OPTIMIZATION OF THE GEOMETRY AND MATERIAL OF

SOLAR WATER HEATERS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
THE MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

RUKEN Z LAN

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

SEPTEMBER 2001

(The latest pre-submission version)

Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences.

Prof. Dr. Tayfur ÖZTÜRK

Director

I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the
degree of Master of Science.

Prof. Dr. Sinan B L KMEN

Head of Department

This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it’s fully,
in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science.

Prof. Dr. Ahmet ECEV T

Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Ahmet ECEV T

Prof. Dr. Demir NAN

Prof. Dr. Faruk ARINÇ

Prof. Dr. nci GÖKMEN

Prof. Dr. Bülent G. AKINO LU

ii
 ABSTRACT

OPTIMIZATION OF THE GEOMETRY AND MATERIAL OF

SOLAR WATER HEATERS

Z LAN, Ruken
M.Sc. Department of Physics
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ahmet ECEV T

September 2001, 168 pages

This study includes three parts; optimization of the geometry of absorber plate
for flat plate collectors, construction of new absorber plate and efficiency tests
of collectors.
The new absorber plate, which is economic and resembling the commercially
available absorber plate has been built by hot deep galvanization and by
utilization of point welding. Before building the components of the system,
some of the geometrical parameters, which influence the performance, have
been optimized. Time constant and thermal efficiency of the constructed
absorber plate has been measured.

A new type of efficient and cheap absorber plate, which is made up of

galvanized iron was constructed and its efficiency and price were determined
together with that of three commercially available collectors constructed in

iii
Turkey, absorber plates of which are made up of aluminum and copper ( STEK
Aluminum and Copper, DA SAN -Copper).

Time constants of the tested collectors are determined to be 137

seconds for STEK Al, 75 seconds for STEK Cu, 95 seconds for DA SAN
and 198 seconds for galvanized iron collector.

For STEK’s aluminum collector the y-axis intercept of the efficiency

curve is 0.90, for STEK’s copper collector it is 0.66; for DA SAN’s copper it
is 0.81 and for the collector that has galvanized iron absorber plate it is 0.82,
which is increased up to 0.83 after new optimization.

The price of the constructed absorber plate was DM 43, after new
optimization it is increased to DM 53. For STEK’s aluminum collector it is
DM 100, for STEK’s copper collector it is DM 60 and for DA SAN’s copper
collector it is DM 100.

Keywords: Optimization, Flat Plate Collectors, Solar Water Heaters,

Galvanized Iron Absorber Plate, Point Welding and Efficiency of Flat Plate
Collectors, Efficiency Test Methods.

iv
 ÖZ

GÜNE L SU ISITICILARININ GEOMETR S N N VE KULLANILAN

MALZEMES N N OPT M ZASYONU

Z LAN, Ruken
Yüksek Lisans, Fizik Bölümü
Danı man: Prof. Dr. Ahmet ECEV T

Eylül 2001, 168 sayfa

Bu çalı ma üç bölümden olu maktadır; güne toplaçları için yutucu plakanın

geometrik optimizasyonu, yeni bir yutucu plaka üretilmesi ve verim testleri.

Ekonomik ve piyasadaki toplaçlara yakın verimli, yeni yutucu plaka, demirin

daldırma galvanizlenmesi ve punta kaynak kullanımı ile yapılmı tır. Plaka
planlama a amasında verimi etkileyen önemli geometrik parametreler verimsel
ve fiyatsal açıdan optimize edilmi tir. Üretilen toplacın verim ve zaman
sabitleri ölçülmü tür.

Bu toplacın verimi, STEK firmasının bakır ve alüminyum ve

DA SAN firmasının bakır yutucu plakalı toplaçların verimleri test edilmi ve
birbirleri ile fiyat ve verim açısından kıyaslanmı tır.

v
 Test edilen toplaçların tespit edilen zaman sabitleri STEK Al için 137
saniye, STEK bakır için 75 saniye, DA SAN bakır için 95 saniye, galvaniz
kaplamalı demir yutucu plâkalı toplaç için 198 saniye olarak bulunmu tur.

Toplaçlar için verim grafiklerindeki y-ekseninin kesim noktaları,

STEK alüminyum için 0.90, STEK bakır için 0.66, DA SAN bakır için 0.81,
ve yeni üretilen toplaç için 0.82 ve yapılan son optimizasyondan sonra 0.83’e
çıkmı tır.

Üretilen yutucu plâkanın mal olu fiyatı 43 Alman Markı, son

optimizasyondan sonra 53 Alman Markı, DA SAN bakır için 100 Alman
Markı, STEK alüminyum toplaç için 100 Alman Markı ve STEK bakır toplaç
için 60 Alman Markı’dır.

Anahtar Kelimeler : Optimizasyon, Düzlemsel Toplaçlar, Güne li Su Isıtıcıları,

Galvanizli Demirden Yapılan Yutucu Yüzey, Punta Kaynak, Düzlemsel
Toplaçların Verimleri, Verim Test Metotları.

vi
 TO ALL THE PEOPLE
WHO BELIEVES IN SOLIDARITY,
WHO IS AGAINST ALL THE DISCRIMINATIONS
AND
IN PEACE WITH THE WORLD
AND
HIMSELF/HERSELF...

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge Prof. Dr. Ahmet ECEV T for his many helpful
suggestions during the course of this work, for his preserving efforts without
which this work could not have been ended and I am also grateful to him for his
unique friendship and endless supports throughout the year.

I would also thank to Prof. Dr. Ramazan SEVER for his encouragement at the
very beginning of this work.

I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Bülent G. AKINO LU for his help,

encouragement and advice during this study.

I am deeply indebted to Mehmet TA from FETA , Mehmet GÜRBÜZDAL from

ALFA BOYA for their support and encouragement during construction part of
this study.

I am also thankful DA SAN and STEK; the companies who provided us with
three solar water heaters.

Particular thanks are due to Ataman ÖZDEM R, Mustafa U UZ and all the
workers who, worked with me all along this study, for their invaluable help.

I am also thankful to Necil ÖZTÜREL and Cenk ÖZBAY for their helps.

Thanks are certainly due also to ule KARAMAN for her valuable effort and her
patience, encouragement throughout this study and for typing this thesis.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my Uncle Celadet GAYDALI, my

mother Fatma NAN, my sisters Neslihan and Elif Z LAN for their
encouragement.
viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................ iii

ÖZ...................................................................……………….............. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................... viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................ xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................. xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................................. xvii

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
1.1. SHORTCOMINGS OF SOLAR ENERGY ................................. 5
1.2. SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TURKEY ....................... 6

2. THE SUN AND THE SOLAR ENERGY ............................................. 8

2.1. THE SUN ................................................................................. 8
2.2. THE SOLAR ENERGY ......................................................... 10
2.3. THE SOLAR CONSTANT .......................................................... 10
2.4. ATTENUATION OF BEAM RADIATION .................................. 11
2.5. THE CELESTIAL SPHERE .......................................................... 14
2.6. BEAM RADIATION RECEIVED BY INCLINED SURFACES.. 14
2.7.1 Incidence Angles for Fixed Surfaces ……………………... 15

3. PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION TO THE FLAT PLATE

COLLECTOR ..……….................................................................... 17
3.1. FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS .............................................. 17
ix
 3.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON THERMAL PERFORMANCE,
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION ...................... 21
3.3. MAIN CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF A FLAT
PLATE COLLECTOR .......................................................... 37
3.3.1. The Absorber Plate .......................................................... 39
3.3.2. The Covering Materials .............................................. 43
3.4. BASIC FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION …………………………………………….............. 46
3.5. EFFICIENCY OF A FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR ……….…… 52

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS: OPTIMIZATION, ECONOMY,

CONSTRUCTION AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE TESTING…53
4.1. OPTIMIZATION OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS .................. 53
4.1.1. Choice of Fin Material .......................................................... 54
4.1.2. Choice of Thickness of Plate and Pipe Spacing .................. 55
4.2. THE COMPUTER PROGRAM .............................................. 56
4.3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION .............................................. 56
4.4.ECONOM C ANALYS S OF ABSORBER PLATE ........... 57
4.5. CONSTRUCTION OF A NEW ABSORBER PLATE ........... 59
4.6. PREPARATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP ...................... 65
4.7. TESTING OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS TO DETERMINE
THEIR THERMAL PERFORMANCE .................................. 66
4.7.1. Purpose ................................................................................. 66
4.7.2. Testing Preconditions .......................................................... 66
4.7.3. Apparatus And Instrumentation .................................. 68
4.8. USEFUL THERMAL PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS FOR
CALCULATION ...................................................................... 69
4.8.1. Collector Thermal Efficiency .............................................. 69
4.8.2. Collector Time Constant ............................................... 71
4.9. TESTING PROCEDURE .......................................................... 71
4.9.1. Measurements ...................................................................... 72
4.9.2. Experimental Determination of the Collector Time
Constant ...................................................................... 73
4.9.3. Experimental Determination of the Collector Thermal
Efficiency ...................................................................... 74
x
 4.9.4. Computation of Collector Thermal Efficiency .......... 87

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSAND DISCUSSION ....................... 78

5.1. RESULTS OF OPTIMIZATION ............................................. 78
5.2. FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS. 79
5.2.1. ISTEK’ s Collectors (Standard) .................... 80
5.2.2. DA SAN’ s Copper Collector (DBC 90190) .................... 82
5.2.3. CONSTRUCTED COLLECTOR WHICH HAS
GALVANIZED IRON ABSORBER PLATE ...................... 83
5.3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS-COMPARISON
AND DISCUSSION ……………….............................................. 84
5.3.1. Collector Time Constant .............................................. 84
5.3.2. Thermal Efficiency ................……….............................. 84
5.3.2.1 Comparison of the Intercepts of the Efficiency
Curves …………………………………………….. 85
5.3.2.2 Comparison of the Slopes of the Constructed
FPC with the Other Collectors ……………... 88
5.3.2.3 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental
Efficiency ………………………...…………... 90
5.3.2.4 The Sources of Error ……………………………... 95
5.3.2.5 New Optimization Collector ……………………... 97
5.3.2.6 Comparison of the Newly Optimized with the
Others …………………………………………….. 98

6. CONCLUSION ............................................……………………….. 103

REFERENCES ................................................................................. 107

APPENDICES
A CALCULATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
OF GALVANIZED IRON PLATE .............................................. 115
B A SAMPLE EFFICIENCY CALCULATION FOR THE
COLLECTORS ……………….............................................. 116
C PRICES OF MATERIALS, WHICH ARE
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ………....................... 117
D PARAMETERS USED IN OPTIMIZATION
OF COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY ....………............................... 119
E PRICE LISTS,EFFICIENCIES AND RELATED GRAPHS
FOR FOUR DIFFERENT PARAMETERS ……………........... 120
F EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS …………………………...… 154
G THE SAMPLE CALCULATION FOR TIME CONSTANT.......158
H GLOSSARY OF SOLAR HEATING TERMS............................ 159

xi
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

2.1. Classification of solar radiation according to wavelength. ........... 13

2.2. Ultraviolet transmission of the atmosphere for a layer of
Ozone 2.5 mm deep at NTP. .......................................................... 13
3.1. Some α and ε for surfaces for solar energy applications. ........... 41
4.1. Physical properties of Al, Fe and Cu and their prices. ....................... 55
4.2. Collector properties and their prices. ....................…………........... 58
5.1. Optimum flat plate collector parameters. …............................... 78
5.2. (a) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for STEK’ s Al collector. .............................................. 91
5.2. (b) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for STEK’ s Cu collector. …………………................... 92
5.2. (c) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for DA SAN’ s Cu collector. …………………................... 93
5.2. (d) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for galvanized iron collector. ............................................... 94
5.3. Experimental efficiency results and results of new optimization for
galvanized iron collector. …………………………………… 101
B.1. A sample efficiency calculation for the collectors. ………….…. 116
C.1. Necessary values which are used in optimization. …………….. 117
E.1. Value of parameters, price of absorber plate, efficiency of the
collector, for each combination. …………………………………….. 120
E.2. Price of plate. paint. tube. header and welding for each
combination. .................................................................................. 128

xii
E.3. Price lists of absorber plate in terms of galvanization, cost of
plate, and paint, tubes, welding and header, for each combination...... 136
E.4. Diameter of header, unit weight of tube and header, mass of plate,
tube and absorber plate, for each combination. ................................... 144
F.1. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency values
for STEK’ s Al collector. ....…….............................................. 154
F.2. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency values
for STEK’ s Cu collector. .......................................................... 155
F.3. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency values
for DA SAN’ s Cu collector. ......................................................… 156
F.4. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency values
for galvanized iron collector. …………………………….............. 157

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

2.1. The extraterrestrial solar spectrum. ............................................... 11

2.2. The solar spectrum. ...................................................................... 11
2.3. Diagram illustrating the angle of incidence,θ, the zenith angle, θz, the
solar altitude angle, αa, the slope, β and the surface azimuth angle,γ.. 15
3.1. Small capacity natural circulation water heating system. ........... 19
3.2. (a) General view of the cross-section of a basic flat plate collector,
(b) Detail of the tube and bonds. ………................................... 38
3.3. Qualitative temperature distribution in the absorber plate of a flat
plate collector (a) region between two tubes (b) general
temperature distribution (c) at any location y, the general
temperature distribution in the x direction, (d) the temperature
in the y direction. .....................................………..................... 47
3.4. Plate and tube configuration of FPC (a) tube bonded below plate
(b) tube bonded above plate (c) tubes in-line with absorber plate….. 50
4.1. Sample fin for the constructed FPC. …………............................... 61
4.2. 4.5 x 1.8 x 2.5 m fully automated galvanization pool at M TA ....... 61
4.3. Header and footer with tube spacing. ……...................................... 63
4.4. (a) Close view of produced collector, (b) Another close view of
produced collector. ………………………………….................. 64
4.5. The flat plate collectors under test. ………………..……............ 65
4.6. A Kipp and Zonen type pyranometer used in measurement
of solar radiation. …..………………………………………… 68

xiv
4.7. An Omni-Scribe-D5000 type chart recorder. ................................... 69
4.8. Chart recording of incident solar radiation, mV versus time. ........... 76
4.9. Chart recording of incident solar radiation for a cloudy day,
mV versus time......................………..........………………………... 76
5.1. Cross-section of the FPC, which has aluminum absorber plate……...80
5.2. Cross-section of the FPC, which has copper absorber plate. ........... 81
5.3. Collector performance data a) for STEK’ s aluminum collector,
b) for STEK’ s copper collector, c) for DA SAN’ s copper collector,
d) for collector, which has galvanized iron absorber plate. …..…. 86
5.4. Comparison of efficiency curve of galvanized iron absorber plate
and (a) STEK’ s aluminum collector, (b) STEK’ s copper
collector, (c) DA SAN’ s copper collector. .........………...…...… 89
5.5. Collector efficiency (a) for constructed collector, with galvanized
iron absorber plate (b) for newly optimized collector. ..……………. 98
5.6. Efficiency curve for newly optimized galvanized iron absorber plate
and a) STEK’ s aluminum collector, b) STEK’ s copper
collector, c) DA SAN’ s copper collector. …....................……... 99
E.1. Price of absorber plate and efficiency of collector for each
combination. ……………………………………………………. 152
E.2. qu/ price, thickness of plate and tube spacing for each combination. .. 152
E.3. Price of absorber plate and efficiency of collector with best line. … 153

xv
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A : Heat transfer area, m2

AH : Cross-section area of the header, m2
Ap : Area of plate, m2
AT : Cross-section area of the tube, m2
a : Width of plate, m
b : Length of plate , m
bw : Bond width , m
CA : Effective heat capacity of the solar collector, J/C
Cb : Bond conductance, W/m2-C
Cp : Specific heat of the transfer fluid, J/kgC
DH : Diameter of header, m
Di : Inner diameter of tubes, m
Do : Outer diameter of tubes, m
F : Absorber plate efficiency factor, dimensionless
F′ : Collector efficiency factor, dimensionless
FR : Solar heat removal factor, dimensionless

Price of galvanization, DM
hf,i : Heat transfer coefficient inside tube, W/m2-C
hw : Heat transfer coefficient of wind, W/m2-C
Ib : Beam component of solar radiation, W/m2
Ib,c : Component of beam radiation intercepted by the
collector surface , W/m2

xvi
Id : Diffuse solar irradiation, W/m2
It : Total solar irradiation, W/m2
k : Thermal conductivity of air surrounding the cylinder,
W/m-C
kb : Bond thermal conductivity, W/m-C
kback :Thermal conductivity of back insulation material,
W/m-C
kp : Thermal conductivity of plate, W/m-C
LH : Length of header, m
Lloc : Longitude the location, deg.
Lst : Standard meridian for the local time zone, deg.
: Length of tube, m

i : Thickness of insulation, m
N : Number of tubes, dimensionless
Nu : Nusselt number, dimensionless
n : Number of experiment for one collector, dimensionless
nd : Day of year, dimensionless
m : Mass flow rate of the transfer fluid, kg/s
P : Price, DM
PG : Price of galvanization per tones, DM/tones
PH : Price of header per meter, DM/m
PPL : Price of plate per m2
PPN : Price of paint per m2
PPW : Price of point welding per one tube, DM
PTB : Price of each tube per meter, DM/m
Pw : Price of 1 oxygen welding, DM
Qu : Actual useful energy extraction from the collector, MJ
qtop,loss : Heat loss, W/m2
qu : Actual useful energy per unit area , MJ/ m2
17
R : Thermal resistance of collector components, (W/m2-C)-1

Rb : Ratio of beam radiation on a tilted plane to that on the

plane of measurement, dimensionless
Ri : Inner Radius of tube, m
Ro : Outer Radius of tube, m
Ta : Ambient air temperature, C
Tf : Average fluid temperature, C
Ti : Temperature of the transfer fluid entering the
collector, C
To : Temperature of the transfer fluid leaving the collector
at a specified time, C
T o, initial : Temperature of the transfer fluid leaving the collector
at the beginning of a specified time period, C
Tp : Average temperature of the absorbing surface for a flat
plate collector, C
Tp,m : Mean plate temperature, C
UL : Solar collector heat transfer loss coefficient, W/m2-C
UT : Solar collector total loss coefficient, W/m2-C
UWh : Unit weight of headers, kg/m
UWtubes : Unit weight of tubes, kg/m
Ub : Collector back-loss conductance, W/m2-C
Ue : Edge loss coefficient, W/m2-C
V : Velocity of wind, m/s
VTL : Value of DM 1 in terms of TL, TL
W : Tube spacing, m
Wp : Unit weight of plate, kg

18
Greek Letters :

α : Absorbtance of the collector surface for solar

radiation, dimensionless
αa : Solar altitude angle, deg
β : Collector tilt from horizontal, deg
γ : Surface azimuth angle, deg
γb : Bond thickness, m
δp : Thickness of absorber plate, m
δs : Solar declination angle, deg
εg : Emittance of glass, dimensionless
εp : Emittance of plate, dimensionless
η : Collector efficiency, %, dimensionless
ηd : Collector daily efficiency, dimensionless
ηe : Experimental collector efficiency
ηt : Theoretical collector efficiency
θ : Angle of incidence between direct solar rays and
normal to the collector surface, deg
θz : Zenith angle, deg
λ : Wavelength, µm
ρ : Density of material, kg/m3
ρg : Ground reflectance, dimensionless
σ : Stefan-Boltzman Constant, 5.67x10-8 J/m2 s K4
τ : Transmittance of the solar collector cover plate,
dimensionless
φ : Latitude of the experimental site, deg
ωs : Solar hour angle, deg

19
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The need for energy increases with elevated living standards each day.
The main goal of the energy policy of any country should be obtaining clean,
cheap and long-lasting energy since increasing living standards, growing world
population and rapid developments in technology rises the need for energy each
day, however, obtaining such energy will be harder due to the limited energy
reservoirs present around the world. The environmental pollution resulting from
the usage of energy is another serious problem. Due to these difficulties related
to the energy issue, the world is seeking for alternative energy sources.

In 1980, the population of our country was 44 million and it is 68 million

in the year 2000. On the other hand our primary energy consumption was 32
MTEP in 1980, it was 74 MTEP in 1998. Beside this, primary energy sources
production was 28.9 MTEP in 1998 [1]. The growth of economy and industry,
the increase in population, urbanization, and the spread of technology led to
remarkable increase in the Turkey’ s primary energy and electric consumption.
Turkey is a country who has not completed its industrialization, and is still in the
process of development and a rapid rise in energy consumption is expected all
along this process of development. It is also estimated that energy demand in the
year 2020 will be 65% higher than that of today and it will be 250% higher than
that of today in the year 2050. In 1998, electric energy consumption per person
was 1386 kWh, which constitutes about the 1/5th of the OECD average. For the
year 2010, it is expected that existing electrical power capacity will increase
20
about three folds and in 2020 it will be about 5 folds of today’ s values [2]. The
energy consumption by the houses and utilities were 15 MTEP in 1990 and it
reached to 18.8 MTEP in 1998. These values indicate that, industrialization is
continuing in our country, in particular; energy intensive industry is in progress.
Although petroleum is the main fuel in industry, percentage of oil consumption
dropped. During 1990-98 the share of the natural gas used in this sector
increased rapidly from 5% to 10.6%. The percentage of energy consumption in
transportation sector, given by the statistics, seems to decrease 19%, this is
because of the illegal energy consumption [1].

Obviously the exhaustible forms of energy such as wood, coal, natural

gas, and other fossil fuels will not meet this growing demand since these are
mostly utilized for the advancement of technology in the industrialized
countries and the rapid catching-up of the developing countries. So, it is hoped
that the effective usage of solar energy, directly or indirectly, may extend the
period of time in which the fossils are all used-up. Solar energy is of great
importance in various engineering fields although it has some shortcomings as
is presented in section 1.1. In recent years, the subject of solar energy
utilization has been taken up by various major industries in the hope that it can
eventually lessen the dependence of such industries to conventional energy
sources that are decreasing with a very rapid rate. However, there is still much
work to be done in this field. Solar energy is used in:

♦ Domestic water heating

♦ Space heating
♦ Solar cooling
♦ Distillation of salt water
♦ Heat engines
♦ Photovoltaic cells

21
 ♦ Solar cookers
♦ Solar furnaces
It can be stated that environmental problems and problems related to
shortage of energy have been and will be two of the main important issues of
this century. Utilization of solar energy can greatly contribute to solving this
problem, if and only if its economical and technical difficulties can be solved
in the near future.

