA inside the nucleus
• The major disadvantage is the serious damage to
cellular tissue using this method
Electroporation
• DNA is inserted through miniature, temporary
pores, caused by electric pulses. This is carried
out in plants without cell walls
Microinjection
• Injects foreign DNA directly into cells
 Agrobacterium-tumefaciens method
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a natural plant
parasite that inserts its genes into plants,
resulting in a proliferation of genetically-modified
plants near the soil-level
• The genetic information is encoded in a mobile,
circular DNA fragment (plasmid) which is
transferred this T-DNA to a random site in the
plant genome
• In genetic engineering, the T-DNA is replaced
with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium
therefore acts as a vector, enabling transportation
of foreign genes into plants
• This method has been successfully used in plants
like potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and less
successful in crops such as wheat and maize
 Transgenesis vs Cisgenesis
• Genes inserted from • Genes inserted from same or
another species, either from closely related species, similar
the same kingdom (plant- to conventional breeding
plant) or between kingdoms • This method is useful for
(bacteria-plant) plants difficult to crossbreed
• Mostly used to introduce by conventional methods
desirable traits such as such as potatoes
herbicide-resistance, higher
yields (increased
photosynthetic ability) or
bioluminescence, making
them a sustainable
alternative to electric
lighting
 Subgenesis
• This is a method of using gene knockdown or
knockout to alter genetic makeup of a plant without
incorporation of foreign DNA
• E.g. Chinese researcher developed a mildew resistant
wheat strain in 2014, by deleting genes that repress
defences against mildew
• Methods for gene editing
• TALEN
• CRISPR
 Benefits of GM crops
Extended shelf-life
• FlavrSavr tomato introduced in the US (1994)
• GM potato that prevents bruising (2014)
• Arctic apples that prevent browning after cutting (2015)
Improved nutritional value
• Better quality edible oils
• Vitamin enrichment: Golden rice: higher vitamin A
Toxin reduction
• Potato that prevents bruising and produces lesser acrylamide on frying
Stress resistance
• Plants capable of withstanding stressors like draught, frost, high soil salinity. E.g.
DroughGard maize: draught resistant maize, introduced in the US
• Herbicide resistance, pest resistance
Useful by-products
• Plants engineered to produce useful by-products such as drugs, biofuel (algae),
bioplastics
Bioremediation
• GM plants for bioremediation of contaminated soils containing Hg, Se, PCBs, TNT,
RDX etc. e.g. switchgrass and bentgrass
• Marine oil spills management: Hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB)
 Improved photosynthesis
• Plants use non-
photochemical quenching to
protect from excess sunlight.
They can switch it on
instantaneously, but it takes
longer to switch it off, after
which, amount of energy
wasted, increases. This was
genetically modification in 3
genes allowed for this
correction (increase in yields
by up to 15%)
• Tweaked photorespiration
(increase of yields in
tobacco by up to 50%)
 Environmental risks of GMOs
Gene contamination/interbreeding
• Unexpected gene flow by interbreeding between GMOs and wild
type weeds and/or related species, resulting in uncontrollable or
irreversible escape of genes into neighbouring wild plants by pollen.
E.g. hybrid rice crossbreeding with a weedy relative, giving the latter
competitive advantages of higher photosynthetic rates, more shoots,
flowers and seeds
• The transfer of foreign genes to another organism such as
bacteria/virus (Horizontal Gene Transfer) that can cause harm to
environment. For example, transfer of an antibiotic resistance gene
to a pathogen can be catastrophic to humans/animals
Competition with natural species
• GMOs have favourable traits built-in, such as higher yields or
resistance to environmental stress, presenting them with a natural