Solar water heating represents the most widespread engineering use of

solar energy recently [3]. Units built for commercial usage in many countries
are competing with more or less successfully with the fossil fuel operated
systems. Today, different designs of solar water heating systems are developed
in different countries due to the variation in solar radiation, ambient
temperature, material used, labor and fuel costs and interest rates, financial
availability and hot water demand of these countries.

A solar water-heating unit is composed of several components such as

solar collectors, a storage tank, heat exchangers, circulation pumps, connection
pipes, etc. The solar collector is the most essential equipment that transforms
solar radiant energy to thermal energy. Non-concentrating flat plate collectors
(FPC) and concentrating parabolic and cylindrical collectors are the two major
types. The FPC is the simplest and one of the most effective means of
collection of solar energy for use in systems that require thermal energy at
comparatively low temperatures. In comparison with the concentrating types,
which are mainly used in high temperature solar furnace applications, the FPC
offers the following advantages [4].

22
 1) For their operation, no complicated mechanisms for following the
apparent diurnal motion of the sun are needed,
2) Construction is simple and cost is relatively low,
3) Diffuse as well as direct solar radiation is utilized.

This last advantage is especially important in view of the fact that, of

the total solar radiation received on the surface of the earth (46% of the
extraterrestrial radiation), approximately 40% (18% of the extraterrestrial
radiation) is diffuse radiation [4]. Therefore the majority of applications
incorporate flat plate configurations, since they have proven to be acceptable
for heating from both performance and economical standpoints. Since the
performance of a solar heating unit is directly related to the performance of the
solar collector system, the determination of the thermal performance of the
heating unit gains more importance.

An FPC should have high thermal performance, long lifetime and at the
same time should be inexpensive. This statement is valid for the whole system
and also individual parts of the collector. In this study we have concentrated on
the absorber plate. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimum
parameters for an efficient absorber plate, made up of galvanized iron,
construct the new absorber plate, and determine its thermal performance
together with three commercially available FPC built in Turkey. The
necessary optimization, production and material precautions are taken to
have high thermal performance, long lifetime and low cost.

We have built a new absorber plate for FPC by using galvanized iron,
after calculation of optimum parameters, which have been chosen to obtain the
best value of qu/price. Having constructed the plate, we tested thermal

23
performance of newly designed absorber plate against three commercially
available collectors.

The thermal tests are done under internationally accepted ASHRAE

Standard (93/77) [5]. According to this standard, the thermal performances of
the solar collectors are determined, in part, by obtaining values of
instantaneous efficiency for a combination of values of incident isolation,
ambient temperature and inlet fluid temperature. This requires experimentally
measurement of the rate of incident solar radiation onto the solar collectors, as
well as the rate of energy addition to the transfer fluid, as it passes through the
collectors, all under steady state or quasi-steady state conditions.

In the following chapters, after short information about the sun and
solar energy, the general knowledge about the theory of FPC is given with
short discussions of the previous studies made on these subjects found in the
literature. Then, the optimization, construction of a new absorber plate and the
method of testing to determine the thermal performance of solar collectors are
introduced. The testing procedures, experimental set-up, and instrumentation
are presented the next. The data obtained from the experiments performed on
different solar collectors are evaluated to be able to make comparisons between
them in terms of thermal performance, and the predictions and some comments
are given for the future FPC with high thermal efficiencies in the conclusion
and discussion chapters. Also, to compare the experimental results with the
theoretical results, efficiencies are calculated for the same ∆T and I by using
the excel program. Finally, supplementary information and a glossary of solar
energy are presented in the appendices.

24
1.1. SHORTCOMINGS OF SOLAR ENERGY

The first problem encountered in the engineering design of equipment

for solar energy utilization is the low flux density, which makes large surfaces
necessary to collect the solar energy for large-scale utilization. However, larger
the surfaces, the more expensive the delivered energy becomes.

The second practical limitation that is not apparent from the

macroscopic energy view is that most of the solar energy falls on remote areas
and would therefore require some means of transportation to be useful to the
industrialized regions.

The third limitation of solar energy as a large-scale source of power and

heat is its intermittence. Solar energy has a regular daily cycle due to the
turning of the earth around its axis, a regular annual cycle due to the inclination
of earth’ s axis with the plane of the ecliptic and due to the motion of the earth
around the sun and is also unavailable during periods of bad weather.

In assessing the prospects for using solar energy, it therefore becomes

particularly important to ascertain for which application the diffuse and cyclic
nature of the source will not introduce insurmountable technical and economic
problems. It is also necessary to recognize that because of its particular
characteristics solar energy cannot be relied on as the solar energy source and
will need supplementation from other sources for the time being [6].

1.2. SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TURKEY

The Sun Belt where solar energy can be harnessed most efficiently
passes partially through Turkey. The country has a roughly rectangular shape
25
and it lies within parallel lines, which increases its advantageous position for
adopting solar energy more extensively. Annual solar energy falling on Turkey
is 475.5 W/m2 per day, which is 2.7x1014 kcal/year. This is equivalent to 1010
tones of industrial coal. Turkey seems to have a huge solar energy potential.
However, because of technical and economical problems of the systems it is
not possible to collect and use this environmentally clean and sound energy at
its full capacity [7].

It is shown by energy engineers that in the regions where the annual

sunshine time is 2000 hours or more, solar energy can economically be
utilized. This figure for Turkey is 2640 hours, indicating that it is one of the
lucky countries, which can harness solar energy effectively.

In spite of the wide variety of solar energy applications in the world,

solar heating is primarily used for water heating in Turkey. For this reason, the
majority of the firms manufacture FPC [7].

26
 CHAPTER 2

THE SUN AND THE SOLAR ENERGY

2.1. THE SUN

The source of the sun’ s energy is a hydrogen-to-helium thermonuclear

reaction. The outer layer of the sun, from which the solar radiation emanates,
has an equivalent black-body temperature of about 5760 K. Approximately
30% of the solar energy impinging on the outer fringes of the earth’ s
atmosphere is reflected back into space. The remaining 70%, approximately
120.000 terawatts, are absorbed by the earth and its atmosphere [3]. The sun
has a very massive structure (about one third million times as massive as the
earth). Under its own gravitational attraction, solar material is compressed to
such a high control density and temperature that nuclear reactions take place.
These nuclear reactions are the source of the energy which is continuously
radiated to the space and which derives solar activity [4].

The sun is composed of five different layers [8, 9]. The core at the very
center, contains most of the mass is almost entirely responsible for the sun’ s
energy generation which is the result of fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form
helium nuclei. The temperature, pressure and density are very high in this
layer. The energy that is generated in the core is transferred toward the surface
by radiation with a sharp decrease in the temperature, pressure and density up
to a point at which the gas properties have changed to such an extent that the
27
gas above is convectively unstable and turbulent convection occurs at the
convection zone. In moving outward through the convection zone, the gas
density, temperature and the pressure continue to decrease. A layer is reached
where a photon emitted outward has only a small probability of being
reabsorbed or scattered. The photon then is more likely to escape into space
through the transparent atmosphere above. It is this layer, called the
atmosphere (light sphere) which we actually see and which defines the very
sharp visible edge of the sun. Above the atmosphere there is a transparent layer
of rarified gas, which is known as the chromo-sphere because of its red color.
The light emitted by the chromo-sphere is of short wavelength because of the
high temperature and is very weak because of the rarification of its gases. The
high temperature above the photosphere i.e. in the chromo-sphere causes the
radiation emission to be concentrated in the UV and XUV regions. The layer
above the chromo-sphere is called the corona, which is made of highly ionized
gases. Even though the effective temperature of this layer is high (about 6x106
K) the total amount of energy in the corona is small. The average energy per
particle is large but the energy density is low because of the extremely low
particle density.

In summary, it is seen that the sun’ s energy is generated in the core and
almost all of it is released in to space by the relatively thin photosphere. The
convection zone also converts a small amount of the energy from the core into
mechanical form, which together with the sharp drop in density is responsible
for the very high temperature of the sun’ s outer atmosphere. Each layer has
been seen to have its own distinctive character even though the layers overlap
and merge into one another.

17
2.2. THE SOLAR ENERGY

Solar radiation reaching the earth consists of direct and diffuse

radiation. Direct radiation is neither scattered nor absorbed by the atmosphere
and reaches the earth’ s surface as the beam component. On the other hand
diffuse radiation is the scattered radiation along its path from sun to earth due
to the clouds and air moisture. The solar radiation reaching the earth is fairly
uniformly distributed over the globe and it is widely available from geographic
point of view.

Although the energy density falling on the earth is low, the direct path
of solar energy is of high quality and can be used to generate high
temperatures. Before solar energy can be used the sun’ s radiation must be
converted into heat, mechanical power, or electricity. The conversion methods
can be divided into natural and technological conversion systems [3]. In natural
conversion, earth, wind or water serves as a solar energy collector and storage.
Since no man-made collectors are needed, the cost of energy from natural
systems is largely determined by conversion equipment. In technological
conversion system, one may generate electricity directly by photovoltaic or
photochemical conversion systems or one may use solar radiation to heat a
working fluid by thermal conversion in solar collector.

2.3. THE SOLAR CONSTANT

Most of the solar systems are below the atmosphere and the energy that
reaches the ground is quite different from that available outside the
atmosphere. However, the radiation reaching the earth is a fraction of the
extraterrestrial radiation and of solar constant. The solar constant is the total
energy that falls on a unit area exposed normally to the rays of the sun at the
18
average sun-earth distance which is the semi-major axis of the earth’ s orbit or
one astronomical unit, equal to 1.49x1011 m, the NASA/ ASTM standard value
of the solar constant is 1353 W/m2 with an estimated error of ±1.5% [5]. The
extraterrestrial solar spectrum in the wavelength range 0.2-2.6 micrometers is
shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The extraterrestrial solar spectrum [4].

2.4. ATTENUATION OF BEAM RADIATION

The electromagnetic spectrum emitted by the sun extends from

fractions of an Ångström to hundreds of meters. The solar spectrum is usually
divided into the wavelength regions indicated in Figure 2.2(1 cm=104 µm)
[10].

19
 Figure 2.2 The solar spectrum [4].
The X-rays and other short wave radiation of the solar spectrum are
absorbed high in the ionosphere by nitrogen, oxygen and other atmospheric
components; most of the ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone. At
wavelengths longer than 2.5 micrometers, a combination of low extraterrestrial
radiation, and strong absorption by CO2 and H2O means that very little energy
reaches the ground [4]. Thus from the viewpoint of terrestrial applications of
solar energy, only radiation of wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.5 micrometers
needs to be considered. This solar radiation is transmitted through the
atmosphere undergoing variations due to scattering and absorption.

Scattering, which results in attenuation of the beam radiation by air

molecules, water vapor and dust particles, has been the subject of a number of
studies [4,6,10,11,12], and approximate methods have been developed to
estimate the magnitude of the effect.

Absorption of radiation in the atmosphere in the solar energy spectrum

is due largely to ozone in the ultraviolet and water vapor in the infrared bands.
There is almost complete absorption of short-wave radiation below 0.29µm
and for typical transmission given values in Table 2.1.

Water vapor absorbs strongly in the infrared region. Beyond 2.3µm, the
transmission of the atmosphere is very low due to absorption by H2O and CO2;
20
the energy in the extraterrestrial solar energy spectrum is less than 5% of the
total solar spectrum and the energy received at the ground is small.

Table 2.1 Ultraviolet transmission of the atmosphere for a layer of

Ozone, 2.5 mm deep at NTP [4].

λ(µµm) τoλλ
0.29 0.00
0.30 0.10
0.31 0.50
0.33 0.90
0.35 1.00

The factors causing attenuation of the radiation are summarized below:

Astronomical Factors (The solar spectrum between 0.30 and 5.0 microns
and the magnitude of the solar constant, variation with the sun-earth
distance, variation with the solar declination and variation with the time
angle.)

Geographic Factors (Variation with the latitude of the station, variation

with the longitude of the station and dependence on the height above sea
level.)
Geometrical Factors (Dependence on the altitude of the sun, dependence
on the azimuth of the sun, the effect of the tilt of the receiving plane
relative to the horizon, and variation with the azimuth of the tilted plane.)

21
 Physical Factors (Extinction by pure atmosphere, water content of the
atmosphere and ozone content of the atmosphere.)

Meteorological Factors (The effect of the cloudiness of the sky, the effect
of the albedo of the ground)

2.5. THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

In order to determine the position of the celestial bodies in the sky, they
are assumed to lie on a single sphere, the celestial sphere. The radius of the
sphere must be large enough to identify the celestial bodies as points on the
sphere, and the center, depending on the different conventions, coincides with
the position of the observer (horizontal system), or the center of the earth
(equatorial system), or the center of the sun (ecliptic system), or the center of
the galaxy (galactic system) [8].

The horizontal system is preferred when calculating the position of the

sun with respect to the geographical coordinates on the earth. In this system,
the reference plane is the horizon of the observer, i.e., and the plane passing
through the observer and normal to the vertical.

2.6. BEAM RADIATION RECEIVED BY INCLINED SURFACES

The amount of beam or direct radiation intercepted by a surface

depends on the angle, θ, which is defined as the angle between the normal to
the surface and a line collinear with the sun’ s rays. Figure 2.3 shows the
incidence angle for a surface tilted at an angle β from the horizontal.

22
Figure 2.3 Diagram illustrating the angle of incidence,θ, the zenith angle, θz,
the solar altitude angle, αa, the slope, β and the surface azimuth angle, γ [12].
By examining the figure, it is easy to see that the component of beam radiation
Ib, c intercepted by the surface of a collector is given by

I b,c = I b cos θ (2.1)

Where Ib is the beam radiation at the surface in the direction of the direct
normal radiations.

2.6.1. Incidence Angles for Fixed Surfaces

The incidence angle depends on the three basic solar angles, namely
declination angle δs, hour angle ws and latitude φ of the location. Collector tilt
angles are defined as positive for surfaces facing south. Various equations have
been developed for the incidence angle for several geometries of interest. The

23
most useful equations are summarized below omitting the derivation [8], [6],
[13].

a) Generalized Equation for Fixed Planar Surfaces

It is possible to generalize the equation to cover all of the different

cases. In general the incidence angle on a planar, fixed surface is,

Cos θ = Sin δ s ( Sin φ Cos β − Cos φ Sin β Cos γ ) + Cosδ s Cos ω s (Cos φ Cosβ +
Sin φ Sin β Cosγ ) + Cos δ s Sin β Sin γ Sinω s
(2.2)

b) South-facing Tilted Surface

The incidence angle for a south facing, γ = 0° and tilted surface is,

Cos θ = Sin ( φ − β ) Sin δ s + Cos (φ − β ) Cos δ s Cos ω s (2.3)

24
 CHAPTER 3

PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION TO
THE FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

3.1. FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

Many of the systems, which utilize solar energy, first collected the
energy as heat. A solar heat collector intercepts solar radiation, converting the
radiation to thermal energy and transfers this heat to a working fluid. Solar
energy is transmitted from the sun through space to earth by electromagnetic
radiation. It must be converted to heat before it can be used in practical heating
and cooling systems. Since solar energy is relatively dilute when it reaches the
earth, the size of a system used to convert it to heat on a practical scale must be
relatively large. Solar energy collectors, the devices used to convert the sun’ s
radiation to heat, usually consist of a surface that efficiently absorbs radiation
and converts this incident flux to heat which raises the temperature of the
absorbing material. Part of this energy is then removed from the absorbing
surface by means of a heat transfer fluid that may be either liquid or gaseous.

25
 There are three types of thermal collectors:

1. Non-concentrating and stationary collectors (Passively heated space, FPC

and solar ponds).

2. Slightly concentrating collectors, with or without periodic adjustments

(cpc’ s V-troughs).

3. Concentrating tracking collectors.

Among these, the FPC is the most common design for active low
temperature solar thermal conversion.

For non-concentrating or FPC, solar radiation intercepts on a metal or

glass absorber plate which heat is transferred and used in the required thermal
application. Since the absorber plate has a temperature greater than its
environment, unrecoverable heat losses occur from the entire absorbing surface
of the collector to the environment. Consequently, 100% collector efficiency
cannot be realized in practice.

A diagram of a simple, small capacity, natural circulation system,

suitable for domestic purposes is shown, in Figure 3.1. The two main
components of the system are the liquid FPC and the storage tank, which is
located above the level of the collector.

53
 Figure 3.1. Small capacity natural circulation water heating system [3].

As water in the collector is heated by solar energy, it flows

automatically to the top of the water tank and it is replaced by cold water from
the bottom of the tank. Hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of the tank.
Whenever this is done, cold water automatically enters at the bottom and
auxiliary-heating system is sometimes provided for use on cloudy or rainy days
[3].

FPC operation principles of which is briefly described above can supply

hot water or hot air temperatures up to approximately 70°C with good
efficiency. They require no moving parts have good durability and can collect
both direct and diffuse radiation.
The key elements for an FPC are a frame, one or two transparent
covers, an absorber plate with flow channels connected to inlet and outlet

54
headers through which a working fluid passes and same black side insulation.
The cover is usually made of glass or plastic that is transparent to radiation in
the solar spectral range but opaque to infrared radiation from collector plate.
One of the most cost-effective applications of FPC is domestic hot water
heating.

Concentrating collectors attempt to reduce heat loss by using an

absorber area smaller than the area that intercepts the sun’ s rays, called the
aperture area. This performance improvement is accomplished by reflecting the
sun’ s rays from the large aperture area to the small absorbing area by shaped
mirrors or other reflecting surfaces. Since only the direct or collimated portion
of solar radiation is useable to effective concentration, most concentrators must
move to track the sun and cannot collect as much diffuse radiation as FPC.
Although the technology in this area is still developing, the majority of work,
however, still incorporates flat plate configurations since they are more
economic and perform at higher efficiencies at relatively low temperatures.

In all solar thermal conversion processes, solar radiation is absorbed at

the surface of a receiver, which contains or is in contact with flow passage
through which a working fluid passes.

As the receiver heats up, heat is transferred to the working fluid, which
may be air, water, oil or a molten salt. The upper temperature that can be
achieved in solar thermal conversion depends on the isolation, the degree to
which sunlight is concentrated, and heat losses. Since the velocity of flow of
the fluid can control its temperature, it is possible to match solar energy to load
requirements not only according to the amount but also according to the
temperature level, i.e., the quality of the energy required.

55
3.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON THERMAL PERFORMANCE,
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION

FPC analysis and thermal performance evaluation have already been

carried out and reported by various investigators.

Hottel and Woertz [14], in 1942, constructed a special solar energy

building at the M.I.T. and determined the performance of FPC that are placed
on the roof of this building. Pleated to the collector performances, they
analyzed the solar radiation on tilted surfaces, transmission of radiation
through glass plates, absorbtivity of blackened surfaces, heat losses from the
absorbing surface, reduction in the performance due to the dirt on the outer
collector glass surface and the effect of shading on the efficiency of collectors.
The experimental results seemed to be quite satisfactory when compared with
the theoretically calculated values.

Hottel [15], in 1950, summarized the general considerations concerning

the collector performance as such:

a) If energy is to be withdrawn from the collector at a temperature only

slightly above atmospheric, the outward heat losses are negligible
and a doubling of the intensity of solar irradiation of the collector
doubles its useful output. If, however, the temperature of energy
collection is quite high, it is apparent that a certain minimum or
threshold solar intensity is necessary just to keep the collector at
operating temperature with no net useful energy output. In a collector
operating close to this critical condition, it is obvious that a small
percent increase in solar intensity would produce a large percent
increase in useful output.
56
b) If a collector is operating with only one plate and at a collection
temperature close to atmospheric, the outward loss is low. Putting on
a second plate will approximately have the losses, but they were
already small, and at the same time the insolation reaching the black
plate will be cut by some 10% due to reflection from the additional
glass. These will more than offset the reduced outward loss and the
second glass plate is unwarranted. If, however, the collector is
operating at a high temperature the saving in outward losses by
adding on more glass plates will more than offset the added
reflection losses. In general, then, the optimum number of glass
plates is larger, the higher the desired temperature of energy
collection.

c) By similar reasoning, the optimum plate number is larger, the weaker

the insolation and the colder the outdoor temperature.

Hottel also studied the effect of spacing between the glass cover
sheets and concluded that the insulation properties of air-spaced layers
of glass depend largely on the high thermal resistance of the stagnant
layers of air at the glass surface. Experiments have shown that increasing
the air space beyond ½ inch had little effect in reducing the conductance.

Hottel and Whillier [16], in 1995, introduced a method by

organizing solar radiation data into a form suitable for the rapid
calculation of the performance of any kind of non-focusing solar
collection equipment and hence the rapid determination of the size of
solar collector required for a given application. For localities where full
pyrheliometric data are not available and only the daily total insolation
57
can be obtained, a method is presented for estimating the hourly
distribution of the energy and for using a whole-day solar utilizability
curve as a basis for prediction of collector performance.

Tabor [17], in 1955, investigated the possibility of making solar energy

collectors of high efficiency by use of selective black surfaces. By means of
two parameters, the overall transmission efficiency and the cut-off intensity, it
is possible to determine the performance of a collector under various
conditions of use. He also studied the effect of degree of concentration on the
performance of solar collectors and his computations show that it should be
possible to produce low-pressure steam without optical concentration and high-
pressure steam with a small degree of concentration.

Ward [18], in 1955, constructed an FPC, which is capable of being

manufactured cheaply on a large scale, and established a simple relation
between the efficiency of the collector, the plate temperature and the rate of
insolation for constant rates of flow of circulating water. He also constructed
performance charts that make possible an assessment to be made of the
practicability of using solar energy in the tropics for the production of heat and
power.

Hottel and Unger [19], in 1958, examined the properties of a copper

oxide-aluminum selective black surface absorber of solar energy. Calculations
of solar collector performance leads to the conclusion that the efficiency of one
glass-plate collector with a selectively black receiving surface lies between the
values for non-selective black systems containing two and three glass plates,
and is nearer to the latter. Selectively black surfaces are particularly useful
whenever heat is desired above 70°C or for miscellaneous heating purposes in
which it is not possible to cover the absorber plate by a glass sheet.
58
 Morse and Czarnecki [20], in 1959, reviewed the elements of a flat
plate absorber and the factors influencing its design and operation. The thermal
characteristics of energy received, losses, efficiency and the heat transfer to the
circulating fluid are dealt within the light of design considerations. While
doing this, the effect of orientation and its influence on the elevation of energy
incident on inclined surfaces, the optimum angle inclination and the effect of
changes in azimuth are also considered. They discussed the installation and
operating problems; the location of an absorber and its materials of
construction and economic factors.

Robinson and Stotter [21], in 1959, proposed a standard test code for
the determination of the efficiency of solar water heaters of the flat collector
type and pointed out the required properties to be tested to obtain an objective
estimate of the quality of the tested heater. The formulas of the aerial
efficiency, orientation efficiency, thermal efficiency and the heat storage
coefficient of solar water heaters are given separately in their study.

Kudret Selçuk [22], in 1964, studied the performance of FPC at high

temperatures. Depending upon the previous researches, he claims that the
efficiencies of conventional glass-covered FPC are about 25-30 % at most at
high temperatures. He investigated the possibility of using styrocel as a
transparent cover for FPC so as to increase the efficiency at higher
temperatures and he concluded that cell-like covers such as styrocel do indeed
have some advantages over conventional covers.

Hottel, Sarofim and Fahimian [23], in 1966, investigated the effect of

scatter on the radiative properties of surfaces. Experimental values of the
directional reflectance of well-defined particulate layers are presented.
59
Reflectances calculated using various theoretical models are compared with the
experimental results.

Rao and Suri [24], in 1969, dealed with a simplified approach for
design calculations, involving estimation of collector area for solar water
heaters and constructed curves that may be used for the required application.

Garg [25], in 1971, reported the design details and performance of a

large size solar water heater, which is tested under India conditions. He studied
the various arrangements for connecting the collectors such as; cascade, series,
series parallel and true parallel and revealed that for a solar water heating
system having a large number of absorber banks, the true parallel arrangement
yields maximum efficiency and economy.

Ratzel and Bannerot [26], in 1977, introduced the result of a

compilation of commercially available materials suitable for use in FPC with
the estimated performance and durability data and other important mechanical
and radiative properties of the selected material.

Woodman [27], in 1977, gave the basic equations for calculating

collector performance as a function of design and operating parameters and
indicated the method of solution using a programmable desk calculator. The
method is used to investigate the sensitivity of collector output to ambient air
temperature, absorber plate temperature and emissivity, wind speed,
atmospheric irradiation and the number of cover plates. He also analyzed the
effect of cover plates and insulation on the collector heat losses.

Janke and Boehm [28], in 1977, determined the energy density and flux
available after passage of direct solar radiation through single and double glass
60
covers, for panels inclined at various angles and oriented with varying
azimuths for several latitudes. They found that orientations other than south
facing give greater availability of energy for a period of about 90 days centered
about the summer solstice and give higher flux values early or late in the day
for winter dates, but are inferior to south facing collectors in other respects.
Marshal and Wedel [29], in 1977, investigated the use of Lexan
(polycarbonate) and Kapton (polyamide) honeycombs to increase solar
collector efficiency and concluded that the honeycomb placed between a flat
black absorber and transparent cover provides considerable improvement in the
performance of solar collectors over the operational temperature range of 70 to
120°C. Both instantaneous efficiencies and diurnal performances of properly
designed honeycomb collectors are increased over those obtained with a
single- or double- glazed non-honeycomb FPC. The honeycomb achieves the
improved performances by reducing the convection and radiation losses.

Smith, Cobble and Lukens [30], in 1977, investigated the thermal trap
effect of the selective surface-like behavior of some transparent materials both
theoretically and experimentally for an FPC. A comprehensive computer
simulation of the thermal trap collector was also developed in order to study
the effects upon performance of the various elements of the collectors. Four
test collectors were built in which trap material and cover glazing that was
removable and a series of experiments were run for trap materials of various
thicknesses with and without cover glazing. The numerical model predicts that
the thinner the trap material, the higher its efficiency should be. The
experimental results revealed that, in general, the collector with a glazing
performed at higher efficiencies than those without a glazing.

Grossman, Shitzer and Zvirin [31], in 1977, developed a model for the
heat transfer analysis of an FPC with a rectangular channel for water or
61
airflow. The thermal boundary layer development is investigated and overall
efficiencies for uniform solar heat influx with variable heat losses from the
plate are calculated for various cases, assuming a second-degree polynomial
for temperature profiles with uniform and parabolic velocity profiles.

Tabor [32], in 1978, suggested the necessary governing equation of the

collector in order those tests on different solar collectors conducted at different
times should be comparable. He described the theory and the experimental
procedure, which involves connecting four similar collectors in series and
measuring the temperature rise across each collector. Since at any instant time,
the flow rates and the solar intensity are identical for all the collectors, a
number of points on the efficiency-temperature curve are obtained, from which
the characteristic equation of the collectors is readily established. He also
established the rules to limit the permitted temperature rise and suggested a
“standard day” to provide a quick comparison tests.

Schröer, Stein and Talarek [33], in 1978, gave a sketch of collector

thermal performance test methods being considered in Germany. A special
emphasis is placed on mixed indoor/ outdoor testing according to the
procedure proposed by the German Solar Industries Association
Bundesverband Solarenergie (BSE). Comparison of two (BSE-type and NBS-
type) collector efficiency testing is given in the study.

In 1981, Naidu and Agarwal [34] analyzed the thermal boundary layer
problems associated with FPC by using fourth degree polynomials for
temperature profiles and uniform and parabolic distributions for velocity
profiles. Several particular cases of practical interest have been studied and in
the case of no heat loss it is found that the Nusselt number for the heat transfer

62
in the fully developed region agrees completely with the exact value when
assumed a fourth degree polynomial for temperature profiles.

In his study, in 1994,Venkatesh [35] explained the operation of a

continuous flow type domestic solar water heater with the help of a schematic
diagram. Steady state thermal analysis of such a water heater is carried out. A
water heater of this type with a collector area of 1m2 is subjected to tests. The
experimental results are compared with predicted results. The experimental
results have also been compared with those obtained from a water heater
operating on thermosiphon flow. The performance of the continuous flow type
water heater is shown to be comparable to that of the thermosiphon flow types.
It is concluded that, in the Indian context, the continuous flow type water
heater has more advantages than the thermosiphon flow type water heater in
view of its low capital cost and the ease of operation and maintenance.

Albizatti [36], in 1997, presented a theoretical model and a computer

program to evaluate the thermal performance of FPC. The program predicts
solar radiation received on tilted plane surfaces and the characteristic
parameters and thermal efficiency of collectors are calculated. Studies are
carried out to determine the effects of inlet fluid temperature and fluid velocity
on the thermal performance. The calculation program may be applied to
complement the experimental evaluation of solar collectors.

Khalifa [37], in 1999, conducted an investigation on a locally made

natural circulation domestic hot water system to show the important variables,
how they are related, and how they affect the performance of the solar system.
For that purpose, several measurements were made, which included the
temperature distribution along the fin between the absorber tubes and in the

63
flow direction and the thermosyphonic mass flow rate. Using these data, the
main parameters of the solar collector were obtained. A comparison between
the experimental and theoretical temperature distributions, in the flow direction
of the absorber, is also included. The following conclusions are drawn from
this investigation:

1. Instantaneous collector efficiencies of 0.21-0.35 were noticed.

2. The measured mass flow rate by the dye injection method was found to
agree with the range given in the literature for natural circulation systems.
3. Collector overall heat loss coefficients of 6.9-7.5 (an average of 7.2 W/m2K)
were estimated.
4. The study confirmed that the collector efficiency factor and the collector
heat removal factor could be taken as constants for a given collector design.

Sumathy, [38], in 1999, studied the time constant for the given typical
collector is determined which shows the transient behavior of the collector and
the proper time interval to be selected for steady and quasi-steady state
efficiency tests. The thermal performance of an FPC for the Hong Kong
climate is presented. The fluid inlet-temperature strongly influences the
performance of a collector and it is shown how the collector efficiency is
strongly affected by the difference between the temperature of the absorber
plate and the outer glass plate.

Riffat, [39], in 2000, presented the results obtained from laboratory

testing of four liquid FPC. The collectors tested include a wavy fin collector,
two flat plate heat pipe collectors, and a clip fin solar collector. The clip fin
solar collector was tested, so as to compare this simple and inexpensive type of
collector against the more costly wavy fin collector and the flat plate heat pipe
collector. Using a similar basis of comparison, efficiency values have been
64
formulated in order to compare the performance of the solar collectors. The
experimental results show the clip fin solar collector to be promising, with
experimental efficiencies approaching 86 per cent.

Nayak and Amer [40], in 2000, showed a critical evaluation of nine

dynamic test methods for solar FPC. The theoretical basis, the technique of
parameter estimation and the test procedure of each method have been
reviewed and compared. Extensive experimental studies have been carried out
under a wide range of weather and operating conditions. Two commercially
available collectors (from two different manufacturers) have been used in the
investigation. The tests were carried out at the same location using a common
test-rig, measuring transducers and controlling and data-acquiring facilities.
The characteristic parameters of the collectors have been obtained on the basis
of each procedure and compared with those based on the steady-state
ASHRAE 93-86 standard. Further, for the methods, which prescribe similar
test sequences, the collector parameters have been extracted from the same
data sets according to their procedures for providing a direct and very clear
comparison between the methods. A sensitivity study has also been carried out
in order to examine the effect of uncertainties in measurements on the values
of the estimated parameters from different methods. Also investigated is the
error propagation wherever applicable. Among the methods evaluated, the new
dynamic method (NDM) seems to be quite reliable. The quick dynamic test
(QDT) method is the simplest method and could be adopted by manufacturers
as an effective tool for the purpose of quality control of their products. From
the point of view of theoretical completeness, Perers’ method accounts for
almost all effects.

65
 Hussein, Ahmad and Mohamad [41], in 2000, performed a theoretical
analysis of the instantaneous, daily, and yearly enhancement in solar energy
collection of a tilted FPC augmented by a plane reflector is developed. The
shadow effect due to the reflector on the collector is considered in the analysis.
A FORTRAN computer program has been constructed based on the analysis in
order to study the effect of different operational and design parameters of plane
reflector-tilted FPC system on the collector solar energy collection. These
parameters include collector-reflector system orientation and tilt angles,
collector elongation ratio, and reflector overhang ratio.

From the theoretical analysis of solar energy enhancement of tilted FPC

augmented by plane reflectors, it is concluded that:

1. Tilting the reflector at its noon optimum tilt angle, i.e. the angle at
which the collector illuminated area resulted from the reflector
coincides on the collector area at noon, provides maximum daily
boost factor.

2. The South-facing reflector provides higher yearly solar energy

collection than the North facing one.

3. Changing the tilt angle of the South-facing reflector at its noon

optimum angle up to twice a year provides more than 13% yearly enhancement
in the collector solar energy collection.

4. For maximum yearly solar energy collector, the optimum elongation

ratio of the collector is about 4, while that of the reflector overhang ratio
is about 1.

66
 5. The present analysis is an efficient tool to optimize the plane reflector
tilted FPC systems.

In addition to the above studies carried out to increase thermal

performance, a number of trials have been performed to reduce the cost
of solar water heaters and to find the optimum design.

Whillier and Saluja, [42], in 1965, found that the fin efficiency, and the
thermal conductance of the bond between the water carrying tubes and the flat
absorbing plate, was of equal importance to the quality of the selective surface in
determining the overall efficiency of the collector. The procedure followed in
the tests involved the simultaneous testing of two identical commercially
available solar water heaters, but with the selective surface of one painted over
with flat black paint thus destroying the effectiveness of the coating.
Straightforward calorimetric tests were carried out in which water was run
through the collectors at a constant rate, and continuous measurements made of
water temperature rise and of insolation rate. All tests were done with the
collectors inclined at an angle of 15 degree from the horizontal. It was concluded
that, bringing about reasonable improvements in the selective surface, the fin
efficiency and the bond conductance could increase the efficiency factor
remarkably.

Kovarik, [43], in 1974, analyzed the problem of designing solar energy

collectors for the delivery of heat at minimum cost in two different forms. In the
first of these, a set of collectors was assumed to be available, each element
having different properties uniformly distributed over its area; an optimal was
achieved by a suitable combination of a subset of such collectors. In the second
form the collector was designed with a non-uniform, continuously varying
insulation thickness. The procedures introduced in this paper enable the designer
67
of solar collector systems to determine the most economical distribution of
insulation and other design parameters determining the heat transfer coefficient.

Test [44], in 1976 developed an analytical program suitable for the

purpose of the hourly behavior of an FPC. The results indicate that cloudiness,
collector coolant temperature; wind velocity and plate absorbtivity can have a
drastic effect over (100°C) on the energy absorbed by a collector. The collector
slope should be 15 degree plus the latitude and not vary much from this to obtain
the maximum clear sky radiation in winter. A south-facing collector is best but it
can vary ±20 degree from this position without a serious influence on
performance. Coolant flow rates and tube spacing do not have a major effect on
collector performance accept for extreme variations.

MacGregor [45], in 1978, examined optimum choice of materials and

optimum choice of plate geometry to reduce the cost of collector plates, which
are often the single, the most expensive item in the system. By minimizing
ratio of total cost per unit area to fin efficiency for various combinations of fin
thickness and pipe spacing. The minimum value of 614.9 DM/m2 is for a
combination of pipe spacing of 100 mm and fin thickness of 0.25 mm. For the
example chosen, using a copper fin, the fin thickness could be anywhere in the
range 0.25 mm to 0.5 mm and the pipe spacing could be anywhere between
100 mm and 150 mm without a significant drop in cost effectiveness. Blis [46],
in 1959, Garg and Gupta [47], in 1967, have both described methods similar to
the above for selecting the optimum combination of fin thickness and pipe
spacing.

Brandemuehl and Beckman, [48], in 1979, developed a procedure for

assessing the economic viability of a solar heating system in terms of the life
cycle savings of a solar heating system over a conventional heating system.
68
Using the generalized life cycle savings equation, a method is developed for
calculating the solar heating system design, which maximizes the life cycle
savings. A similar method was developed for determining the set of economic
conditions at which the optimal solar heating system design is just competitive
with the conventional heating system.

Schröder and Reddemann [49], in 1982, assessed the size of solar water
heater systems by three different economic criteria, life cycle savings, payback
time and internal rate of return. The study is performed for three different
climate conditions. It is also pointed out that the economics of a solar collector
system can be substantially affected by the annual distribution of monthly
water consumption and of monthly efficiency factors of converting fuel into
useful energy. Results of this study show that unlike life cycle savings, the
payback time and the internal rate of return cannot serve to optimize the
collector design. Results also give an idea about how the economics are
influenced by differences in geographical and climate conditions. Between the
two extreme locations of Spain and Denmark the calculations, which are based
on German economic conditions, reveal differences of around 4 year in pay
back time, of 8 per cent in internal rate of return and of around a factor 3 for
the life cycle savings. Differences, in the annual distributions of monthly
heating load and conversion efficiency factor, between 25 and 150 per cent
result, for payback time between 1 and 4 year for the internal rate of return
between 2 and 5 per cent.

Özsabuncuo lu [7], in 1995, presented the solar energy potential of

Turkey. Cost comparison of solar collectors manufactured in Turkey has been
made. The analysis has been carried out more realistically by considering time
value of money, by assuming constant annual costs and inflated annual cost of
the systems. Results obtained in this study revealed that under present market
69
conditions in Turkey with a 60% interest rate, solar systems are sixth of eight
alternatives among others. Thus, with constant annual costs, solar energy
systems are not preferable in the case of high inflation. Under inflationary
economic conditions, when costs are inflated accordingly, in spite of its high
initial cost, solar energy systems seem to be the least expensive alternative. He
also concluded that investment in Research and Development activities is
necessary to reduce total cost of the system through improved efficiency and
better production technology.

Tırıs, Tırıs and Türe, [50], in 1995, investigated the effects of various
fin shapes on solar collector efficiency and material cost. The objective of this
study was to optimize material savings by using different fin shapes while
keeping the collector efficiency within allowable limits. The aluminum solar
collector has been analyzed using four different fin designs. These were a)
straight rectangular fin, b) a fin with a step change in local thickness, c) a
straight triangular fin and d) a straight fin of inverse parabolic profile. For a
reduction in collector efficiency of only 3.11%, a reduction in material cost of
up to 16% can be achieved by using a straight fin with an inverse parabolic
profile. The other designs investigated show similar but less marked
improvements in material cost. When the ratio of material cost reduction to
reduction in energy efficiency is calculated, design b has the highest value of
the designs considered. It should be noted that some of the profiles examined
in this work especially designs c and, may not be easily realized in mass
production and the favorable results presented here may therefore be offset by
increased production costs.

Highgate and Probert [51], in 1996, has built and tested a lightweight
flexible solar collector, with a wavelength-selective absorption surface and an
insulation- transparent thermal-insulation protector for its aperture. Its
70
cheapness and high performance relative to a conventional FPC provide a
prima-facie case for the more wide spread adoption of its design. As its
objective the design of low cost lightweight solar thermal collectors based
upon polymeric materials has been made. The intention was to devise a cheap
low-weight system and thus the heat transfer medium chosen was air. The
projected cost of the proposed collector system has been estimated to be
between DM 9.1 - DM 13.7 per square meter of collector surface.

Panteliou, Dentsoras and Daskalopoulos [52], in 1996, studied the

application of expert systems to a mechanical engineering research domain
with practical and commercial interest, such as design and manufacturing Solar
Domestic Hot Water (SDHW) Systems. The issues studied were the selection
and the design of SDHW Systems. The application of an expert system was
explored. The appropriate computer program was developed to yield the
selection of SDHW Systems using the software tool LEONARDO 3.0, an
integrated environment for the development of expert systems. The program
proved to be functional and user friendly to a high degree.

Tiwari, Hong and Goyal [53], in 1998, studied on a thermal model for

optimization of the design parameters and estimation of the effect of various

parameters on the thermal performance of this solar water heater is presented.
The paper also presents the numerical computations with the climatic
conditions of the Hanoi region, for three cases: (i) using a horizontal collector;
(ii) using a sloped collector without reflector; and (iii) using a sloped collector
with reflectors. On the basis of the numerical computations, conclusions for the
application of this solar water heater in Vietnam have been made. It was
concluded a built-in storage solar water heater with an absorber is more proper
for domestic purposes. It is good only when the effective transmittance-
absorbtance product of the absorber is taken.

71
 Mijovic [54], in 2000, carried out an economic analysis of solar water
heating for Yugoslavia beginning with a description of the methodology and
economic criteria status of energy in Yugoslavia covering the factors
contributing to the cost effectiveness of solar water heating applications and
ending with a case study. It was intended to determine whether the project was
an attractive investment. Payback period of the project and the net present
value of the project over its lifetime were calculated by a computer program. If
the net present value of the system were greater than zero then the project
would be an attractive investment. From the result of the study it was
concluded that the system is an attractive investment under almost all
assumptions.

Hasan [55], in 2000, presented a systematic sizing approach for the

solar system and applied this system to a certain case study. The solar system
sizing is based on the life cycle cost, LCC, analysis. For the chosen case study
of domestic water heating for a hotel, with hot water consumption of 2600
liters per day, the optimum collector area was found to be 37 m2, the solar
fraction of heating 0.78, the LCC of system is DM 43951.8, with annual
savings of 4268 DM/year and a pay back period of 3 years. With this
optimized system, the cost of water heating is 5.7 DM/m3 compared to 8.3
DM/m3 for the conventional system.

72
3.3. MAIN CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF A FLAT PLATE
COLLECTOR

An FPC is a non-concentrating solar collector in which the absorbing

surface is essentially planar [5]. A typical FPC, such as shown in Figure 3.2(a)
and Figure 3.2(b) consists of one or more transparent flat front plates, one or
more insulating zones bounded by the covers, and an absorbing plate. Heat is
removed from the absorbing plate by a gaseous or liquid heat transfer fluid,
such as air or water. Thermal insulation is usually placed behind the absorber
to prevent heat losses from the rear surface. The front covers are generally
glass that is transparent to incoming solar radiation and opaque to the infrared
reradiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as a convection shield to
reduce losses from the absorber plate beneath.

73
 (a)

(b)

Figure 3.2 . (a) General view of the cross-section of a basic flat plate collector,
(b) Detail of the tube and bonds [4].

The fraction of the solar radiation incident on a FPC, which is available

for removal, is a strong function of the temperature at which it is desired to
remove this energy. As the operating temperature of the collector is increased,
convection and radiation losses from the collector to the surroundings increase
correspondingly and the amount of energy remaining for utilization becomes
quite small. At operating temperatures above 40°C, the losses from a
conventional collector are predominantly those due to radiation. Since more
than 99 % of the low-temperature energy reradiated by an 80°C absorber plate
is of wavelengths above 4 microns, while more than 98 % of the solar radiation

74
reaching the collector is of wavelengths below 3 microns, so the use of
selective black surface with a small emissivity for high wavelength radiation as
the absorber plate in a solar energy collector, leads to a marked increase in the
efficiency of collection [16], of course, with the aid of a properly selected
covering material functioning as a convection shield and as a trap for the
reradiating long-wave length solar insolation.