advantage over native organisms, allowing them to become invasive,
spread into new habitats unchecked and cause ecological damage
Increased selection pressure on target and nontarget
organisms
• Evolution of resistant pests and weeds, termed superbugs, in
response to herbicide-resistant crops. Constant spraying of
herbicide on such crops would result in acquired resistance by
surrounding weeds, resulting in a higher dose of the same, or a
different type
Ecosystem impacts
• Effect of a single species may extend beyond a single
ecosystem, carrying with it, risks of ecosystem damage and
destruction
Terrestrial biodiversity
Importance
Tropical rain forests
Threats to biodiversity
 Terrestrial biodiversity
• Terrestrial biodiversity refers to animals, plants and
microorganisms that live on land and land habitats, such as
forests, wetlands, deserts etc.
Types of terrestrial habitats are:
• Forests, wetlands, grasslands, deserts, taiga, tundra etc.
• It is important to maintain these habitats in a sustainable
manner so as to ensure, not just the biodiversity, but for our
survival
• We depend on forests right from the air we breathe, to the
wood we use. Besides providing habitat for animals and
livelihood for humans, they also provide watershed protection,
prevent soil erosion and mitigate climate change
 Importance of biodiversity
• Production of oxygen by land-based plants and marine algae
• Maintenance of fresh water quality by vegetation slowing run-off, trapping
sediment and removing nutrients, and soil organisms breaking down pollutants
and sequestration of heavy metals in marine and fresh water sediments
• Greenhouse gas reduction, by sequestering atmospheric carbon in wood and
calcium carbonate deposits
• Maintenance of habitats for native plants and animals, and in addition,
provide recreational and tourism value
• Production and maintenance of fertile soil as a result of several interacting
processes
• Provisions of food such as fish, pastures for cattle and sheep, timber, harvested
wildlife like animals and plants
• Provisions of native species and genes for use in industry, R&D, and
applications in biotechnology in agriculture, forestry, pharmacy, chemical
production and bioremediation
• Pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants by
native insects, birds and other creatures
• Flood mitigation by vegetation slowing run-off and trapping sediment
 Threats to biodiversity
Climate change
• Rapid manmade climate change does not allow ecosystems and species to
adapt. Rising ocean temperatures, diminishing Arctic sea ice can affect
rising ocean temperatures, affecting marine biodiversity and shift vegetation
zones
Pollution
• Burning of fossil fuels that releases harmful chemicals, depleting the ozone
layer, excessive waste production disrupts, fragments, and degrades the
ecosystem
Over-exploitation
• Over-hunting, over-fishing, over-harvesting, poaching, and other forms of
hunting for profit contribute greatly to loss of biodiversity and death of
numerous species
Deforestation and habitat loss
• It is a direct cause of extinction and biodiversity. Around 18 million acres
of forest are lost every year due to logging and other human practices
Invasive species
• Introduction of non-native, predatory species that compete for resources
can threaten endemic wildlife
Most biodiverse places on Earth
• The Daintree, Queensland, Australia
• Cloud forests of Ecuador
• The Amazon, Amazon-North, Brazil
• Alaska’s backcountry, United States (temperate rainforests)
• Sapo National Park, Monrovia, Liberia
• Monteverde Park, Costa Rica
• Mt. Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia
• Sinharaja Forest, Sabaragamuwa, Sri Lanka
• Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Park, Mato Grosso
Central, Brazil
• Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon
 Tropical rain forests
• Highest level of terrestrial biodiversity is found near the
tropics/tropical rainforests, which constitute 7% of the world’s total land
surface, and contain 90% of the world’s species, which makes its species
richness, the highest