So before going any further, it is better to investigate the properties of

the most essential components of an FPC i.e., the absorber plate and the
covering materials and their effects on the performance of the solar collectors.

3.3.1. The Absorber Plate

Traditionally, FPC utilizes absorber plates, which are painted black to

reduce reflection losses. The absorptance for direct solar radiation is thus made
nearly unity for normal incidence. Kirchoff’ s law states that the absorbtivity at
any wavelength is equal to the emissivity at that wavelength [56]. A
conventional blackened absorber has a high emittance and loss heat by
radiation quite easily. To reduce this radiation loss, selective surfaces can be
used. A selective surface is the one whose emittance is a function of
wavelength. If a surface has a high absorbtance for solar radiation (wavelength
shorter than 2.5µm) and has a low emittance at longer wavelengths where
reradiation takes place, then it will operate at higher temperatures than a
conventional blackened surface.

75
 Basic studies of the reasons for spectral variation of absorbtance and
thus emittance, as noted by Duffie [57] and Edwards et al. [58] have suggested
several mechanisms of selectivity of energy-absorbing surfaces. These
mechanisms, or reasons for selectivity, include:

a) Variation of the optical constants ‘n’ (index of refraction) and ‘K’

(absorptive index) with wavelength for a single surface material,

b) Surface roughness of dimensions large relative to solar energy

wavelengths, but small relative to long-wave reradiation (leading to
multiple reflection and increased absorbtance for short-wave
radiation, but having little effect on long-wave emission),

c) Layers of small particles of dimensions larger than solar

wavelengths but smaller than long-wave reradiation (with the
particles able to absorb radiation of wavelengths less than their size
but transparent to longer wave radiation),

d) Thin anti-reflection films that increase absorptance,

e) Thick semiconductor films, opaque to short wave radiation, but

transparent to long-wave radiation, over metal substrates that has
low emittance.

The material’ s properties needed for performance calculations are

absorptance for solar radiation and emittance for long-wave radiation. The
spectral distribution of solar energy varies to some extent with solar elevation
and atmospheric conditions, but for most practical purposes a single value of α
can be used irrespective of this small variation. Emissivities for long-wave
76
radiation are, to some degree, a function of surface temperature, with values of
ε frequently given for temperatures near usual air temperatures and
occasionally for higher temperatures. These data on α and ε are measured by
heat balances under known or controlled conditions where the radiant fluxes
can be determined or are calculated from measurements of reflectance at
various wavelengths as determined with appropriately equipped spectrometers.
Table 3.1 shows α and ε for several surfaces of current or potential
interest in various solar applications.

Table 3.1 Some α and ε for surfaces for solar energy applications [57].

Surface α, solar ε, at temperature Approximate upper

radiation less than 100°C temperature range of
application
CuO on Al 0.85 0.11 200°C
Tabor, Ni-black 0.89 0.12
treatment on
galvanized iron
0.91 0.16 204°C

Stainless steel, 16% 0.75 0.10

Cr, heated for 3 hrs
at 600°C
All treated with 0.80 0.35
KMnO4
Commercial black 0.93 0.93
paints
Platinum black 0.95 0.91 900°C

77
 For the achievement of a selective surface, the study carried out by
Hottel and Unger can be given as an example. Hottel and Unger [19] prepared
a selective black surface absorber at M.I.T. in 1959. They first extensively
studied the optical properties of aluminum surfaces and found that any
anodyzing would increase the low temperature absorbtivity above the value for
pure aluminum, because of the infrared absorption bands of the aluminum
oxide. Then by spraying a dilute solution of cupric nitrate onto a heated
aluminum sheet, a thin light green coating was performed on the aluminum
surface, which upon heating above 170°C was converted to the black cupric
oxide. Calculation of solar collector performance leads to the conclusion that
the efficiency of a one-glass plate collector with a selectively black receiving
surface lies between the values for non-selective black systems containing two
and three glass plates and nearer the latter. This is based on a selective surface
with low-temperature emissivity of 10 % and absorbtivity for sunlight of 92 %.

For the collection of solar energy, if a particular surface does not have
enough selectivity, one or more filters can be added which will let the energy
coming from the source hit the absorbing surface, but then prevent the energy
radiated from this surface from being absorbed. The filter does this by both
reflecting part and absorbing part of the energy radiated from the surface. A
great number of filter materials can be used both of the solid and liquid type, to
form a highly selective system when combined with an otherwise not very
selective surface. Some of the materials, which can be used as filters, due to
their selective spectral transmission, are water, copper sulfate (CuSO4. 5H2O),
solex heat absorbing glasses, heat transmitting glass and plastic [59].
Experiments showed that, for solar energy collection, water, copper sulfate,
and the solex heat absorbing glass are the best of the filters whereas the heat-
transmitting glass proved to be the poorest.

78
 Irvine et al. [60], studied the absorbtivity for solar radiation of a number
of porous surfaces such as Poroloy surfaces and modified Tyler materials. The
Poroloy materials used in their investigations were commercially fabricated
stainless-steel wire wound on a mandrel one layer over another to yield the
desired porosity. The material was then sintered and chemically treated to yield
the appropriate proportions of chromium and nickel for the stainless steel
Poroloy specimens tested. The modified Tyler materials were composed of
screens, which had been fabricated by a special weaving process. The screens
were then rolled to give the desired porosity. The experiments showed that the
coated surfaces have collector efficiency higher than the porous surfaces.
However, since the aging and mechanical strength characteristics of the coating
have been a disadvantage in their use, porous surfaces can be thought as an
alternative to the coated surfaces in solar energy applications.

It can be concluded that the solar absorber plate must permit effective
transfer of heat from the surface absorbing the radiation to the heat transfer
fluid. It should be cheap, corrosion resistant and compatible with the heat
transfer fluid and permit ready connection to external piping. Furthermore it
should permit applications of the desired surface coating and the flow passages
and manifolding for the absorber plates should be designed to have uniform
flow distribution throughout the plate, a small overall pressure drop through
the plate, and passage spacing and sizing must be selected for high fin
efficiency.

3.3.2. The Covering Materials

The collector cover is the material covering the aperture to provide

thermal and environmental protection. Part of the solar energy impinging upon
a stack of glass or plastic cover plates is reflected part of it is absorbed, and the
79
remainder is transmitted to the absorber plate. The solar energy transmittance
is a function of the composition, surface treatment and thickness of the cover
plates and the angle of incidence of the radiation.

Not all of the energy absorbed by the cover plates is lost, since this
energy raises the temperature of the glass plates and thus reduces the upward
losses from the absorber plate. Similarly, part of the reflected energy from the
absorber plate is absorbed by the glass plates and reduces upward losses.

Significant developments in cover materials for solar energy collectors

have been made in the field of plastic [57]. The new materials have properties
unlike those of glass and have advantages and disadvantages relative to glass.
The properties of glass can be modified and controlled to improve the
performance of glass as a cover material.

A. Plastics as a Cover Material

Several newly available plastic films can be considered for covers for
solar collectors. Some of these plastic films are fluorocarbon film, Teflon,
polyvinyl fluoride film, Tedlar, and polyester film, Mylar type W. These
materials differ in chemical composition, physical and radiation characteristics.
They should not, in general, be considered as direct substitutes for glass, as
collector designs should be modified to account for the different properties of
the various plastic films. The more unusual properties of these films can be
summarized as:

a) They are used in thin sections (25µm to 125 µm),

b) They are generally partially transparent to long-wave radiation,

80
 c) Their physical properties are, in most cases, strong functions of
temperature, which must be considered in design,
d) Their lifetimes are limited by weathering.

Weatherability the ability of a material to retain its properties when

exposed to weather, radiation, moisture, flexing due to wind, etc. – is a critical
property of plastics. It is a combination of optical, physical and chemical
properties, and a structural factor that determines the potential lifetime of a
material under given conditions is not available. However, the projected
lifetimes of three unsupported films exposed to Florida weather is noted [57]
as: Teflon, 20+ years; Tedlar, 9 years; Mylar type W, 4 years. The properties
vary with temperature and exposure time.

Of particular concern for solar collector is the solar-radiation

transmittance of the film. Teflon and Tedlar have the advantage of relatively
low refractive index, with resulting low reflection loss and good transmission.
The films being thin, absorption is also low [57].

B. Glass as a Cover Material

Glass, in its varying compositions, has properties that have long been
used to advantage in solar collectors. Glass of low iron content, having a
refractive index of 1.52, has a transmissivity of 0.90 for solar radiation at
normal incidence [57] (The transmisivity of glass can be increased by adding
films of refractive index intermediate between glass and air. Transmissivity
can thereby be raised to 0.95). Glass has the advantages of very long-life if
properly supported and protected from shock, and low transmissivity for long-
wave radiation.

81
 Several investigators treat with the effects of several variables of glass
specifications on the usefulness of glass covers. Composition can be altered to
control the cut-off wavelength above which the glass becomes essentially
opaque. For a cover material for high-temperature collectors, where the
wavelengths of emitted radiation begin to overlap the solar spectrum,
borosilicate glass (Pyrex) is suggested. Because its transmissivity cuts off
sharply at wavelengths below 2.5µm, it is opaque for the short-wave end of the
collector radiation. Thickness can also be varied within limits set by structural
requirements and costs. The greater the thickness is, the greater the slope of the
transmission curve that separates a region of high transparency from one of
lower transparency. For high-temperature operation, an optimum thickness for
the best performance may exist.

It would be advantageous to reflect long-wave radiation rather than

absorb it. It is pointed out that glasses have reflection bands up to 10 µm (the
range of maximum emission for surfaces at 100°C) with the reflectance
varying with the type of glass. It is also suggested that the reflectivity for long-
wave radiation of glass can be increased by depositing a very thin film of gold
on their inner surface little additional reflection for short-wave radiation results
from a change in the thickness of glass [57].

Mechanical, thermal and radiative properties of some cover materials

can be found in the literature [26].

Thus as a summary, from a thermal/optical standpoint, the cover plates

should be transparent to solar radiation and opaque to re-radiated infrared
radiation. They should be low cost and easy to install, require little or no
maintenance and be resistant to breakage and degradation.

82
3.4. BASIC FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION

In order to construct a model suitable for a thermal analysis of an FPC,

the following simplifying assumptions will be made [4]:

1) The collector is thermally in steady state.

2) The temperature drop between the two surfaces of the absorber

plate is negligible.

3) Heat flow is one-dimensional through the covers as well as through

the back insulation.

4) The headers connecting the tubes cover only a small area of the
collector and provide uniform flow to the tubes.

5) The sky can be treated as though it were a blackbody source for

infrared radiation at an equivalent sky temperature.

6) The irradiation on the collector plate is uniform [4].

A qualitative variation of the temperature along the pipes (y-axis) and

in the direction perpendicular to the pipes (x-axis) is shown in Figure 3.4.

A thermal model for an FPC is built using the above assumptions, and
considering quantitatively an infinitesimal length along the y-axis, at point x, y,
and writing down the energy gains and losses of that point [4].

83
Figure 3.3 Qualitative temperature distributions in the absorber plate of an FPC (a)
region between two tubes (b) general temperature distribution (c) at any
location y, the general temperature distribution in the x direction, (d) the
temperature in the y direction [4].

The plate temperature at this point be Tp (x,y) and assume solar energy
is absorbed at the rate Isαs., part of this energy is then transferred as heat to the
working fluid and if the collector is in the steady state, Tp > Ta. Some of the
heat loss occurs through the bottom of the collector. It passes first through the
back insulation by conduction and then by convection to the environment. The
back-loss coefficient is then calculated using,

k back
Ub = (3.10)
i

the edge loss is calculated in a similar manner using,

84
 (UA)edge
Ue = (3.11)
Ap

If it is assumed that all losses occur to a common sink temperature Ta the

collector overall loss coefficient UL is the sum of the top, bottom and edge loss
coefficients [4].

U L = Ut +Ub +Ue (3.12)

where the empirical equation,

−1

Nu 1 σ (T p , m + Ta )(T p2, m + Ta2 )

Ut = + +
e
hw 2 N u + f − 1 + 0.133ε p
C T p , m − Ta (ε p + 0.00591N u hw ) +
−1
− Nu
T p ,m (N u + f ) εg

(3.13)

is used for the top losses.

The terms f, e, C, and hw will be calculated using,

f = (1 + 0.0089hw − 0.1166hwε p )(1 + 0.07866 N u ) (3.14)

e = 0.43(1 − 100 / T p , m ) (3.15)

( )
C = 520 1 − 0.000051β 2 For 0< β < 700 (3.16)

hw = 2.8 + 3.0 × V (3.17)

85
 In steady state, an energy balance that indicates the distribution of
incident solar energy into useful energy gain, thermal losses, and optical losses
describes the performance of a solar collector. Useful energy gain is given by

[
Qu = A p FR I t (τ α )e − A p FR U L (Ti − Ta )] (3.18)

where the first term is the energy gain and the second term is the energy losses
from the collector per unit area.

The solar radiation term It(τα)e incident to a unit collector area is a

function of many parameters ; like beam and diffuse component of solar
radiation on the horizontal surface, beam and diffuse transmittance and
absorbtance products of the cover – absorber plate couple, slope of the
collector, the zenith angle the incident angle, etc.

Here the FPC heat removal factor FR, is

actual useful energy collected by a flat plate collector

FR =
useful energy collected if the entire flat plate collector surface were at the inlet fluid temperature

(3.19)

and in equation it is

.
mCp − A pU L F ′
FR = 1 − exp .
(3.20)
A pU L mC p
86
(c)

Figure 3.4 Plate and tube configuration of FPC (a) tube bonded below plate (b)
tube bonded above plate (c) tubes in-line with absorber plate [3].

Different absorber plate geometries require case consideration.

Therefore it is necessary to derive the appropriate form of the collector
efficiency factor F´, the following equations can be used to predict the thermal
performance of an FPC [4].
In the case of tubes bonded below,

87
 1UL
F′ = (3.21(a))
1 1 1
W + +
π Di h fi C b U L [Do + (W − Do )F ]

In the case of tubes bonded above,

1
F′ = (3.21(b))
W UL 1
+
π Di h fi D0 1
+
W WU W
L
+
Cb (W − Do )F

In the case of tubes in line with the absorber plate,

1
F′ = (3.21(c))
UL 1
W +
π Di h fi [Do + (W − Do )F ]

Here, for all the above- mentioned cases, the fin efficiency is,

tanh [m (W − Do ) / 2]
F= (3.22)
m (W − Do ) / 2

and the parameter m, Cb, and hfi are,

1/ 2
UL
m= (3.23)
kp δ p

88
 k b × bw
Cb = (3.24)
γb

Nu k
h fi = (3.25)
Di

Thermal conductivity of galvanized iron absorber plate is calculated as

shown in APPENDIX A.

3.5. EFFICIENCY OF A FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

3.5.1. Thermal Efficiency of A Flat Plate Collector

It has been shown and discussed by a number of investigators [4, 5, 14]

that the efficiency ( ) of an FPC operating under steady-state conditions can be
described by the following relationship:

actual useful energy collected Q

η= = u (3.26)
solar energy incident on the collector I t Ap

89
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

OPTIMIZATION, ECONOMY, PRODUCTION AND

THERMAL PERFORMANCE TESTING

4.1. OPTIMIZATION OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

The most serious drawback to the more wide spread adoption of solar
water heating is the high initial cost of the equipment, particularly the collector
absorber plates which are often the single most expensive item in this system.
Thus a strong incentive is present for reducing the cost of this component.
Possible methods of achieving this aim include,

a) Improvement of manufacturing methods,

b) Optimum choice of materials,

c) Optimum choice of plate geometry,

and particularly the best combination of fin thickness and spacing between
pipes in collectors of the pipe and fin type [45].

90
 This study examines the latter two proposals by considering economy
and efficiencyAssuming that materials have been chosen for the pipe and the
fin, the material cost of the collector plate depends largely on the thickness of
the fin and tube spacing. Material costs were obviously being reduced if fins
were thinner and spacing between pipes was greater. However, this also leads
to a reduction in the fin efficiency. Obviously a compromise is required to
minimize the overall cost of the system for a given energy output.

4.1.1. Choice of Fin Material

The function of the fin is to absorb the incident solar energy and to
transfer it by conducting to the pipe at the center of the fin. In our study,
galvanized iron was considered as the fin material because of the following
reasons:

a. Iron is cheaper than copper and aluminium.

b. Galvanized iron is resistant to humidity and corrosion.
c. Processing of iron is easier.

In Table 4.1, some physical properties of possible fin materials and

their prices are listed. Although thermal conductivity of iron is smaller than
that of others as can be seen in the same table, because its price is much lower
(Table 4.1) galvanized iron was used as the fin material. Calculations also
showed theoretically that we could reach approximately the same efficiency as
commercially available collectors. Result is shown in APPENDIX B.

78
 Table 4.1.Physical properties of Al, Fe and Cu and their prices.

Material Thermal Conductivity Density Price

(W/mC) (kg/m3) (TL/kg)
Fe 73 7870 200.000 TL
Al 204 2700 2.000.000 TL
Cu 386 8960 2.000.000 TL

All the price calculations are done when DM 1=365.000TL (February

2001).

To start the optimization of geometry, first the proposed

alternatives for the collector properties for aluminum, copper and iron
collectors were examined [61].

PROPERTIES ALTERNATIVES
Number of tubes 6-12
Tube spacing 90-170 mm
Inner diameter of tubes 10-13 mm
Outer diameter of tubes 10.5-13.5 mm

Then, prices of such materials, which are commercially available, were

obtained from the companies, which are shown in APPENDIX C.

4.1.2. Choice of Thickness of Plate and Pipe Spacing

79
 As it can be seen from the Eq.3.22 under “Basic Flat Plate Energy
Balance Equation” in Section 3.4, efficiency of a collector mainly depends on
three parameters; these are tube spacing, tube diameter and plate thickness.

4.2 THE COMPUTER PROGRAM

A Microsoft EXCEL program is developed to calculate, the direct solar

radiation energy incident on a plane at a given location, declination angle of
the sun, hour angle, angle of incidence, azimuth angles and extraterrestrial
solar insolation for each specified time of the day. Finally, collector heat
removal factor, absorbed solar radiation, overall loss, the useful energy and
efficiency of collector and price of an absorber plate are calculated. Numerical
values of the parameters used in optimization of collector efficiency are
presented in APPENDIX D.

All the efficiency equations were written by using EXCEL, then price
and efficiency results were calculated for different values of tube thickness,
tube diameter and plate thickness by using the program to find the best
combination in terms of collector efficiency and cost effectiveness, to achieve
qu/price to have its maximum value. So that, the collector should be efficient.
Collector areas were kept the same as the commercially available collectors.
However, the number of tubes was changed.

80
 4.3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION

The use of solar energy for heating water or air to temperatures lower
than 100 °C is an established process with adequately described technology.
The economic aspects of various designs have received some attention, and
research effort has been applied toward optimizing the design with respect to
different parameters [62].
The costs of solar energy collecting systems differ depending upon the
type of material for the case of collectors, absorber plate and water storage
tank. Copper is more expensive material than regular steel; usage of copper
thus increases the production cost of the systems. For the collecting case and
the absorber plate various combinations of materials can be used: for instance,
regular steel for the absorber plate or aluminum as the material for both the
collecting case and absorber plate.
A collector consisting of galvanized steel outside the case and regular
steel absorber plate will be the least expensive system, if it has a water tank
with internal and external layers made of galvanized steel. Costs of the systems
at the stage production can vary by as much as 300%, depending upon type of
the material [7].

4.4. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ABSORBER PLATE

The price of absorber plate is the sum of plate material price,

galvanization, price of tubes and headers, in equation it reads like,

P = AP [PPL + PPN + ] + G + N [ PTB + PPW + 2 PW ]+ 2aPH (4.1)

where

81
 a
N= , A p = a.b (4.2), (4.3)
W
and
G = (PG × VTL / 1000 ) × ( × N × UWtubes + 2 × LH × UWH + WP ) (4.4)

where

PG = DM 438, price of galvanization is DM 438 per tones of iron.

and
VTL = 525000 TL, although DM 1=365.000TL during the calculation for
cost of galvanization and paint, DM 1 is taken equal to 525.000TL.

UW = π (Ro2 − Ri2 )ρ (4.5)

W p = ρ Ee × a × b × δ p (4.6)

Price calculation includes labour cost which is calculation of 50% of

the price of the work.

The program is run for 250 possible combinations of numerical values

of three parameter and their efficiency values. The relation among three
different parameters and collector efficiency values and their graphical
explanations with three different materials for different parameters, price lists,
efficiencies and related graphics are given in APPENDIX E.

Prices and properties of the collectors having copper and aluminum fins
were obtained from DA SAN and STEK companies (Table 4.2).

82
Table 4.2 Collector properties and prices.

Material Do W δp N Dh Price of absorber plate

mm mm mm mm DM
Galvanized Fe 13 x 1 90 1 10 32 43
Al ( stek) 16.6 x 2.8 74 1.5 12 30 100
Cu ( stek) 12.7 x 1 110 0.18 8 22 60
Cu (Da san) 12.7 x 0.7 100 0.4 9 28 100

4.5. CONSTRUCTION OF A NEW ABSORBER PLATE

In this study after deciding on the material and optimal geometrical

parameters, construction of an economical and efficient absorber plate was
carried.

The construction of the new absorber plate is based on two points: first
one is the utilization of point welding to get a good conduction and second one
is the galvanization of the iron absorber plate to increase fin efficiency and
reduce corrosion.

Point welding is a cheap process since during its operation the only
requirement is the electricity. Before welding, material should be cleaned. The
calculation of the price of point welding is given below:
One point welding is done in one second; one fin includes 50 point
welding point. One collector has 10 pipes, thus to construct one absorber plate
500 seconds is required.