Rainforests of SE Asia

Congo river basin

Amazon river basin
 Reasons for high biodiversity
• Fewer ecological obstacles to higher biodiversity
• Fewer ice-age-type events, making it chronologically
very far since nature’s last reset button
• Warm climate with optimal range of sunlight (narrow
temperature variation) with high rates of primary
productivity
• Humidity: rainfall throughout the year
• Greatest access to consistent energy, water and
carbon. This encourages higher rates of speciation,
which divides this large pool of energy and matter in
more diverse and competitive ways
• Rate of mutation of DNA increases with temperature
Marine biodiversity
Coral reefs and benefits
Importance of marine diversity
 Marine biodiversity
• Marine biodiversity refers to the species richness and
abundance in the world’s oceans and seas (70%)
• Types of marine ecosystems

• Half the primary production on earth is attributable

to marine species, making them extremely valuable
 Coral reef biodiversity
• Underwater ecosystems formed by colonies of coral
polyps held together by calcium carbonate
• Mostly found in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and
agitated waters
• They contain the highest biodiversity in the planet,
higher even, than tropical rainforests, often called,
rainforests of the sea
• They occupy <1% of ocean-floor, but are home to
>25% marine life such as: fish, mollusks, worms,
crustaceans, sponges, etc.
• Locations of major coral reefs: Great Barrier Reef
(Australia), coral reefs off the coast of Belize, Central
America, Hawaii, Red sea etc.
Locations of coral reefs
 Benefits
• Protection of other ecosystems such as seagrass
meadows and mangroves that help in purifying water and
provide food
• Provide millions of people with food and medicine,
several compounds, being used to treat cancer
• Protection from storm events like hurricanes, typhoons,
and even tsunamis. Eg: Tsunami of 2004
• Enormous fishing income to >25% world’s fisherman
• Saves cost and maintenance of breakwaters
 Mega-biodiversity
• It is the property of extreme diversity, combined with
high endemism at the level of species, genera and
families
Megadiverse countries
• Nations that harbor most of Earth’s species and high
numbers of endemic species
• A megadiverse country must have at least 5000
endemic plants and must border marine
ecosystems
• 17 megadiverse countries, located mainly in tropical
or subtropical regions
Megadiverse countries
Biodiversity
hotspots
 Biodiversity hotspots
• Region that is both a significant reservoir of
biodiversity, with high level of endemic species and
highly threatened with destruction
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot:
• A region must have at least 1500 vascular plants as
endemics
• It must have >70% of its original natural vegetation
threatened
• The term was first introduced by Norman Myers in
1988
• 36 regions (~2.3% of Earth’s land surface) around
the world have been classified as biodiversity hotspots
 Importance of hotspots
• There would be no life on Earth without
biodiversity, making these biodiverse hotspots, even
more critical for our survival
• The maps of hotspots overlaps with maps of natural
places that most benefit people
• Despite comprising just 2.4% of Earth’s land surface,
they account for 35% of ecosystem services
rendered to vulnerable human populations
 Most threatened hotspots
• Most hotspots are located in tropical forests
• Atlantic forest, Brazil: 20000 plant species, about
half of which, are endemic. Of the original 1.2
million km2, only 8% remains
• Polynesia-Micronesia, South Pacific Ocean: it
includes coastal wetlands, coral atolls, savannas and
tropical rainforests
• Some other notable hotspots are Columbia, which
has the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide
and the largest number of endemics; ~10% species
can be found here
Global hotspot map
Biodiversity in India
Biodiversity
Realms, biomes & biogeographic zones
Biodiversity hotspots
 Biodiversity in India
• It has diverse geographical features, ranging from desert,
mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamp
lands, plains, grasslands and island archipelago, each spanning
different climates
• It is one of 17 megadiverse countries, home to 7.6% of
mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of
all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish and 6% of all flowering plant
species