83
 Point welding specifications: 380 volt selective, 4 ampere
The consumed electricity during point welding operation is:
380 Volt x 4 Ampere x 500/3600 =211.1 Wh = 0.211kWh

According to Turkish Electricity Distribution Corporation price of 1

kWh electricity for industrial usage was 63.400TL in March 2001. It differs for
cities having priority for development (58,600TL), for organized industry site
5% reduction [63]. Then, 0.211 kWh costs 13.377TL and with 5% reduction it
is 12.708TL. For cities having priority for development 12.365 TL with 5%
equals 11.747TL. During the price calculation and optimization the highest
price (13.377TL) is considered.

Absorber plate and tubes joined together by using point welding. In

order for point welding to be applied easily, the absorber plate was constructed
by combining ten fins. Construction steps are shown below:

1. Ten absorber plate fins of length 178 cm and thickness 1 mm were

cut (9 of which have a width of 90 mm and 1 having width of 80
mm),

2. Pipes diameter, thickness and length of which were 13 mm, 1mm

and 180 cm, respectively, were constructed and connected to the cut
absorber plate at the middle,

3. Header and footer were constructed by using 2 pipes with length of

96 cm, diameter of 32 mm and thickness of 1 mm, fourth fins were
attached to each other, side by side together with the header and
footer.
84
 Following the welding, absorber fins, tubes, header and footer were
galvanized together (Figure 4.1). In order to galvanize the iron, the absorber
plate was dipped into the liquid zinc pool, a few minutes, and iron is covered
with zinc, which was at 450 °C (Figure 4.2). The absorber plate was dipped
into the pool in an inclined position so that inner surfaces of the pipes could be
galvanized efficiently. Galvanization is the processes, which is required against
corrosion.

Figure 4.1 Sample fin for the constructed FPC.

85
 Figure 4.2 4.5 x 1.8 x 2.5 m fully automated galvanization pool at
M TA .

To prevent the absorber plate from deformation, below suggestions

should be considered.

1. The part to be galvanized should be symmetrical. Asymmetrical

parts easily get deformed.

2. Welding procedure leads to local temperature differences on the

material thus inner resistance. To avoid occurrence of this resistance, welding
should be done continuously.

3. The materials, which have different thicknesses, have different

expansion and contraction properties. Thus the materials to be
welded to each other should have the same or smilar thicknesses.

4. The material should be produced smooth and homogeneous.

86
 5. Dimensions of the materials are also important. Dimensions
should be appropriate for a one-time hot dip galvanization pool, if
the galvanization is repeated deformation could occur.

The galvanized fins were examined; bond width and bond thickness are
determined. Using Eqn. 3.24. Cb was calculated as,

Cb = 793W/mC

Bond conductance has different calculations for Fe, Cu and Al [4].

Header and footer cross-sectional areas were calculated by considering

the smooth flow distribution, as below:

AT = π (D0 / 2)2 (4.7)

AH = (N+1) AT (4.8)
Header and footer were prepared having 10 holes with the radius of 12
mm, which should be parallel to each other (Figure 4.3). They were prepared
before galvanization, then they were attached to the fins with oxygen welding,
the absorber plate was tested for water leakage.

7.5cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 9cm 7cm

Figure 4.3 Header and footer with tube spacing.

In order for the collector paint to stick to the surface well, 35 gr of poly-
vinyl butyral was added to 1 of the paint in addition to 300 gr of thinner. The
paint, which is obtained from the DA SAN, was sprayed on the surface with a
87
paint-gun having an outlet pressure of 3.5 atmospheres. The thickness of paint
was 5-10 microns. The price of paint is given as DM 2 per collector for
DA SAN ’ s FPC that is painted 50 to 100 microns.

Constructed absorber plate was placed into the collector cover (Figure
4.4) supplied by STEK.

(NA)

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.4 (a) Close view of produced collector, (b) Another close view
of produced collector.

88
4.6. PREPARATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

In order to be able to make comparisons between three collectors

produced in Turkey with the constructed collector design for this study, a
standard testing procedure has to be followed. This study presents one such
standard procedure. A test set-up is prepared at the roof of Physics Department
at METU Campus for this purpose by considering the followings:

The four collectors were directed to the south with the most appropriate
angle (β), which maximize the incoming solar energy on the collector surface
in summer in Ankara. The collector slope was calculated by subtracting 15
degrees from latitude of ANKARA, where the experiment was performed.

Plumbing system was installed, the water storage tank and connecting
pipes were insulated with insulation material so that they don’ t lose heat. As it
can be seen in the Figure 4.5 thermometers were placed at the center of the
pipes to measure inlet and outlet water temperatures.

89
 Figure 4.5 The flat plate collectors under test.

In Figure 4.5, the collector on the left is constructed galvanized iron

collector, second is DA SAN’ s copper collector, third is STEK’ s copper
collector, fourth is STEK’ s aluminum collector.

4.7.TESTING OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS TO DETERMINE

THEIR THERMAL PERFORMANCE

4.7.1. Purpose

In this part of the study, experiments were carried out according to the
requirements and instructions approved by the ASHRAE Standard [5] which is
applicable to both non-concentrating and concentrating solar collectors
employing single inlet and outlet of transfer fluid. This standard contains
90
methods for conducting tests outdoors under natural solar irradiation and for
conducting tests indoors under stimulated solar irradiation, and provides test
methods and calculation procedures for determining steady state and quasi-
steady state thermal performance, time constants of solar collectors. In this
study outdoor test is conducted.

4.7.2 Testing Preconditions

Solar collectors are tested in accordance with the following

requirements [5]:

1) The collector whose thermal performance is to be tested was pre-

conditioned prior to initiation of the test. Pre-conditioning consists of
stagnation heat in a non-operational mode in a dry condition for three days in
which the cumulative mean incident solar radiation measured in the plane of
the collector is 17000 kj/m2-day. In this study collectors were exposed to that
radiation.
2) The size of collector to be tested is large enough so that the
performance characteristics determined are indicative of those that would occur
when the collector is part of an installed system. The cover sizes of collectors
used in this study are the same with standard ones (2x1m2).

3) For tests conducted outdoors to determine thermal performance, the

collector is mounted in a location such that there will be no significant energy
reflected or reradiated onto the collector from surrounding buildings or any
other surfaces in the vicinity of the test stand for the duration of the tests.
Experiment setup was installed according to these considerations.

91
 4) For tests conducted outdoors to determine thermal efficiency, the
tests are conducted at times having weather conditions such that the integrated
average irradiation measured in the plane of the collector or aperture, reported
and used for the computation of instantaneous efficiency values shall be not
that less than 630 W/m2. During the study it was between 924 W/m2-1034
W/m2.

5) For tests conducted to determine thermal efficiency at near-normal

incident conditions, the orientation of the collector is such that the incident
angle (measured from the normal to the collector surface or aperture) is less
than 30° during the period in which test data is being taken. Data were taken
from one hour before solar noon to one-hour after the solar noon and the
orientation of the collectors were 15 degrees.

6) For tests conducted outdoors to determine collector thermal

efficiency, the range of ambient temperatures for all reported test points
comprising the “efficiency curve” are less than 32 °C. In the study it was
between 25°C – 34°C.

7) The transfer fluid used in the solar collector has a known specific
heat, which varies by less than 0.5% of the temperature range of the fluid
during a particular test period. The density of the transfer fluid is also known
and it does not vary by more than 0.5% over a particular test period. Water is
used as the heat transfer fluid and it obeys the above criterion.

4.7.3. Apparatus and Instrumentation

A Kipp and Zonen Epply type pyranometer, shown in Figure 4.6 is

used for measuring the total radiation incident upon the collector surface. It is
92
mounted such that its sensor is co-planer with the plane of the collector
aperture so that it will detect incident radiation on the plane of the collector and
it shall not cast a shadow onto the collector aperture at any time during test
period. The calibration constant of the pyranometer is 9.19x10-6VW-1m2± %5.

Figure 4.6 A Kipp and Zonen type pyranometer used in measurement of solar
radiation.

Omni-Scribe-D5000 type chart recorder is shown in Figure 4.7, is

connected to the pyranometer to record the total irradiation during the test
periods.

93
 Figure 4.7 An Omni-Scribe-D5000 type chart recorder.

All temperature measurements (inlet, exit, and ambient temperatures),

thermometers are used.

In order to obtain different inlet fluid temperatures, needed for the

construction of the efficiency curves, an electrical heater of 6 kW capacity is
used. This heating capacity is able to raise the temperature of the inlet fluid
with the prescribed flow rate of 0.02 kg/s.m2.

4.8. USEFUL THERMAL PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS FOR

CALCULATION

4.8.1. Collector Time Constant

It is necessary to determine the time constant of the solar collector in

order to be able to evaluate the transient behavior of the collector, and to select
the proper time intervals for the steady state efficiency tests.

Whenever transient conditions exist, the qualities defined and do not

govern the thermal performance of the collector since part of the solar energy
absorbed is used for heating up the collector and also its components like glass
cover, insulation material, back cover etc.
94
 The governing equation for the transient behaviour of solar collector is:

C A dT f mCp
= FR I t (τα )e − FRU L (Ti − Ta ) − (To − Ti ) (4.9)
A p dt Ap

If (a) the solar radiation It, or inlet fluid temperature Ti or both It and Ti
are suddenly changed and held constant and if (b) (τα)e, UL, Ta, m and Cp can
be considered constant for the transient period and (c) the rate of change of the
transfer fluid exit temperature with time is related to the rate of change of
transfer fluid average temperature with time by

d Tf d To
=K (4.10)
dt dt

where

mCp F′
K= −1 (4.11)
F U L Ap FR

Then, Eq.4.9 can be solved to give the exit temperature of the transfer
as a function of time.

FR I t (τ α )e − FRU L (Ti − Ta ) − (mC p A p )(To − Ti )

mCp
− t
K CA
=e (4.12)
FR I t (τ α )e − FRU L (Ti − Ta ) − (mC p A p )(To ,initial − Ti )

The quantity KCA/ m Cp is known as the “time constant” and is the time
required for the quantity of the left side Eq 4.12 to change from 1.0 to 0.368
where 0.368=1/e.

95
4.8.2 Collector Thermal Efficiency

Considering Eq. 3.27 for the efficiency of an FPC and rewriting it in explicit
form one obtains

(Ti − Ta )
η = FR (τ α )e − U L (4.13)
It

which is at the same time in the form of

m C P (To − Ti )
η= (4.14)
Ap I t

Eq.4.13 indicates that if the efficiency is plotted against (Ti-Ta)/It, a

straight line will result where the slope is equal to FRUL and the y-intercept is
equal to FR(τα)e. In reality, UL is not a constant but rather a function of the
temperature of the collector and of the ambient weather conditions. In addition,
the product (τα) varies with the incident angle between the solar radiation and
the collector.

4.9. TESTING PROCEDURE

All calculations and experiments are performed using solar time [4]. The
calculation of the solar time is as follows:

96
Solar time = Standart time + 4 (Lst - Lloc) + E (4.15)
where

E = 229.2 (0.000075 + 0.001868 cosB – 0.032077 sin B –0.014615 cos2B –

0.04089 sin 2B) (4.16)

where

B = (nd – 1) 360/365 (4.17)

where; Lst : 30, Lloc : 32.88 for Ankara

The first performance test to be conducted on the solar collector is the

determination of its “time constant”. The method for conducting this test is
explained in Section 4.8.2. After this is completed, a series of thermal
efficiency tests are conducted as explained in Section 4.8.3.
4.9.1. Measurements

a) Radiation Measurements

The output of the pyranometer is recorded continuously from one hour

before solar noon to one hour after solar noon every day on a calibrated
automatic Omni-Scribe-D5000 model chart recorder.

b) Temperature Measurements

97
 An ordinary mercury thermometer measures the ambient temperature
periodically. An ordinary mercury thermometer measures inlet and outlet
temperatures of water, which pass through the collector plate.

d) Flow Rate Measurements

The flow rate of transfer fluid through the collector is standardized at one
value for all data points. The recommended value of flow rate per unit area for
tests is 0.02 kg/s.m2 when water is used as the transfer fluid.

The flow rate is adjusted to this value by recording the amount of water
in grams/second coming out from the collector. During the experiment it was
kept constant.

Thermal performance data are taken at five times the time constant [5].
The measured radiation and temperature values are listed in APPENDIX F.
4.9.2. Experimental Determination of the Collector Time Constant

There are two methods for the determination of the collector time
constant; one is cooling and the other is the heating method. In this study the
former is used. Here is the summary of the cooling method:

The inlet temperature of the transfer fluid, Ti, is adjusted to within ±1°C
of the ambient temperature while circulating the transfer fluid, water, through
the collector at the flow rate specified in Section 4.7.2 and maintaining steady
state or quasi-steady state conditions with an incident solar flux of greater than
98
790 W/m2. The incident solar energy is then abruptly reduced to zero by
shielding the collector from the sun. This may be accomplished shading with a
white, opaque cover. The cover should be suspended off the surface of the
collector so that ambient air is allowed to pass over the collector as prior to the
beginning of the transient test. The temperature of the transfer fluid at the inlet,
Ti, and outlet, To are continuously monitored as a function of time until the
quantity

To (t ) − Ti 1
< (4.18)
To,initial − Ti e

is reached.

The time t at which the above equality is reached is called the time
constant of the collector.

The experiments carried out to find time constant were performed on

July 18, between the time period preceeding solar noon and the period
following solar noon, for each of the four collectors one by one.

The study was performed under quasi-steady state conditions with an

incident solar flux of greater than 790 W/m2. The incident solar energy was
abruptly reduced to zero by shielding the collector from the sun by shading
with a cover.

4.9.3. Experimental Determination of the Collector Thermal Efficiency

The testing of the solar collector to determine its thermal efficiency is

conducted in such a way that a governing “efficiency curve” for near normal
99
incidence is determined for the collector under test conditions described in the
previous sections. At least four data points are taken for each value of Ti; two
during the time period preceding solar noon and two in the period following
solar noon, the specific periods being chosen so that the data points represents
times symmetrical to solar noon. This latter requirement is made so that any
transient effects that may be present will not bias the test results when they are
used for design purposes. The efficiency curves will be established by data
over a time period equal to the time constant over 5 minutes.

In conducting the test outside, intensive care is taken to ensure that the
incident solar energy is steady for each time interval during which an
efficiency value is calculated. Thermal efficiency and time constants of all the
collectors are compared at the same tilt angles (Figure 4.5). Figures 4.8 and
4.9 show a strip chart recording of incident solar radiation on a 25° inclined
surface with a chart speed of 10 cm/s. The conditions of Figure 4.8 are
perfectly acceptable for obtaining efficiency values, whereas those of Figure
4.9 are not. The experiments were performed from July 26 to August 07.

100
Figure 4.8 Chart recording of incident solar radiation, mV versus time.

101
Figure 4.9 Chart recording of incident solar radiation for a cloudy day,
mV versus time.

4.9.4. Computation of Collector Thermal Efficiency

Eq.4.14 was used to calculate the thermal efficiency. At least twenty

data points are obtained for the establishment of each efficiency curve and an
equation for the curve is obtained using the standard technique of a least-
squares fit.

102
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 RESULTS OF OPTIMIZATION

According to optimization results, to find an economic and efficient

absorber plate, five main FPC parameters are found to be applicable as stated
in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Optimum FPC parameters.

Thickness of plate W Do Di Number of pipes

0.001m 0.09m 0.013m 0.012m 10

Although 0.0005m, 0.0007m, 0.0008m thick absorber plates are more

suitable according to our calculations because of the deformation occurring
during galvanization and ruptures occurring during point welding their usage
are impossible.

103
5.2 FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS

Four different types of flat plate solar collectors are tested during the
experiments. Three of these collectors are commercially produced in Turkey and
the fourth one is a new type, designed and constructed during this study. The
descriptions and specifications of these collectors are given below:

105
5.2.1 ISTEK’s Collectors ( Standard )

a) Aluminum Collector

Figure 5.1 Cross-section of the FPC, which has aluminum absorber plate.

PANEL :The panel constructed from Etial-60

extrusion aluminum profile with 12 tubes whose diameter is 16 mm and
thickness is 1.5 mm. The manifold tube is 30 mm. The panel surface is
blacked painted.
CASING : 1.2 mm thick extrusion aluminum
profile.
INSULATION : Glass wool
SEALING : EPDM rubber that is resistant to the
difference of temperature.
OUTLET : ¾′′ Aluminum tips
DIMENSIONS : 1940 mm/940 mm/100 mm
GROSS AREA : 1.82 m2
NET AREA : 1.71 m2
TUBE SPACING : 74 mm
WEIGHT of COLLECTOR : 35 kg

103
 b) Copper Collector

Figure 5.2 Cross-section of the FPC, which has copper absorber plate.

PANEL : 0.18 mm thick plates are stitched by ultrasonic

welding to the copper tubes whose diameter is 12.7 mm and thickness is 1 mm,
it consists of 8 tubes, the manifold tube diameter is 26-28 mm and thickness is
0.8 mm the surface of the panel is coated with special collector paint.
INSULATION : Glass wool
SEALING : EPDM rubber that is resistant to the difference
of temperature.
OUTLET : ¾′′
DIMENSIONS : 1940 mm/940 mm/100 mm
GROSS AREA : 1.82 m2
NET AREA : 1.71 m2
TUBE SPACING : 110 mm
WELDING WIDTH : 8 mm
BOND THICKNESS : 0.8 mm
WEIGHT of COLLECTOR: 35 kg

104
5.2.2. DA SAN’s Copper Collector ( DBC 90190 )

As shown in the Figure 4.7, this collector has the following

characteristics:

PANEL : 0.4 mm thick plates of what are stitched by

ultrasonic welding to the copper tubes whose diameter is ½′′ and thickness is
0.7 mm it consists of 9 tubes, the manifold tube diameter is 22 mm and
thickness is 0.8 mm the surface of the panel is coated with special collector
paint.

INSULATION : Glass wool

SEALING : EPDM rubber, which is resistant to the
difference of temperature.
OUTLET : ¾′′
DIMENSIONS : 1945 mm/945 mm/105 mm
GROSS AREA : 1.82 m2
NET AREA : 1.64 m2
TUBE SPACING : 100 mm
WELDING WIDTH : 8 mm
BOND THICKNESS : 0.8 mm
WEIGHT of COLLECTOR: 38 kg

105
5.2.3 CONSTRUCTED COLLECTOR WHICH HAS GALVANIZED
IRON ABSORBER PLATE

The collector as shown in Figure 4.6 has the following characteristics:

PANEL : 1 mm thick plates are stitched by point

welding to the iron tubes whose diameters is 13 mm and thickness is 1mm, it
consists of 10 tubes, the manifold tube diameter is 32 mm and thickness is 1.2
mm the surface of the panel is coated with 10 micron special collector paint.

INSULATION : Glass wool

SEALING : EPDM rubber that is resistant to
the difference of temperature.
OUTLET : 5/4′′
DIMENSIONS : 1940 mm/940 mm/100 mm
GROSS AREA : 1.82 m2
NET AREA : 1.602 m2
TUBE SPACING : 90 mm
WELDING WIDTH : 13 mm
BOND THICKNESS : 2 mm
WEIGHT of ABSORBER PLATE : 19.7 kg
WEIGHT of COLLECTOR : 50 kg

106
5.3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS – COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION

5.3.1 Collector Time Constant

Following the experimental procedures given in Sections 4.8.2 and 4.8.3 time constants
of the tested collectors are determined to be 137 seconds for STEK Al, 75 seconds for STEK
Cu, 95 seconds for DA SAN, and 198 seconds for galvanized iron collector. The sample
calculations are given in APPENDIX G.

The transient behavior of the collectors can be discussed referring to these figures. The
response of STEK’ s copper collector to sudden changes in incoming solar radiation is very
rapid when compared with the other three. This means that it requires less time for the system
to warm up and cool down with a sudden change in the solar flux. A solar collector having a
short time constant may be advantageous if hot water is required shortly after the system starts
operation. But if hot water demand is for a time after the system shut down or on partly cloudy
days, a collector having a long time constant will be more advantageous since it would take a
long time for the system to cool down when the sun is shaded with the clouds. It is up to the
user to chose or designs a solar collector, having a short or long time constant, that fits best to
his requirements.

5.3.2 Thermal Efficiency

The selected data for efficiency calculations and the related efficiency
curves are given in Figures 5.3(a)(b)(c)(d),(APPENDIX F).

5.3.2.1 Comparison of the Intercepts of The Efficiency Curves

Figures 5.3 shows efficiency values versus (Ti-Ta)/It. In all the figures it is
seen that STEK’ s aluminum collector performs more efficiently than the
others at relatively low operating temperatures. When (Ti-Ta)/It gets higher,
overall loss increases significantly as expected.
107
 When (Ti-Ta)/It is small, efficiency values of all the tested collectors are
satisfactory. The intercept points are shown in Figure 5.3(a)(b)(c)(d). For
STEK’ s aluminum collector, it is 0.90, for STEK’ s copper collector it is 0.66,
for DA SAN’ s copper it is 0.81, and for the collector that has galvanized iron
absorber plate, it is 0.82 which is increased up to 0.83 after new optimization.

STEK's Al y = 0.90+(-8.1)x
1
0.8
efficiency

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(a)

108
 STEK's Cu
y = 0.66+(-3.7)x
1
0.8
efficiency

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(b)

Figure 5.3. Collector performance data a) for STEK’ s aluminum

collector, b) for STEK’ s copper collector, c) for DA SAN’ s copper
collector, d) for collector, which has galvanized iron absorber plate.

DA SAN's Cu
y =0.81+(-4.0)x
1
0.8
efficiency

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(c)

109
 Galvanized Fe
y = 0.82+(-10)x
1
0.8
efficiency

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(d)

Figure 5.3.(Continued).

5.3.2.2 Comparison of the Slopes of the Constructed FPC with the

Other Collectors

Efficiency curves of galvanized iron absorber plate and that of other

collectors are shown together in the same graph one by one as indicated in
Figure 5.4 (a)(b)(c).