• Biodiversity is heavily influenced by summer monsoons that

cause seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat
• India has 23.39% of geographical area under forest
cover
• Within 2.4% of land area, it accounts for nearly 7%
of recorded species and almost 18% of the human
population
• In terms of species richness, India ranks 7th, 9th in
birds, 5th in reptiles
• In terms of endemism, India is 10th in birds with 69
species, 5th in reptiles with 156 species and 7th in
amphibians with 110 species
• India represents: 2 realms, 5 biomes, 10
biogeographic zones and 25 biogeographic
provinces
 Realms
• Realm is large spatial region (continent/subcontinent)
with similar flora and fauna
• Realms in India
• The Himalayan region (Palearctic Realm)
• Rest of the subcontinent (Indo-Malayan Realm)
• There are a total of 8 terrestrial realms namely
• Nearctic • Oceania
• Palearctic • Australian
• Africotropic • Antarctic
• Indo-Malayan • Neotropical
Biorealms of the world
 Biomes in India
• Biome refers to the main groups of plants and animals living
in areas of certain climate patterns. It includes the way animals,
vegetation and soil interact together. Plants and animals of that
area have adapted to that environment
• Biomes in India
• Tropical & subtropical moist broadleaf forests
• Tropical & subtropical dry broadleaf forests
• Tropical & subtropical coniferous forests
• Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
• Temperate coniferous forests
• Tropical & subtropical grasslands, savannas & shrublands
• Desert and xeric shrublands
• Mangrove
• Temperate coniferous forests
• Montane grasslands and shrublands
Biomes of India
 Bio-geographic zones
• Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of
plants and animals
• There are ten bio-geographic zones in India, namely
• Trans-Himalayas • Deccan Peninsula
• Himalayas • Gangetic Plain
• Desert • North-East India
• Semi-arid • Islands
• Western Ghats • Coasts
• These zones are further systematically divided into 25
biogeographic provinces
Biogeographic zones map
 Biodiversity hotspots in India
• India contains 4 of the 36 biodiversity hotspots, they are found in:
• Himalayas
• Western Ghats
• Indo-Burma region
• Sundaland
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
• 1600 km long chain of hills running along the
western peninsular coast of India, including
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
• It is among the top 8 biodiversity hotspots in the
world, with only 43,611 km2 of the original ~2
lakh km2 remaining
• They are characterized by heavy rainfall, and
contain moist deciduous and rain forests
• The region is home to 450 birds (species), 140
mammals, 260 reptiles and 175 amphibians, now
rapidly heading towards extinction
• Importance: Any reduction in rainfall due to
deforestation of the Western Ghats would lead to
a warming of the peninsula as well
Estimate of species diversity and endemism in the Western Ghats
 Nilgiri Marten

Lion tailed Macaque

The Great Indian Hornbill Gaur

Some endemic fauna

Nilgiri Tahr
 Himalayas
• Region comprising Bhutan, NE India,
southern, central and eastern Nepal
• It is geologically young and shows high
altitudinal variation
• They are home to some of the highest peaks in the world including
Mt. Everest and K2
• Of the estimated 10000 species of plants in the Himalayan hotspot,
3160 are endemic, as well as 71 genera
• Despite icy zones starting at ~5500-6000 m, there are some species
of vascular plants occurring at such high altitudes
• Nearly 980 birds (15 endemic), 300 mammals (12 endemic), 175
reptiles (50 endemic), 105 amphibians (40 endemic) have been
observed here
 Some endangered fauna
Himalayan brown bear

Water buffalo
Red Panda

Snow leopard

Snowcock Musk-deer One-horned rhinoceros

 Sundaland
• Sundaland hotspot covers the western half of the
Indo-Malayan archipelago. It includes islands of
Malaysia, parts of Thailand, Singapore. It is
represented by the Andaman & Nicobar Islands
from India
• Of the original reserve of 1.5 million km2, only ~1
lakh km2 remain
• They have a rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem
comprising mangroves, coral reefs and sea grass
beds, with a wide variety of flora and fauna
tabulated below
 Andaman and Nicobar islands
• These constitute a group of 572 islands, falling under the
Indo-Malayan biogeographic realm, with Andaman
resembling Myanmar and Thailand, while Nicobar was similar
to Indonesia and SE Asia, and closer to the Sundaland region
• The islands harbour around 9130 animal species, in terrestrial
habitats, of which, 5859 are marine species
• A high percentage of endemism (24.95%, 816 species) has
been observed in terrestrial fauna, which is 4 times higher than
marine habitat endemism
• These high rates of endemism can be attributed to isolation
of land masses, while the low rates of marine endemism can
be due to continuity in the water medium
• Some of the endangered species include whales, dolphins,
dugong, saltwater crocodile, hornbills, marine turtles, seashells
of the Trochus species
 Marine turtle Sea-cucumber

Some endangered species in the

Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Salt-water crocodile
 Indo-Burma
• Indo-Burma: encompasses several countries,
spread out from Eastern Bangladesh to
Malaysia and includes NE India south of
Brahmaputra river, covering ~ 2.4 million
km2 of tropical Asia, east of the Ganges-
Brahmaputra lowlands
• They include tropical and subtropical moist,
dry and broadleaf forests, temperate and
coniferous forests, mangroves, swamps and
seasonally inundated grasslands
• Most of this region is characterized by
distinct seasonal weather patterns, such as
cool, dry, northern winter months, and
rains during spring as a result of SW
monsoons