From the characteristic equations of the efficiency curves heat transfer

loss coefficients of the collectors are determined. FRUL values for STEK’ s
aluminum collector for 250 tilt angles are 8.1 W/m2-°C (Figure 5.4 (a)). For
STEK’ s copper collector this value is 3.7 W/m2-°C (Figure 5.4 (b)). For
DA SAN’ s copper collector it is 4.0 W/m2-°C (Figure 5.3 (c)) and for the produced
collector that has galvanized iron absorber plate, this value is 10 W/m2-°C.
110
 As it can be seen from Figure 5.4 loss of galvanized iron absorber plate is
higher. Therefore a new optimization was done to reduce the loss.

STEK'
s Al and Galvanized Fe
1
y =0.9+(-8.1)x
0.8
0.6
efficiency

0.4
y =0.82+(-10)x Al
0.2
0 Fe

0 0.01 0.02 0.03

(Ti-Ta)/It

(a)

STEK's Cu and Galvanized Fe

1
y = 0.82+(-10)x
0.8
efficiency

0.6
0.4
y =0.66+(-3.7)x
0.2
Cu
0 Fe
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(b)
111
 Figure 5.4. Comparison of efficiency curve of galvanized iron absorber
plate and (a) STEK’ s aluminum collector, (b) STEK’ s copper collector,
(c) DA SAN’ s copper collector.

DA SAN's Cu and Galvanized Fe

1
0.8 y =0.81+(-4.0)x
efficiency

0.6
y = 0.82+(-10)x
0.4
0.2
Cu
0
Fe
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03

(Ti-Ta)/It

(c)
Figure 5.4.(Continued).

5.3.2.3. Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Efficiency

Table 5.2(a)(b)(c)(d) shows comparison of experimental and

theoretical efficiency results for all the collectors.

The values named as the theoretical result are the calculated values
using the EXCEL program.

112
Table 5.2 (a) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for STEK’ s Al collector.

Ti Ta It η η
Theoretical Experimental result
°C W/m2 result

56.9 31.8 946.68 0.64 0.65

56.3 32.5 973.88 0.70 0.68
56.7 32.7 979.33 0.70 0.69
53.4 33.6 968.44 0.75 0.71
54.6 33.9 935.80 0.71 0.71
34.0 26.4 979.33 0.87 0.86
34.2 26.9 1006.5 0.85 0.84
35.0 27.2 1028.3 0.88 0.85
37.0 27.6 1033.7 0.84 0.83
38.0 27.8 1033.7 0.83 0.81
35.0 25.8 924.92 0.83 0.82
36.0 26.8 941.24 0.84 0.79
37.0 27.8 968.44 0.84 0.82
38.0 28.8 973.88 0.84 0.79
39.0 29.8 963.00 0.86 0.83
40.0 30.8 903.16 0.71 0.74
41.0 31.8 924.92 0.84 0.83
42.0 32.8 957.56 0.83 0.79
43.0 33.8 924.92 0.71 0.79
44.0 34.8 924.92 0.76 0.77
45.0 35.8 919.48 0.71 0.83
46.0 36.8 957.56 0.86 0.84
47.0 37.8 979.33 0.85 0.83

113
Table 5.2 (b) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency
results for STEK’ s Cu collector.

Ti Ta It η η
Theoretical
°C °C W/m2 result Experimental result
58.2 31.7 941.24 0.55 0.51
38.5 33.2 941.24 0.64 0.60
55.2 33.7 935.80 0.62 0.59
54.2 33.8 1033.7 0.53 0.47
50.0 33.7 935.80 0.59 0.53
49.0 31.8 924.92 0.78 0.74
56.0 33.5 946.68 0.56 0.58
56.8 33.2 968.44 0.56 0.52
55.1 34.0 957.56 0.57 0.58
42.0 34.0 946.68 0.63 0.62
35.0 31.8 930.36 0.64 0.55
37.0 33.5 963.00 0.63 0.57
38.0 33.2 963.00 0.64 0.63
35.7 34.0 946.68 0.61 0.54
42.0 31.8 924.92 0.62 0.59
33.5 31.8 1088.1 0.76 0.72
37.8 32.0 957.56 0.75 0.71
38.0 32.1 941.24 0.75 0.71
39.6 32.7 935.80 0.70 0.73
39.2 32.0 924.92 0.84 0.80
40.0 33.0 919.48 0.64 0.61
49.2 33.5 919.48 0.67 0.68
46.1 33.4 930.36 0.60 0.56
45.0 33.3 935.80 0.65 0.62
45.0 33.4 946.68 0.60 0.62
35.5 29.0 957.56 0.65 0.66
34.0 30.2 946.68 0.66 0.67
32.8 30.8 946.68 0.72 0.72
33.0 30.0 957.56 0.72 0.69
45.0 31.1 946.68 0.75 0.71
43.9 31.2 946.68 0.61 0.56
37.8 31.7 941.24 0.58 0.53
34.5 31.0 946.68 0.65 0.62
34.2 31.7 935.80 0.66 0.66
35.0 32.0 924.92 0.56 0.55

114
Tablo 5.2 (c) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency results for
DA SAN’ s Cu collector.

Ti Ta It η η
Theoretical Experimental result
°C °C W/m2 result
48.0 31.7 941.24 0.76 0.76
38.2 33.2 941.24 0.81 0.8
55.2 33.7 935.80 0.76 0.74
54.7 33.8 1033.7 0.73 0.68
50.1 33.7 935.80 0.82 0.80
47.0 31.8 924.92 0.62 0.66
55.5 33.5 946.68 0.72 0.69
56.2 33.2 968.44 0.75 0.74
54.8 34.0 957.56 0.77 0.74
43.0 34.0 946.68 0.77 0.77
35.0 31.8 930.36 0.82 0.77
37.0 33.5 963.00 0.72 0.71
38.0 33.2 963.00 0.71 0.76
35.7 34.0 946.68 0.73 0.69
42.8 31.8 924.92 0.77 0.77
35.0 31.8 957.56 0.85 0.85
34.0 32.0 946.68 0.86 0.86
32.9 32.1 946.68 0.87 0.88
33.2 32.7 957.56 0.85 0.83
33.9 32.0 1088.1 0.84 0.82
38.0 33.0 957.56 0.82 0.83
38.0 33.5 941.24 0.85 0.89
39.7 33.4 935.80 0.86 0.89
39.1 33.3 924.92 0.86 0.94
40.0 33.4 919.48 0.85 0.89
52.8 29.0 908.60 0.77 0.76
49.2 30.2 919.48 0.69 0.67
46.1 30.8 930.36 0.68 0.68
45.0 30.0 935.80 0.78 0.76
45.0 31.1 946.68 0.74 0.74
43.9 31.2 946.68 0.69 0.67
38.0 31.7 941.24 0.70 0.68
35.0 31.0 946.68 0.67 0.66
34.1 31.7 935.80 0.78 0.75
35.0 32.0 924.92 0.81 0.80

115
Table 5.2 (d) Comparison of theoretical and experimental efficiency results for
galvanized iron collector.

Ti Ta It η η
Theoretical Experimental
°C °C W/m2 result result
56.9 31.8 946.68 0.63 0.52
56.3 32.5 973.88 0.64 0.52
56.7 32.7 979.33 0.64 0.58
53.4 33.6 968.44 0.67 0.58
54.6 33.9 935.80 0.65 0.58
34.0 26.4 979.33 0.76 0.72
34.2 26.9 1006.5 0.76 0.72
35.0 27.2 1028.3 0.76 0.73
37.0 27.6 1033.7 0.75 0.74
38.0 27.8 1033.7 0.73 0.71
35.0 25.8 924.92 0.74 0.71
39.1 26.8 941.24 0.73 0.74
39.9 27.8 968.44 0.73 0.71
40.1 28.8 973.88 0.72 0.73
35.8 29.8 963.00 0.75 0.75
46.9 30.8 903.16 0.68 0.65
44.6 31.8 924.92 0.71 0.70
44.0 32.8 957.56 0.71 0.70
47.0 33.8 924.92 0.7 0.69
47.0 34.8 924.92 0.69 0.68
35.6 35.8 919.48 0.77 0.76
35.0 36.8 957.56 0.78 0.77
35.8 37.8 979.33 0.78 0.76

116
 5.3.2.4 The Sources of Error

It should be kept in mind that the experiments were not performed on the
same date. The experiment for 25° tilt angle was carried out between July 26
and August 07, 2001.

Unfortunately, due to experimental limitations, the operating

temperature range was very low in this study. The 30°C - 60°C temperature
range is considered as small range since the usual operating temperature of a
solar collector system is between 60°C and 70°C under normal conditions. So
in order to understand the thermal behavior of a collector as a whole it is
necessary to work at relatively higher operating temperatures. This is
especially important if the limiting points on the efficiency graphs are to be
detected. The limiting point on the efficiency curves means the point at which
the collector system reaches thermal saturation, i.e. by continuously increasing
the inlet fluid temperature, the circulating fluid temperature will reach to a
maximum point at which it does not accept anymore heat from the incoming
solar radiation and even beyond that point it starts losing heat, causing a sharp
drop in efficiency to zero value.

The pyranometer used to measure the total solar radiation has not been
calibrated for years since there was no proper calibration device readily
available. For the measured radiation the accepted error is between 0.1-0.2mV.

All the temperature measurements, including the ambient air

temperature, are made with thermometers by the help of the magnifying glass
with the 0.2°C errors.
The mean absolute deviation of the theoretical and experimental values
for STEK’ s aluminum and copper collectors is 0.03, for DA SAN’ s copper
117
collector it is 0.02 for galvanized iron absorber plate it is 0.03. The mean
absolute deviation is found by using the given equation:

1
η t −η e (5.1)
n

For the constructed collector, it is found that, when the ambient

temperature is high, the difference between the experimental and theoretical
efficiency is around ±0.09 when it is low the difference is around ±0.05, and
for the others it is between ±0.01 and ±0.05. This difference can cause above-
mentioned errors.

By using the given errors, error calculation has been carried out. The
error result for the experimental efficiencies was between 0.06-0.09 and for the
(Ti-Ta)/It, it was between 0.005-0.009, obtained by the error calculations.

Although the flow is continuously controlled there might be some

variations due to the changes in the rate of the city water, which feeds the water
reservoir which is at about 6 m height. This variation will of course affect the
result of the experiments to some extent.

For flow rate measurements the calculated error is 0.004kg/m2s.

5.3.2.5 New Optimization

The galvanized iron collector is inferior to the other three in terms of heat
losses, as it is concluded from the comparison of the slopes. Hence an extra
theoretical work is done to reduce the slope of the efficiency curve of the
galvanized iron absorber plate.

118
 According to the results of the new optimization, new parameters are
found for tube spacing, thickness of plate, outer and inner diameters and
number of tubes which are 70 mm, 1.2 mm, 13 mm, 12 mm, 12, respectively,
and Figure 5.5 give the original efficiency curve of the constructed galvanized
iron absorber plate and the curve of the newly optimized.

During the new optimization it was found that the optimum value of tube
spacing is 70 mm. Tube spacing cannot be smaller than 70 mm because of the
difficulties in the welding process.

For the produced collector FRUL value was reduced from 10 W/m2-°C
to 6.9 W/m2-°C. The smaller UL values means a smaller slope on the
efficiency versus (Ti-Ta)/It graph.

Original efficiency curve and

Curve of the newly optimized

1
0.8
(b) y = 0.83+(-6.9)x

0.6 (a)
efficiency

0.4 y = 0.82+(-10)x
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

Figure 5.5 Collector efficiency; (a) for constructed collector with

galvanized iron absorber plate, (b) for newly optimized collector.

119
 5.3.2.6 Comparison of the Newly Optimized with the Others

Figure 5.6 (a)(b)(c) gives efficiencies of the newly optimized galvanized

iron absorber plate collector with STEK’ s aluminum, for STEK’ s copper and
for DA SAN’ s copper collector in pair. Finally, in Table 5.3 result of the new
optimization are listed.

As it is given in Section 5.3.2.1, the intercept points of STEK’ s copper

collector, produced and newly optimized collector can be assumed to be the
same within the experimental errors. For DA SAN’ s copper collector the
overall heat loss coefficient is smaller than that of produced and newly
optimized collectors. For newly optimized collector this value is smaller than
that of the produced collector.

STEK's Al and Newly Optimized Fe

1
y = 0.90+(-8.10)x
0.8
efficiency

0.6
y = 0.83+(-6.9)x
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(a)

120
 STEK's Cu and Newly Optimized Fe
1
0.8 y = 0.83+(-6.9)x

0.6
efficiency

0.4 y = 0.66+(-3.7)x

0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(b)
Figure 5.6. Efficiency curve for newly optimized galvanized iron
absorber plate and a) STEK’ s aluminum collector, b) STEK’ s copper
collector, c) DA SAN’ s copper collector.

DA SAN's Cu and Newly Optimized Fe

1
y = 0.81+(-4.0)x
0.8
0.6
efficiency

y = 0.83+(-6.9)x
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(Ti-Ta)/It

(c)

Figure 5.6.(Continued).

121
 Table 5.3 Experimental efficiency results and results of new
optimization for galvanized iron collector.

Ti Ta It η η
Produced
°C °C W/m2 Collector Newly
Optimized
Collector
56.9 31.8 946.68 0.52 0.65
56.3 32.5 973.88 0.52 0.66
56.7 32.7 979.33 0.58 0.66
53.4 33.6 968.44 0.58 0.69
54.6 33.9 935.80 0.58 0.67
34.0 26.4 979.33 0.72 0.78
34.2 26.9 1006.5 0.72 0.78
35.0 27.2 1028.3 0.73 0.78
37.0 27.6 1033.7 0.74 0.77
38.0 27.8 1033.7 0.71 0.76
35.0 25.8 924.92 0.71 0.76
39.1 26.8 941.24 0.74 0.75
39.9 27.8 968.44 0.71 0.75
40.1 28.8 973.88 0.73 0.75
35.8 29.8 963.00 0.75 0.78
46.9 30.8 903.16 0.65 0.70
44.6 31.8 924.92 0.70 0.73
44.0 32.8 957.56 0.70 0.74
47.0 33.8 924.92 0.69 0.72
47.0 34.8 924.92 0.68 0.72
35.6 35.8 919.48 0.76 0.79
35.0 36.8 957.56 0.77 0.81
35.8 37.8 979.33 0.76 0.80

Price of DA SAN’ s collector is about twice that of newly optimized

collector. However, weight of the newly optimized collector is higher than
DA SAN’ s collector.

122
 Comparing the newly optimized collector and STEK’ s copper collector,
FR(τα) value of newly optimized collector is higher, while FRUL value of
STEK’ s copper collector is smaller, and their prices are nearly the same.

While FR(τα) value of STEK’ s aluminum is higher than that of the newly
optimized collector, FRUL value of newly optimized collector is smaller than
STEK’ s aluminum, and price of STEK’ s aluminum is about twice that of
newly optimized collector.

After the new optimization, depending on the tube spacing, the number of
pipes, were increased from 10 to 12. It’ s observed that number of pipes plays an
important role on the thermal efficiency of collector. When the tube spacing is
small efficiency increases. The number of pipes for STEK’ s aluminum collector
is 12, for STEK’ s copper collector it is 8, for DA SAN’ s copper collector it is
9.

The price of the produced absorber plate was DM 48, after above
mentioned optimization it increased to DM 58, for DA SAN’ s copper
collector it is DM 100, for STEK’ s aluminum collector it is DM 100, for
STEK’ s copper collector it is DM 60. It should be noticed that considering the
economic situation of Turkey, price of galvanization has been calculated by
using 1.6 times price. If it would be calculated by using at recent values of DM,
the price would be DM 43 instead of DM 48 and for newly optimized collector
it would be DM 53 instead of 58.

123
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In this study, a new type of efficient and inexpensive absorber plate,

which is made up of galvanized iron was prepared and its efficiency and price
were investigated together with that of three commercially available collectors
constructed in Turkey, with absorber plates made up of aluminum and copper
( STEK - Aluminum and Copper, DA SAN –Copper).

It was observed that thickness of the absorber plate, spacing between

pipes, diameters of pipes are the determining factors for the efficiency of the
collectors. Concerning the low-cost criteria below mentioned parameters
should be considered:

1. Tube spacing should be as small as possible.

2. Plate thickness should be as sbig as possible.

As it is stated in Chapter 5, five main parameters of constructed flat plate

collector are for tube spacing, thickness of plate, outer and inner diameters and
number of tubes are 90 mm, 1 mm, 13 mm, 12 mm, 10, respectively.

124
 In summary, the conclusions drawn from the given discussions
in Chapter 5 are:

a) In order to produce an optimum collector in terms of economy

and efficiency, parameters must be chosen depending on the
efficiency and cost of absorber plate.

b) To produce an economic, efficient and long life collector

galvanized iron is suggested as an alternative absorber plate
material.

c) From the experimental results it is seen that DA SAN’ s copper

collector attains higher efficiency values at higher operating
temperatures when compared with the other types.

d) At relatively low operating temperature STEK’ s aluminum

collector performs with higher efficiency than others.

e) The constructed and tested collector with galvanized iron

absorber plate has higher FR(τα) value, than STEK’ s copper
and DA SAN’ s copper collectors.

f) The time constants of collectors are determined to be 137

seconds for STEK’ s aluminum collector, 75 seconds for
STEK’ s copper collector, 95 seconds sec for DA SAN’ s
copper collector, and 198 seconds for the constructed collector
with galvanized iron absorber plate.

g) The price of the constructed galvanized iron absorber plate was

115
 DM 43, and that of the newly optimized collector it is DM 53,
for STEK’ s aluminum collector it is DM 100, for STEK’ s
copper collector it is DM 60 and for DA SAN’ s copper
collector it is DM 100.

h) For STEK’ s aluminum collector, the intercept point is 0.90, for

STEK’ s copper collector it is 0.66, for DA SAN’ s copper it is
0.81, and for the collector that has galvanized iron absorber
plate, it is 0.82 which is increased up to 0.83 after new
optimization.

i) FRUL value for 250 tilt angles for STEK’ s aluminum collector is
8.1 W/m2-°C, for STEK’ s copper collector it is 3.7 W/m2-°C.
For DA SAN’ s copper collector this value is 4 W/m2-°C. For
the constructed collector FRUL value was reduced from 10
W/m2-°C to 6.9 W/m2-°C after new optimization.

As a result of this study, new parameters for tube spacing, thickness of

plate, outer and inner diameters and number of tubes are; 70 mm, 1.2 mm, 13
mm, 12 mm, 12, respectively.

The test results indicate that it is possible to produce efficient and low
cost absorber plates by changing the material of absorber plate. It was observed
that the newly optimized efficiency values of galvanized iron are very near to
currently used materials, copper and aluminum. Therefore, galvanized iron can
be accepted as a good alternative for the flat plate collector for collecting solar
energy when its price is considered.

116
 It is believed collector industry in Turkey will develop if more functional
designs are made with optimum material selection with consideration of cost,
followed by proper performance tests, which will help to obtain collectors with
higher thermal efficiencies. Also by using suitable selective surface, it is found
by using the EXCEL program, that the efficiency can be increased by 5 % of
the present efficiency value. This study believed to be the first step for this
achievement and hope to be developed further in near future.

117
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126
 APPENDIX A

CALCULATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GALVANIZED

IRON PLATE

R = b/kA
1/R =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
kpA/b = k1 A1 /b + k2 A2 /b +............. knAn /b
kp A = Σni=1 ki Ai
kp = (Σni=1 ki Ai ) / Σni=1 Ai

kp = ( 2 kgδg + kFe AFe) / ( 2δg + AFe )

Plate area is , AFe = 1x 10 -3 x 2 = 2x10-3 m2
δg= 70 10-6 m (thickness of galvanization.)
Ag = 2 x δg
kg = 112 W/mK
kFe = 73 W/mK

kp = ( 2 x 112 x 70 10-6 + 73 x 1x 10 -3 x 2) / ( 2 x 70 10-6 + 1x 10 -3 x 2 )

kp = 75.55 W/mK

127
 APPENDIX B

A SAMPLE EFFICIENCY CALCULATION

FOR THE COLLECTORS

Table B1. A sample efficiency calculation for the collectors.

( for Ti = 25°C Ta = 23°C. It = 916.7 W/m2)

STEK STEK DA SAN Galvanized Iron

Aluminum Copper Copper (This Study)

Efficiency 0.74 0.63 0.66 0.68

128
 APPENDIX C

PRICES OF MATERIALS. WHICH ARE COMMERCIALLY

AVAILABLE

Cu
ÖZMAR
Tube Price (TL/kg)
12 mm x 1 mm 2.750.000 +%17
10 mm x 1 mm 2.750.000 +%17

Plate Price (TL/kg)

2x1 m 2.200.000+%17

Fe
BA KENT METAL

Plate Price (TL/kg)

Black DKP
2 x 1 x 0.5 mm 280.000 + %17
265.000+%17
2 x 1 x 0.7 mm and thicker 180.000+%17 265.000+ % 17

(%10 reduction for over 5000 kg )

129
Fe
BORUSAN
Tube Price (TL/m)
10 mm x 1 mm 199.000 +%17
13 mm x 1 mm 200.000 +%17
13 mm x 1.5 mm 257.000 +%17

(%30 reduction for over 5000 kg)

Al
ALMAR
Plate Price (TL/kg)
2x1mx 0.4mm 1.929.000+%17
0.4-1mm and thicker 2.250.000+%17

Al
KURDO LU

Tube Price (TL/kg)

10 mm x 1 mm 2.350.000 + %17

130
 APPENDIX D

PARAMETERS USED IN OPTIMIZATION OF COLLECTOR

EFFICIENCY

Table D1. Parameters used in optimization of collector efficiency.

Day of the year 198

Hour 12:00-13:00
Latitude 40
Wind speed 2m/s
Ta 23°C
It 916.7W/m2
Ti 25°C
Flowrate: 0.0278kg/s
Cp 4190J/kg°C
Absorbtance of plate 0.94
Ground reflectance 0.4
Emittance of glass 0.88
Emittance of plate 0.9
Nusselt number 3.7
Surface azimuth angle 0°
Angle of tilt 30°

131
 APPENDIX E

PRICE LISTS AND RELATED GRAPHS FOR FOUR DIFFERENT

PARAMETERS

Table E1 Value of parameters, price of absorber plate, efficiency of the

collector, for each combination.

Price Collector qu/PriceThickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube
plate spacing
(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)
1 45.1 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
2 35.0 0.62 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
3 30.6 0.59 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
4 27.3 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
5 24.9 0.52 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
6 43.9 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
7 37.4 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
8 33.0 0.62 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
9 29.7 0.59 0.07 0.0008 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
10 27.3 0.56 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
11 45.4 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
12 39.0 0.66 0.06 0.001 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
13 34.6 0.63 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
14 31.3 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
15 28.9 0.58 0.07 0.001 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
16 47.0 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
17 40.6 0.66 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
18 36.2 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
19 32.9 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
20 30.5 0.59 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
21 49.4 0.69 0.05 0.0015 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
22 43.0 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
23 38.5 0.65 0.06 0.0015 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
24 35.3 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
25 32.9 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
26 53.4 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.01 0.0093 9
(Continued)

132
Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube spacing
plate (m)
(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m)
27 47.0 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.01 0.0093 8
28 42.5 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.01 0.0093 6
29 39.3 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.01 0.0093 5
30 36.9 0.62 0.06 0.002 0.17 0.01 0.0093 5
31 41.7 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
32 35.2 0.62 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
33 30.7 0.59 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6
34 27.5 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
35 25.0 0.52 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
36 44.1 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
37 37.6 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
38 33.1 0.62 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6
39 29.9 0.59 0.07 0.0008 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
40 27.4 0.56 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
41 45.7 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
42 39.4 0.66 0.06 0.001 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
43 34.8 0.63 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6
44 31.5 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
45 29.0 0.58 0.07 0.001 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
46 46.9 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
47 41.0 0.66 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
48 36.4 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6
49 33.1 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
50 30.6 0.59 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
51 49.3 0.69 0.05 0.0015 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
52 43.4 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
53 38.8 0.65 0.06 0.0015 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6
54 35.5 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
55 33.0 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
56 53.3 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.01 0.0092 9
57 47.3 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.01 0.0092 8
58 42.8 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.01 0.0092 6

152
59 39.5 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.01 0.0092 5
60 37.0 0.62 0.06 0.002 0.17 0.01 0.0092 5
61 41.8 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.01 0.009 9

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube spacing
plate
(
(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) m)
62 35.7 0.62 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
63 31.2 0.59 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
64 27.8 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
65 25.2 0.52 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
66 44.2 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.01 0.009 9
67 38.1 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
68 33.5 0.62 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
69 30.2 0.59 0.07 0.0008 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
70 27.6 0.56 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
71 45.8 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.01 0.009 9
72 39.7 0.66 0.06 0.001 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
73 35.1 0.63 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
74 31.8 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
75 29.2 0.58 0.07 0.001 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
76 47.4 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.01 0.009 9
77 41.3 0.66 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
78 36.7 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
79 33.4 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
80 30.8 0.59 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
81 49.8 0.69 0.05 0.0015 0.09 0.01 0.009 9
82 43.7 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
83 39.1 0.65 0.06 0.0015 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
84 35.7 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
85 33.2 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
86 53.7 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.01 0.009 9
87 47.7 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.01 0.009 8
88 43.1 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.01 0.009 6
89 39.7 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.01 0.009 5
153
90 37.2 0.62 0.06 0.002 0.17 0.01 0.009 5
91 42.8 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
92 36.1 0.63 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
93 31.6 0.60 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
94 28.3 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/PriceThickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube
plate spacing
(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)
95 25.8 0.53 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
96 45.1 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
97 38.5 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
98 34.0 0.63 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
99 30.7 0.60 0.06 0.0008 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5
100 28.2 0.57 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
101 46.7 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
102 40.1 0.66 0.05 0.001 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
103 35.6 0.64 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
104 32.3 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5
105 29.8 0.59 0.07 0.001 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
106 48.3 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
107 41.7 0.67 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
108 37.2 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
109 33.9 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5
110 31.4 0.60 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
111 50.7 0.69 0.05 0.0015 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
112 44.1 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
113 39.6 0.65 0.05 0.0015 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
114 36.3 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5
115 33.8 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
116 54.7 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.013 0.0123 9
117 48.0 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.013 0.0123 8
118 43.6 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.013 0.0123 6
119 40.2 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.013 0.0123 5
120 37.7 0.62 0.05 0.002 0.17 0.013 0.0123 5
154
 121 43.1 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
122 36.3 0.63 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
123 31.9 0.60 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
124 28.5 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
125 26.0 0.53 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5
126 45.5 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
127 38.7 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
128 34.3 0.63 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
129 30.9 0.60 0.06 0.0008 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
130 28.3 0.57 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube spacing
plate

(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)

131 47.0 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
132 40.3 0.66 0.05 0.001 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
133 35.8 0.64 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
134 32.5 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
135 29.9 0.59 0.07 0.001 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5
136 48.6 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
137 41.9 0.67 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
138 37.4 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
139 34.0 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
140 31.5 0.60 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5
141 51.0 0.69 0.05 0.0015 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
142 44.3 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
143 39.8 0.65 0.05 0.0015 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
144 36.4 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
145 33.9 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5
146 55.0 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.013 0.0122 9
147 48.3 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.013 0.0122 8
148 43.8 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.013 0.0122 6
149 40.4 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.013 0.0122 5
150 37.9 0.62 0.05 0.002 0.17 0.013 0.0122 5

155
151 43.7 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
152 36.8 0.63 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.013 0.012 8
153 32.3 0.60 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.013 0.012 7
154 28.8 0.56 0.07 0.0005 0.15 0.013 0.012 6
155 26.3 0.53 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
156 45.3 0.68 0.05 0.0007 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
157 46.1 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
158 39.2 0.65 0.06 0.0008 0.11 0.013 0.012 8
159 34.7 0.63 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.013 0.012 7
160 31.2 0.60 0.06 0.0008 0.15 0.013 0.012 6
161 28.7 0.57 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
162 47.4 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.013 0.012 10

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube
plate spacing

(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)

166 30.3 0.59 0.06 0.001 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
167 49.2 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
168 42.4 0.67 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.013 0.012 8
169 37.9 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.013 0.012 7
170 34.4 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.013 0.012 6
171 31.8 0.60 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
172 51.6 0.69 0.04 0.0015 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
173 44.8 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.013 0.012 8
174 40.2 0.65 0.05 0.0015 0.13 0.013 0.012 7
175 36.8 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.013 0.012 6
176 34.2 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
177 55.6 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.013 0.012 10
178 48.8 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.013 0.012 8
179 44.2 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.013 0.012 7
180 40.8 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.013 0.012 6
181 38.2 0.62 0.05 0.002 0.17 0.013 0.012 5
182 44.2 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10

156
183 37.3 0.63 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.013 0.0118 8
184 32.7 0.60 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
185 29.2 0.56 0.06 0.0005 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
186 26.6 0.53 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
187 46.6 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10
188 39.7 0.65 0.05 0.0008 0.11 0.013 0.0118 8
189 35.1 0.63 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
190 31.6 0.60 0.06 0.0008 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
191 29.0 0.57 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
192 48.2 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10
193 41.3 0.66 0.05 0.001 0.11 0.013 0.0118 8
194 36.7 0.64 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
195 33.2 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
196 30.6 0.59 0.06 0.001 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
197 49.8 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube
plate spacing
(MJ/m2DM)
(DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)
199 38.3 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
200 34.8 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
201 32.1 0.60 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
202 52.2 0.69 0.04 0.0015 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10
203 45.3 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.013 0.0118 8
204 40.6 0.65 0.05 0.0015 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
205 37.1 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
206 34.5 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
207 56.2 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.013 0.0118 10
208 49.3 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.013 0.0118 8
209 44.6 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.013 0.0118 7
210 41.1 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.013 0.0118 6
211 38.5 0.62 0.05 0.002 0.17 0.013 0.0118 5
212 45.1 0.66 0.05 0.0005 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
213 38.0 0.63 0.06 0.0005 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
157
214 33.2 0.60 0.06 0.0005 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
215 29.5 0.56 0.06 0.0005 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6
216 26.8 0.53 0.07 0.0005 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5
217 47.5 0.68 0.05 0.0008 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
218 40.4 0.65 0.05 0.0008 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
219 35.6 0.63 0.06 0.0008 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
220 31.9 0.60 0.06 0.0008 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6
221 29.2 0.57 0.07 0.0008 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5
222 49.1 0.68 0.05 0.001 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
223 42.0 0.66 0.05 0.001 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
224 37.2 0.64 0.06 0.001 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
225 33.5 0.61 0.06 0.001 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6
226 30.8 0.59 0.06 0.001 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5
227 50.7 0.69 0.05 0.0012 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
228 43.6 0.67 0.05 0.0012 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
229 38.8 0.64 0.06 0.0012 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
230 35.1 0.62 0.06 0.0012 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6
231 32.4 0.60 0.06 0.0012 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5

Table E1(Continued)

Price Collector qu/Price Thickness W Do Di N

efficiency of tube
plate spacing

(DM) (MJ/m2DM) (m) (m) (m) (m)

232 53.0 0.69 0.04 0.0015 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
233 46.0 0.67 0.05 0.0015 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
234 41.2 0.65 0.05 0.0015 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
235 37.5 0.63 0.06 0.0015 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6
236 34.8 0.61 0.06 0.0015 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5
237 57.0 0.69 0.04 0.002 0.09 0.013 0.0115 10
238 49.9 0.68 0.05 0.002 0.11 0.013 0.0115 8
239 45.2 0.66 0.05 0.002 0.13 0.013 0.0115 7
240 41.5 0.64 0.05 0.002 0.15 0.013 0.0115 6

158
241 38.8 0.62 0.05 0.002 0.17 0.013 0.0115 5

Tablo E2. Price of plate. paint. tube. header and welding for each combination.

P. of Plate P. of Paint P.of Tube -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld.

P.of
Header
2 (DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
(DM/m )
1 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
2 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
3 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
4 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
5 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
6 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
7 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
8 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
9 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45

159
10 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
11 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
12 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
13 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
14 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
15 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
16 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
17 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
18 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
19 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
20 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
21 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
22 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
23 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
24 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
25 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
26 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
27 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
28 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
29 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
30 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
31 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
32 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54

Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of Paint P.of -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Tube Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
33 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
34 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
35 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45

160
36 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
37 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
38 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
39 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
40 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
41 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
42 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
43 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
44 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
45 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
46 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
47 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
48 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
49 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
50 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
51 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
52 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
53 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
54 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
55 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
56 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
57 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
58 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
59 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
60 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
61 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
62 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
63 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
64 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48

Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of Paint P.of -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Tube Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
161
65 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
66 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
67 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
68 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
69 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.47
70 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
71 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
72 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
73 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
74 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
75 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
76 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
77 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
78 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
79 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
80 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
81 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
82 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
83 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
84 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
85 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
86 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
87 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
88 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
89 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.48
90 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.45
91 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
92 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
93 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
94 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62

162
Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of Paint P.of Tube -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
95 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
96 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
97 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
98 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
99 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
100 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
101 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
102 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
103 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
104 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
105 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
106 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
107 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
108 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
109 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
110 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
111 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
112 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
113 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
114 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
115 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
116 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
117 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
118 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
119 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
120 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
121 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
122 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
123 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67

163
Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of Paint P.of -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Tube Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
124 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
125 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
126 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
127 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
128 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
129 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
130 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
131 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
132 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
133 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
134 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
135 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
136 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
137 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
138 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
139 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
140 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
141 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
142 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
143 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
144 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
145 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
146 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
147 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
148 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
149 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
150 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
151 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
152 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
153 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
154 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62

164
155 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
156 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80

Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of P.of Tube -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Paint Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
157 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
158 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
159 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
160 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
161 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
162 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
163 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
164 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
165 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
166 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
167 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
168 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
169 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
170 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
171 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
172 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
173 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
174 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
175 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
176 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
177 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
178 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
179 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
180 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
181 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
182 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
183 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
165
184 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
185 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
186 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
187 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
188 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
189 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
190 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62

Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of P.of Tube -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Paint Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
191 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
192 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
193 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
194 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
195 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
196 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
197 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
198 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
199 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
200 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
201 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
202 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
203 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
204 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
205 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
206 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
207 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
208 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
209 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
210 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62
211 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.62

166
212 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
213 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
214 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
215 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
216 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
217 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80

Tablo E2.(Continued)

P. of P. of Paint P.of Tube -%0.30 P. of p.w. P.of weld. P.of

Header
Plate
(DM/m2) (DM/m) (DM/m) (DM/each) (DM/each) (DM/m)
2
(DM/m )
218 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
219 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
220 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
221 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
222 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
223 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
224 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
225 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
226 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
227 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
228 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
229 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
230 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
231 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
232 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
233 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
234 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67

167
235 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
236 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
237 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.80
238 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
239 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.67
240 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54
241 0.76 0.055 0.64 0.38 0.037 0.55 0.54

Tablo E3 Price lists of absorber plate in terms of galvanization, cost of plate, and
paint, tubes, welding and header, for each combination.

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
1 4.21 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
2 3.95 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
3 3.76 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
4 3.62 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
5 3.52 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
6 5.7 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
7 5.44 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
8 5.26 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
9 5.11 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
10 5.01 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
11 6.7 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
12 6.44 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
13 6.25 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
14 6.11 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
15 6.01 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
16 7.7 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
17 7.43 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
18 7.25 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
19 7.11 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
20 7.01 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91

168
21 9.19 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
22 8.93 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
23 8.75 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
24 8.6 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
25 8.5 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
26 11.68 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
27 11.42 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
28 11.24 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
29 11.09 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
30 10.99 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
31 4.33 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24

Table E3 (Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
32 4.06 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
33 3.86 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
34 3.71 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
35 3.6 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
36 5.82 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
37 5.55 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.08
38 5.35 1.31 4.75 20.05 0.96
39 5.2 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.91
40 5.09 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
41 6.82 1.31 6.86 28.96 1.24
42 6.55 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
43 6.35 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
44 6.19 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
45 6.09 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
46 7.82 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
47 7.55 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
48 7.35 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
49 7.19 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
50 7.08 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91

169
51 9.31 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
52 9.04 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
53 8.84 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
54 8.69 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
55 8.58 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
56 11.8 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
57 11.53 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
58 11.33 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
59 11.18 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
60 11.07 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
61 4.62 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
62 4.28 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
63 4.04 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
64 3.88 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
65 3.73 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91

Table E3(Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
66 6.11 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
67 5.77 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
68 5.54 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
69 5.37 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
70 5.22 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
71 7.11 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
72 6.77 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
73 6.53 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
74 6.37 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
75 6.22 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
76 8.11 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
77 7.76 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
78 7.53 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
79 7.36 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
80 7.21 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91

170
81 9.6 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
82 9.26 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
83 9.02 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
84 8.86 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
85 8.71 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
86 12.09 1.31 6.86 28.96 0.91
87 11.75 1.31 5.61 23.69 1.24
88 11.51 1.31 4.75 20.05 1.08
89 11.35 1.31 4.11 17.37 0.96
90 11.2 1.31 3.63 15.33 0.91
91 4.76 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
92 4.42 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35

Table E3(Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
93 4.17 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
94 3.99 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
95 3.87 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
96 6.26 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
97 5.91 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
98 5.66 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
99 5.48 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
100 5.36 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
101 7.25 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
102 6.90 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
103 6.66 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
104 6.48 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
105 6.36 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
106 8.25 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
107 7.90 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
108 7.65 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
109 7.48 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
110 7.35 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24

171
111 9.75 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
112 9.40 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
113 9.15 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
114 8.97 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
115 8.85 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
116 12.2 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
117 11.9 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
118 11.6 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
119 11.5 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
120 11.34 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
121 4.95 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
122 4.58 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
123 4.31 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
124 4.11 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24

Table E3(Continued)
P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of
Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
125 3.96 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
126 6.44 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
127 6.08 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
128 5.80 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
129 5.61 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
130 5.45 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
131 7.44 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
132 7.07 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
133 6.80 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
134 6.60 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
135 6.44 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
136 8.44 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
137 8.07 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
138 7.80 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
139 7.60 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24

172
140 7.44 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
141 9.93 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
142 9.56 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
143 9.29 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
144 9.10 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
145 8.94 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
146 12.4 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
147 12.0 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
148 11.8 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
149 11.6 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
150 11.4 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
151 5.34 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
152 4.88 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
153 4.58 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
154 4.35 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
155 4.16 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
156 6.33 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
157 6.83 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
158 6.37 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
159 6.07 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
160 5.84 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24

Table E3(Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
161 5.65 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
162 7.83 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
163 7.37 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
164 7.07 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
165 6.84 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
166 6.65 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
167 8.82 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
168 8.37 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
169 8.06 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
170 7.83 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24

173
171 7.65 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
172 10.3 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
173 9.86 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
174 9.56 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
175 9.33 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
176 9.14 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
177 12.8 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
178 12.4 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
179 12.0 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
180 11.8 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
181 11.6 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
182 5.69 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
183 5.19 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
184 4.82 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
185 4.55 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
186 4.34 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
187 7.18 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
188 6.68 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
189 6.31 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
190 6.04 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
191 5.83 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
192 8.18 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
193 7.67 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
194 7.31 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
195 7.04 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
Table E3(Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
196 6.83 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
197 9.18 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
198 8.67 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
199 8.30 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
200 8.04 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
201 7.82 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
202 10.7 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
174
203 10.2 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
204 9.80 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
205 9.53 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
206 9.32 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
207 13.2 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
208 12.7 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
209 12.3 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
210 12.0 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.24
211 11.8 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.24
212 6.21 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
213 5.60 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
214 5.17 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
215 4.85 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08
216 4.62 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08
217 7.70 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
218 7.10 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
219 6.66 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
220 6.35 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08
221 6.12 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08
222 8.70 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
223 8.09 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
224 7.66 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
225 7.34 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08
226 7.11 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08
227 9.69 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
228 9.09 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
229 8.65 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
230 8.34 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08

Table E3(Continued)

P.of P.of P.of P.of P.of

Galvanization Plate, and Tubes Welding Header
Paint
(DM) (DM) (DM) (DM)
(DM)
231 8.11 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08
175
232 11.2 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
233 10.6 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
234 10.2 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
235 9.84 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08
236 9.60 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08
237 13.7 1.31 6.88 28.96 1.61
238 13.1 1.31 5.63 23.69 1.35
239 12.6 1.31 4.77 20.05 1.35
240 12.3 1.31 4.13 17.37 1.08
241 12.1 1.31 3.64 15.33 1.08

176
Table E4. Diameter of header, unit weight of tube and header, mass of plate, tube
and absorber plate, for each combination.

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
1 0.031 0.161 0.740 6.33 0.29 10.7
2 0.028 0.161 0.666 6.33 0.29 10.0
3 0.026 0.161 0.617 6.33 0.29 9.60
4 0.024 0.161 0.567 6.33 0.29 9.20
5 0.023 0.161 0.543 6.33 0.29 8.90
6 0.031 0.161 0.740 10.1 0.29 14.5
7 0.028 0.161 0.666 10.1 0.29 13.8
8 0.026 0.161 0.617 10.1 0.29 13.3
9 0.024 0.161 0.567 10.1 0.29 13.0
10 0.023 0.161 0.543 10.1 0.29 12.7
11 0.031 0.161 0.740 12.7 0.29 17.0
12 0.028 0.161 0.666 12.7 0.29 16.3
13 0.026 0.161 0.617 12.7 0.29 15.9
14 0.024 0.161 0.567 12.7 0.29 15.5
15 0.023 0.161 0.543 12.7 0.29 15.3
16 0.031 0.161 0.740 15.2 0.29 19.5
17 0.028 0.161 0.666 15.2 0.29 18.9
18 0.026 0.161 0.617 15.2 0.29 18.4
19 0.024 0.161 0.567 15.2 0.29 18.0
20 0.023 0.161 0.543 15.2 0.29 17.8
21 0.031 0.161 0.740 18.9 0.29 23.3
22 0.028 0.161 0.666 18.9 0.29 22.7
23 0.026 0.161 0.617 18.9 0.29 22.2
24 0.024 0.161 0.567 18.9 0.29 21.8
25 0.023 0.161 0.543 18.9 0.29 21.6
26 0.031 0.161 0.740 25.3 0.29 29.7
27 0.028 0.161 0.666 25.3 0.29 29.0
28 0.026 0.161 0.617 25.3 0.29 28.5
29 0.024 0.161 0.567 25.3 0.29 28.2
30 0.023 0.161 0.543 25.3 0.29 27.9
31 0.03 0.181 0.715 6.33 0.33 11.0

177
Table E4 (Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
32 0.028 0.181 0.666 6.33 0.33 10.3
33 0.026 0.181 0.617 6.33 0.33 9.8
34 0.024 0.181 0.567 6.33 0.33 9.4
35 0.023 0.181 0.543 6.33 0.33 9.1
36 0.03 0.181 0.715 10.1 0.33 14.8
37 0.028 0.181 0.666 10.1 0.33 14.1
38 0.026 0.181 0.617 10.1 0.33 13.6
39 0.024 0.181 0.567 10.1 0.33 13.2
40 0.023 0.181 0.543 10.1 0.33 12.9
41 0.03 0.181 0.715 12.7 0.33 17.3
42 0.028 0.181 0.666 12.7 0.33 16.6
43 0.026 0.181 0.617 12.7 0.33 16.1
44 0.024 0.181 0.567 12.7 0.33 15.7
45 0.023 0.181 0.543 12.7 0.33 15.5
46 0.03 0.181 0.715 15.2 0.33 19.8
47 0.028 0.181 0.666 15.2 0.33 19.2
48 0.026 0.181 0.617 15.2 0.33 18.7
49 0.024 0.181 0.567 15.2 0.33 18.3
50 0.023 0.181 0.543 15.2 0.33 18.0
51 0.03 0.181 0.715 18.9 0.33 23.6
52 0.028 0.181 0.666 18.9 0.33 23.0
53 0.026 0.181 0.617 18.9 0.33 22.5
54 0.024 0.181 0.567 18.9 0.33 22.1
55 0.023 0.181 0.543 18.9 0.33 21.8
56 0.03 0.181 0.715 25.3 0.33 30.0
57 0.028 0.181 0.666 25.3 0.33 29.3
58 0.026 0.181 0.617 25.3 0.33 28.8
59 0.024 0.181 0.567 25.3 0.33 28.4
60 0.023 0.181 0.543 25.3 0.33 28.1
61 0.03 0.222 0.715 6.33 0.40 11.7
178
62 0.027 0.222 0.641 6.33 0.40 10.9
63 0.025 0.222 0.592 6.33 0.40 10.3
64 0.024 0.222 0.567 6.33 0.40 9.80
65 0.022 0.222 0.518 6.33 0.40 9.50

Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
66 0.030 0.222 0.715 10.1 0.40 15.5
67 0.027 0.222 0.641 10.1 0.40 14.7
68 0.025 0.222 0.592 10.1 0.40 14.1
69 0.024 0.222 0.567 10.1 0.40 13.6
70 0.022 0.222 0.518 10.1 0.40 13.3
71 0.030 0.222 0.715 12.7 0.40 18.1
72 0.027 0.222 0.641 12.7 0.40 17.2
73 0.025 0.222 0.592 12.7 0.40 16.6
74 0.024 0.222 0.567 12.7 0.40 16.2
75 0.022 0.222 0.518 12.7 0.40 15.8
76 0.03 0.222 0.715 15.2 0.40 20.6
77 0.027 0.222 0.641 15.2 0.40 19.7
78 0.025 0.222 0.592 15.2 0.40 19.1
79 0.024 0.222 0.567 15.2 0.40 18.7
80 0.022 0.222 0.518 15.2 0.40 18.3
81 0.030 0.222 0.715 18.9 0.40 24.4
82 0.027 0.222 0.641 18.9 0.40 23.5
83 0.025 0.222 0.592 18.9 0.40 22.9
84 0.024 0.222 0.567 18.9 0.40 22.5
85 0.022 0.222 0.518 18.9 0.40 22.1
86 0.030 0.222 0.715 25.3 0.40 30.7
87 0.027 0.222 0.641 25.3 0.40 29.8
88 0.025 0.222 0.592 25.3 0.40 29.2
89 0.024 0.222 0.567 25.3 0.40 28.8
90 0.022 0.222 0.518 25.3 0.40 28.4
91 0.041 0.212 0.986 6.33 0.38 12.1
92 0.037 0.212 0.888 6.33 0.38 11.2

179
Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
93 0.034 0.212 0.814 6.33 0.38 10.6
94 0.032 0.212 0.764 6.33 0.38 10.1
95 0.031 0.212 0.740 6.33 0.38 9.80
96 0.041 0.212 0.986 10.1 0.38 15.9
97 0.037 0.212 0.888 10.1 0.38 15.0
98 0.034 0.212 0.814 10.1 0.38 14.4
99 0.032 0.212 0.764 10.1 0.38 13.9
100 0.031 0.212 0.740 10.1 0.38 13.6
101 0.041 0.212 0.986 12.7 0.38 18.4
102 0.037 0.212 0.888 12.7 0.38 17.5
103 0.034 0.212 0.814 12.7 0.38 16.9
104 0.032 0.212 0.764 12.7 0.38 16.5
105 0.031 0.212 0.740 12.7 0.38 16.1
106 0.041 0.212 0.986 15.2 0.38 20.9
107 0.037 0.212 0.888 15.2 0.38 20.1
108 0.034 0.212 0.814 15.2 0.38 19.4
109 0.032 0.212 0.764 15.2 0.38 19.0
110 0.031 0.212 0.740 15.2 0.38 18.7
111 0.041 0.212 0.986 18.9 0.38 24.7
112 0.037 0.212 0.888 18.9 0.38 23.9
113 0.034 0.212 0.814 18.9 0.38 23.2
114 0.032 0.212 0.764 18.9 0.38 22.8
115 0.031 0.212 0.740 18.9 0.38 22.5
116 0.041 0.212 0.986 25.3 0.38 31.1
117 0.037 0.212 0.888 25.3 0.38 30.2
118 0.034 0.212 0.814 25.3 0.38 29.6
119 0.032 0.212 0.764 25.3 0.38 29.1
120 0.031 0.212 0.740 25.3 0.38 28.8
121 0.04 0.241 0.962 6.33 0.44 12.6
122 0.037 0.241 0.888 6.33 0.44 11.6
123 0.034 0.241 0.814 6.33 0.44 10.9
124 0.032 0.241 0.764 6.33 0.44 10.4

180
Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
125 0.030 0.241 0.715 6.33 0.44 10.0
126 0.040 0.241 0.962 10.1 0.44 16.4
127 0.037 0.241 0.888 10.1 0.44 15.4
128 0.034 0.241 0.814 10.1 0.44 14.7
129 0.032 0.241 0.764 10.1 0.44 14.2
130 0.030 0.241 0.715 10.1 0.44 13.8
131 0.040 0.241 0.962 12.7 0.44 18.9
132 0.037 0.241 0.888 12.7 0.44 18.0
133 0.034 0.241 0.814 12.7 0.44 17.3
134 0.032 0.241 0.764 12.7 0.44 16.8
135 0.030 0.241 0.715 12.7 0.44 16.4
136 0.040 0.241 0.962 15.2 0.44 21.4
137 0.037 0.241 0.888 15.2 0.44 20.5
138 0.034 0.241 0.814 15.2 0.44 19.8
139 0.032 0.241 0.764 15.2 0.44 19.3
140 0.030 0.241 0.715 15.2 0.44 18.9
141 0.040 0.241 0.962 18.9 0.44 25.2
142 0.037 0.241 0.888 18.9 0.44 24.3
143 0.034 0.241 0.814 18.9 0.44 23.6
144 0.032 0.241 0.764 18.9 0.44 23.1
145 0.030 0.241 0.715 18.9 0.44 22.7
146 0.040 0.241 0.962 25.3 0.44 31.5
147 0.037 0.241 0.888 25.3 0.44 30.6
148 0.034 0.241 0.814 25.3 0.44 29.9
149 0.032 0.241 0.764 25.3 0.44 29.4
150 0.030 0.241 0.715 25.3 0.44 29.0
151 0.040 0.296 0.962 6.33 0.54 13.6
152 0.036 0.296 0.863 6.33 0.54 12.4
153 0.034 0.296 0.814 6.33 0.54 11.6
154 0.032 0.296 0.764 6.33 0.54 11.0
155 0.030 0.296 0.715 6.33 0.54 10.6
156 0.040 0.296 0.962 8.86 0.54 16.1
181
157 0.040 0.296 0.962 10.1 0.54 17.3
158 0.036 0.296 0.863 10.1 0.54 16.2
159 0.034 0.296 0.814 10.1 0.54 15.4
160 0.032 0.296 0.764 10.1 0.54 14.8

Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
161 0.030 0.296 0.715 10.1 0.54 14.4
162 0.040 0.296 0.962 12.7 0.54 19.9
163 0.036 0.296 0.863 12.7 0.54 18.7
164 0.034 0.296 0.814 12.7 0.54 17.9
165 0.032 0.296 0.764 12.7 0.54 17.4
166 0.030 0.296 0.715 12.7 0.54 16.9
167 0.040 0.296 0.962 15.2 0.54 22.4
168 0.036 0.296 0.863 15.2 0.54 21.2
169 0.034 0.296 0.814 15.2 0.54 20.5
170 0.032 0.296 0.764 15.2 0.54 19.9
171 0.030 0.296 0.715 15.2 0.54 19.4
172 0.040 0.296 0.962 18.9 0.54 26.2
173 0.036 0.296 0.863 18.9 0.54 25.0
174 0.034 0.296 0.814 18.9 0.54 24.3
175 0.032 0.296 0.764 18.9 0.54 23.7
176 0.030 0.296 0.715 18.9 0.54 23.2
177 0.040 0.296 0.962 25.3 0.54 32.5
178 0.036 0.296 0.863 25.3 0.54 31.4
179 0.034 0.296 0.814 25.3 0.54 30.6
180 0.032 0.296 0.764 25.3 0.54 30.0
181 0.030 0.296 0.715 25.3 0.54 29.5
182 0.039 0.349 0.937 6.33 0.63 14.5
183 0.036 0.349 0.863 6.33 0.63 13.2
184 0.033 0.349 0.789 6.33 0.63 12.2
185 0.031 0.349 0.740 6.33 0.63 11.6
186 0.029 0.349 0.690 6.33 0.63 11.0
187 0.039 0.349 0.937 10.1 0.63 18.2
188 0.036 0.349 0.863 10.1 0.63 17.0
182
189 0.033 0.349 0.789 10.1 0.63 16.0
190 0.031 0.349 0.740 10.1 0.63 15.3
191 0.029 0.349 0.690 10.1 0.63 14.8
192 0.039 0.349 0.937 12.7 0.63 20.8
193 0.036 0.349 0.863 12.7 0.63 19.5
194 0.033 0.349 0.789 12.7 0.63 18.6
195 0.031 0.349 0.740 12.7 0.63 17.9

Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
196 0.029 0.349 0.690 12.7 0.63 17.3
197 0.039 0.349 0.937 15.2 0.63 23.3
198 0.036 0.349 0.863 15.2 0.63 22.0
199 0.033 0.349 0.789 15.2 0.63 21.1
200 0.031 0.349 0.740 15.2 0.63 20.4
201 0.029 0.349 0.690 15.2 0.63 19.9
202 0.039 0.349 0.937 18.9 0.63 27.1
203 0.036 0.349 0.863 18.9 0.63 25.8
204 0.033 0.349 0.789 18.9 0.63 24.9
205 0.031 0.349 0.740 18.9 0.63 24.2
206 0.029 0.349 0.690 18.9 0.63 23.7
207 0.039 0.349 0.937 25.3 0.63 33.4
208 0.036 0.349 0.863 25.3 0.63 32.1
209 0.033 0.349 0.789 25.3 0.63 31.2
210 0.031 0.349 0.740 25.3 0.63 30.5
211 0.029 0.349 0.690 25.3 0.63 30.0
212 0.038 0.425 0.912 6.33 0.77 15.8
213 0.035 0.425 0.838 6.33 0.77 14.2
214 0.032 0.425 0.764 6.33 0.77 13.1
215 0.03 0.425 0.715 6.33 0.77 12.3
216 0.029 0.425 0.690 6.33 0.77 11.7
217 0.038 0.425 0.912 10.1 0.77 19.6
218 0.035 0.425 0.838 10.1 0.77 18.0
219 0.032 0.425 0.764 10.1 0.77 16.9
220 0.03 0.425 0.715 10.1 0.77 16.1
183
221 0.029 0.425 0.690 10.1 0.77 15.5
222 0.038 0.425 0.912 12.7 0.77 22.1
223 0.035 0.425 0.838 12.7 0.77 20.5
224 0.032 0.425 0.764 12.7 0.77 19.4
225 0.030 0.425 0.715 12.7 0.77 18.6
226 0.029 0.425 0.690 12.7 0.77 18.1
227 0.038 0.425 0.912 15.2 0.77 24.6
228 0.035 0.425 0.838 15.2 0.77 23.1
229 0.032 0.425 0.764 15.2 0.77 22.0
230 0.030 0.425 0.715 15.2 0.77 21.2

Table E4(Continued)

Dh Uwtube Uwheader Mass of Plate Mass of 1tube Mass of

Absorber
(m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
231 0.029 0.425 0.690 15.2 0.77 20.6
232 0.038 0.425 0.912 18.9 0.77 28.4
233 0.035 0.425 0.838 18.9 0.77 26.9
234 0.032 0.425 0.764 18.9 0.77 25.8
235 0.030 0.425 0.715 18.9 0.77 25.0
236 0.029 0.425 0.690 18.9 0.77 24.4
237 0.038 0.425 0.912 25.3 0.77 34.7
238 0.035 0.425 0.838 25.3 0.77 33.2
239 0.032 0.425 0.764 25.3 0.77 32.1
240 0.030 0.425 0.715 25.3 0.77 31.3
241 0.029 0.425 0.690 25.3 0.77 30.7

184
Figure E1. Price of absorber plate and efficiency of collector for each
combination.

Figure E2. qu/ price, thickness of plate and tube spacing for each combination.

185
Figure E3. Price of absorber plate and efficiency of collector with best line.

186
 APPENDIX F

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Table F1. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency
values for STEK’ s Al collector.

It Ta Ti To Ti-Ta/It Efficiency
W/m2 °C °C °C °Cm2/W
1 946.68 31.8 56.8 63.1 0.0264 0.65
2 973.88 32.5 56.0 62.8 0.0241 0.68
3 979.33 32.7 56.7 63.6 0.0245 0.69
4 968.44 33.6 53.2 60.2 0.0202 0.71
5 935.80 33.9 54.8 61.6 0.0223 0.71
6 979.33 26.4 34.2 42.8 0.0080 0.86
7 1006.5 26.9 34.9 43.5 0.0079 0.84
8 1028.3 27.2 35.4 44.3 0.0080 0.85
9 1033.7 27.6 37.0 45.8 0.0091 0.83
10 1033.7 27.8 38.2 46.8 0.0101 0.81
11 924.92 25.8 36.0 43.8 0.0110 0.82
12 941.24 27.1 42.0 49.6 0.0158 0.79
13 968.44 28.0 43.0 51.1 0.0155 0.82
14 973.88 28.8 42.0 49.9 0.0136 0.79
15 963.00 28.9 36.0 44.2 0.0074 0.83
16 903.16 29.2 47.0 53.8 0.0197 0.74
17 924.92 30.8 41.5 49.4 0.0116 0.83
18 957.56 31.0 43.0 50.7 0.0125 0.79
19 924.92 31.0 47.1 54.6 0.0174 0.79
20 924.92 32.0 48.0 55.3 0.0173 0.77
21 919.48 31.0 35.6 43.4 0.005 0.83
22 957.56 32.2 35.0 43.2 0.0029 0.84
23 979.33 32.0 35.8 44.1 0.0039 0.83
187
Table F2. The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency
values for STEK’ s copper collector.
It Ta Ti To Ti-Ta/It Efficiency
W/m2 °C °C °C °Cm2/W
1 941.24 31.7 58.2 63.1 0.0282 0.51
2 941.24 33.2 38.5 44.3 0.0056 0.60
3 935.80 33.7 55.2 60.8 0.0230 0.59
4 1033.7 33.8 54.2 59.2 0.0197 0.47
5 935.80 33.7 50.0 55.1 0.0174 0.53
6 924.92 31.8 49.0 56.0 0.0186 0.74
7 946.68 33.5 56.0 61.6 0.0238 0.58
8 968.44 33.2 56.8 61.9 0.0244 0.52
9 957.56 34.0 55.1 60.8 0.0220 0.58
10 946.68 34.0 42.0 48.0 0.0085 0.62
11 930.36 31.8 35.0 40.2 0.0034 0.55
12 963.00 33.5 37.0 42.6 0.0036 0.57
13 963.00 33.2 38.0 44.2 0.0050 0.63
14 946.68 34.0 35.7 40.9 0.0018 0.54
15 924.92 31.8 42.0 47.6 0.0110 0.59
16 1088.1 32.0 33.5 41.5 0.0014 0.72
17 957.56 33.0 37.8 44.8 0.0050 0.71
18 941.24 33.5 38.0 44.8 0.0048 0.71
19 935.80 33.4 39.6 46.6 0.0066 0.73
20 924.92 33.3 39.2 46.8 0.0064 0.80
21 919.48 33.4 40.0 45.7 0.0072 0.61
22 919.48 30.2 49.2 55.6 0.0207 0.68
23 930.36 30.8 46.1 51.4 0.0164 0.56
24 935.80 30.0 45.0 50.9 0.0160 0.62
25 946.68 31.1 45.0 51.0 0.0147 0.62
26 957.56 31.8 35.5 42.0 0.0039 0.66
27 946.68 32.0 34.0 40.5 0.0021 0.67
28 946.68 32.1 32.8 39.8 0.0007 0.72
29 957.56 32.7 33.0 39.8 0.0003 0.69
30 946.68 31.1 45.0 51.9 0.0147 0.71
31 946.68 31.2 43.9 49.3 0.0134 0.56
32 941.24 31.7 37.8 42.9 0.0065 0.53
33 946.68 31.0 34.5 40.5 0.0037 0.62
34 935.80 31.7 34.2 40.5 0.0027 0.66
35 924.92 32.0 35.0 40.2 0.0032 0.55
188
Table F3 The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency values for
DA SAN’ s Cu collector.
It Ta Ti To Ti-Ta/It Efficiency
W/m2 °C °C °C °Cm2/W
1 941.24 31.7 58.0 65.0 0.0279 0.76
2 941.24 33.2 38.2 45.6 0.0053 0.80
3 935.80 33.7 55.2 62.0 0.0230 0.74
4 1033.7 33.8 54.7 61.6 0.0202 0.68
5 935.80 33.7 50.1 57.4 0.0175 0.8
6 924.92 31.8 47.0 53.0 0.0164 0.66
7 946.68 33.5 55.5 61.9 0.0232 0.69
8 968.44 33.2 56.2 63.2 0.0237 0.74
9 957.56 34.0 54.8 61.7 0.0217 0.74
10 946.68 34.0 43.0 50.1 0.0095 0.77
11 930.36 31.8 35.0 42.0 0.0034 0.77
12 963.00 33.5 37.0 43.7 0.0036 0.71
13 963.00 33.2 38.0 45.2 0.0050 0.76
14 946.68 34.0 35.7 42.1 0.0018 0.69
15 924.92 31.8 42.8 49.8 0.0119 0.77
16 957.56 31.8 35.0 43.0 0.0033 0.85
17 946.68 32.0 34.0 42.0 0.0021 0.86
18 946.68 32.1 32.85 41.0 0.0008 0.88
19 957.56 32.7 33.2 41.0 0.0005 0.83
20 1088.1 32.0 33.9 42.6 0.0017 0.82
21 957.56 33.0 38.0 45.8 0.0052 0.83
22 941.24 33.5 38.0 46.2 0.0048 0.89
23 935.80 33.4 39.7 47.9 0.0067 0.89
24 924.92 33.3 39.1 47.6 0.0063 0.94
25 919.48 33.4 40.0 48.0 0.0072 0.89
26 908.60 29.0 52.8 59.6 0.0262 0.76
27 919.48 30.2 49.2 55.2 0.0207 0.67
28 930.36 30.8 46.1 52.3 0.0164 0.68
29 935.80 30.0 45.0 52.0 0.0160 0.76
30 946.68 31.1 45.0 51.9 0.0147 0.74
31 946.68 31.2 43.9 50.1 0.0134 0.67
32 941.24 31.7 38.0 44.3 0.0067 0.68
33 946.68 31.0 35.0 41.1 0.0042 0.66
34 935.80 31.7 34.1 41.0 0.0026 0.75
35 924.92 32.0 35.0 42.3 0.0032 0.80
189
Table F.4 The measured temperature and radiation data and efficiency
values for galvanized iron collector.

It Ta Ti To Ti-Ta/It Efficiency
W/m2 °C °C °C °Cm2/W
1 946.68 31.8 56.9 61,6 0,0265 0,52
2 973.88 32.5 56.3 61,2 0,0244 0,52
3 979.33 32.7 56.7 62,1 0,0245 0,58
4 968.44 33.6 53.4 58,8 0,0204 0,58
5 935.80 33.9 54.6 59,8 0,0221 0,58
6 979.33 26.4 34.0 40,8 0,0078 0,72
7 1006.5 26.9 34.2 41,1 0,0073 0,72
8 1028.3 27.2 35.0 42,2 0,0076 0,73
9 1033.7 27.6 37.0 44,3 0,0091 0,74
10 1033.7 27.8 38.0 45.0 0,0099 0,71
11 924.92 25.8 35.0 41,3 0,0099 0,71
12 941.24 27.1 39.1 45,8 0,0127 0,74
13 968.44 28.0 39.9 46,5 0,0123 0,71
14 973.88 28.8 40.1 46,9 0,0116 0,73
15 963.00 28.9 35.8 42,7 0,0072 0,75
16 903.16 29.2 46.9 52,5 0,0196 0,65
17 924.92 30.8 44.6 50,8 0,0149 0,70
18 957.56 31.0 44.0 50,4 0,0136 0,70
19 924.92 31.0 47.0 53,1 0,0173 0,69
20 924.92 32.0 47.0 53.0 0,0162 0,68
21 919.48 31.0 35.6 42,3 0,0050 0,76
21 957.56 32.2 35.0 42,1 0,0029 0,77
23 979.33 32.0 35.8 42,9 0,0039 0,76

190
 APPENDIX G

THE SAMPLE CALCULAT ON FOR T ME CONSTANT

STEK’s Al

Ti :18.1°C
To,initial :25.8°C
To,t=(To-Ti)x0.368+Ti=20.93°C

1.minute To,t = 23.5°C

2. To,t = 21.5°C
Time Constant is 137 seconds (2′17′′).

Galvanized Fe
Ti :17.7°C
To,initial :25.8°C
To,t=(To-Ti)x.368+Ti=20.68°C

1.minute To,t = 24.1°C

2 To,t = 22.5°C
3 To,t = 21.4°C
Time Constant is 198 seconds (3′18′′)

191
 APPENDIX H

GLOSSARY OF SOLAR HEAT NG TERMS




   
    
 
     



        
   
      
  
    

       



 
    
 
 
   

    


  
    
 
    

   
       
 

     
 
  
    


 
 


   
    

  

         
    
    

 
    

     
   
      
    
 

    
   
    
 
   
  
        
    

     
    
       
  
    
      
      

      
         

  
         
  
  
 
     
 
    
         
 
 

     
     



         
   
    
  
   
  
      
    
  

    

     
  
    
     

 
  
    
   
  
     
    
 
  

     
    
 
     





   
   


 
 

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