Earth and Life Science Notes

Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite
chemical composition.

Identification of Minerals
There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals based on physical
and chemical properties. Some minerals can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments
while some can be assessed through their physical properties.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no access to complex
analytical techniques. Although a particular mineral has different forms, the fundamental physical
properties are still the same. Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak,
luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.

 The color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the
arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high symmetry. The
reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice results in the color perceived by
the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is
reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with an
equal volume.
 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. It is
generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness.
 Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into
forms other than flat surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting,
crushing, bending, or hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. They can be
represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them.
For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical formula SiO2. Its crystal structure is a continuous
framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure.
Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.

 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature.

For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and
base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of
atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting points. For
example, quartz melts above 1670°C.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be analyzed through
chemical and instrumental analysis. Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are
performed to determine the crystal structure of the mineral.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and
olivine. All of the following silicate minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks.
Despite its hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and
transparent. Colored varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The
grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl(1−2)Si(3−2)O8, where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard
with a Mohs hardness of 6. It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter
shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break
along flat faces.

Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common examples
are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is
easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for
the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.

Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X is CaorMg and Y is
either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white,
light green, or light brown. It is generally black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key
feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.

Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most
common amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long
and very thin.

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4, but calcium,
manganese, and nickel can be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-
green color and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and
transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a granular shape.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes

Key Points
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a
definite chemical composition.
 Minerals can be distinguished based on physical and chemical properties.
 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity,
hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure.
Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole,
and olivine.

Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram above, we can see that:

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and
pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process
called lithification.

Also, we can see that one type of rock can be transformed into another type depending on the
process that it goes through.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusive igneous based on grain size.

 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They are
coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth.
They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic
eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface.

Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and percentage
mineral composition. The diagram below shows the four general compositions of igneous rocks–
light-colored or felsic, intermediate, dark-colored mafic, and ultramafic.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic or non-clastic.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When
preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments. When these
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
sediments are transported, deposited, and lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary rocks.
These rocks can be identified based on their grain sizes that can range from 0.002 mm (e.g.
clay size) to > 2 mm (coarse gravel).
 Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination of
both. Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms. Examples
include coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and limestone (formed from the remains of
calcareous organisms). On the other hand, chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical
precipitation. An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate from a solution.
Below is a table of chemical sedimentary rocks based on composition and texture size.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on texture.

 Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure to

high temperatures and pressures.
o Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
 In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered appearance.
o Examples include marble, quartzite, and anthracite.

Foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks can be further classified based on their parent rocks.
However, such classification can be difficult because of the rock alteration during metamorphism.
The table below shows the parent rocks of different foliated and non-foliated rocks.

Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called weathering. Weathering is the
process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different types of rock
weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces
without changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks in
the highway develop cracks and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This
activity is an example of mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other
substances that have different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of
chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks
the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals to
produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering
process. One example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the
feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.
 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of the
trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi that
grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the rocks.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes

Erosion
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity,
groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to erosion.

Types of Erosion
 Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to different parts of
the bodies of water such as rivers.
 Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried
by wind to different places.
 Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of rocks and
causes scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the
development of other landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
 Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile. This is
caused by wind or flood in an area.

Deposition
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination. The
depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or marine.

 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.

Internal Heat of the Earth

The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the middle layer,
and the core or the innermost layer.

 The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life forms on Earth.
 The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of semi-solid
magma.
 The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also considered as the
center and the hottest part of the Earth.

Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the crust.
The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of
the core. The principal contributors to the heat of the core come from the decay of radioactive
elements and from the heat of the molten outer core which solidifies near the inner core.

Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the flow of
thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which
is mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is counteracted by the solar radiation.

Magmatism
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high temperature
and pressure melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be
found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper part of the mantle. Depending on the
temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the mantle, the magma can be formed in
different ways.

Plutonism
On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation of
intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s
surface. These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface through the process of uplifting - a force that
pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.

When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface through
uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool
and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.

Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in the Earth’s
crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This process of bringing up the
magma is called volcanism.

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened. Some igneous rocks
solidified before they were ejected and some igneous rocks are formed after they reach the ground.

Two Types of Igneous Rocks

 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption occurs.
Different rock materials allow the formation of intrusive igneous rocks. The most common
example is granite. Granite is used in floor tiles and monuments.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s
surface. The texture of these rocks is finer as compared to the intrusive igneous rocks. Due
to slow cooling of the lava, large crystals are formed on the rocks. The most common
example is basalt. Basalt is used for construction purposes such as pavements, railroads,
and road base.

Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could undergo
metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to
intense heat and pressure. It comes from the Greek word metamorphoun meaning transform or
change shape. The rocks that undergo metamorphism are converted to metamorphic rocks.

Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous
intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions. Country rocks are rocks
surrounding the igneous intrusions. Igneous intrusions form when molten magma moves
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
and seeps through fractures and in between crystals of rocks. The zone of metamorphosis
that surrounds the intrusions is called halo or aureole. Some examples of rocks that
undergo contact metamorphism include marble and emery rock.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are altered due
to high pressure. The rocks that are formed with this type of metamorphism are called
mylonites. Mylonites are compact, fine-grained rocks with thin laminations or layers.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs in broad
areas. It is caused by high temperature and pressure that resulted from the thickening of the
crust and plate tectonics

Types of Stresses in the Earth’s Crust

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can make the
rocks come together or make the plates rise. Mountains and hills could be formed when two
plates collide.

 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away from each
other. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It moved the oceanic crust
away from each other that resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the mantle.

 Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the breaking of the
large parts of the crust into smaller sizes. This force always happens along the plate
boundaries. Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates meet. When the two
plates rub each other and move in opposite directions, it creates friction. This friction leads to
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.

In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that in the beginning, the Earth has only
one giant landmass called Pangaea, which means "all land." He hypothesized that this giant
landmass slowly broke into smaller land pieces that eventually drifted away from each other which
made the seven continents that we now know. This is known as the Continental drift theory.

Alfred Wegener presented the following pieces of evidence to support his theory:

 The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident in the matching
coastlines of South America and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils were found in different continents. The fossils of the
reptile mesosaurus were found along the coastlines of South America and Africa which are
separated by the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, the fossil of a fernlike plant glossopteris was
found distributed in all the continents.

 In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and eastern Brazil, South America, the
rocks are of the same type and age.
 Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found along matching coastlines like that of
the Appalachian Mountains and Scandinavia.
 Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from organic matter like dead plants
and animals. In a very cold place like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most organisms
to survive. The presence of coal indicates that the continent was once inhabited by many
organisms. It also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near the equator where
abundant animal and plant organisms could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were found in Africa, South
America, India, and Australia. They were of the same age and type. The presence of tillites
indicates that those places had glaciers in the past, were once located near the South Pole,
and had drifted away from each other.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
 The pieces of evidence supported the continental drift theory; however, the theory was
rejected due to lack of explanation for the force responsible in the continent's movement.
 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection
cells in the Earth’s mantle. When the rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by radioactivity,
they become less dense, and they rise toward the surface of the Earth. When they cool
down, they become denser and sink. The continuous process of rising and sinking of rocks
produces convection cells or convection currents. These currents cause the tectonic
plates, which include the crust, to move and drift.

The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move due to the
convection currents in the Earth’s interior.

Plate Movements
The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries can be
convergent, divergent, or transform.

In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move away
from each other, they are in a divergent boundary. Finally, when plates slide past each other, they
are in a transform boundary.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent
boundaries, tensional stress at divergent boundaries, or shear stress at transform boundaries. Due
to these stresses, rocks experience changes in volume and shape.

Rock Deformation
Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other. Tensional stress pulls rocks
apart and shear stress causes rocks to slide opposite each other.

When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or bending (fold).

Fracture
Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to break
or fracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses. This means that the pressure
exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal strength.

Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where there is considerable
movement on the fracture surface while a joint is a break where there is no considerable movement.

Types of Fault
There are two types of faults. They can either be dip-slip or strike-slip faults.

Dip-slip Faults
Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These movements are described
based on the direction of the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging
wall is the block of rock that rests on the fault plane while a footwall is the one below the fault
plane.

Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress
it is characterized by the hanging wall moving downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse
fault, wherein the hanging wall moves upward, is formed by compressional stress.

Strike-slip Fault
Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused by shear stress.

Fold
Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they do
not break but they tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become
thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled apart.

Types of Fold
When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when
blocks of rock bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers
forms monoclines.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes

Seafloor Spreading
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents in the
Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread. Convection currents carry heat from the molten
materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere. These currents ensure that the materials
formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle. In this “recycling” process, which was
later named as seafloor spreading, the molten materials flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges,
spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.

When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the seafloor above
it to be pulled apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge, where the molten
materials go out. New oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of the molten materials, and as
the process continues, oceanic ridges or underwater mountain ranges are built. Oceanic ridges are
composed of volcanic rocks.

As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on spreading
forming a central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges. The molten materials
push the seafloor away from the ridges and towards the trenches. Trenches are depressions on the
ocean floor. When the molten materials are brought near the trenches, they start to cool, become
denser and sink back down into the Earth where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the
seafloor continues as a “recycling” process. As new seafloor is created, it continues the process until
it disappears back into the deep ocean trenches. Records show that the oldest seafloor is relatively
younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks (about 3 billion years old) found on land.
This shows that the seafloor is constantly recycled.

As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials. This means
that the nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther
from the ridge.

World Oceanic Ridges

Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other;
while trenches are formed at subduction zones where plates collide with each other or
at convergent boundaries.

The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas depict
where new oceanic crusts are formed which would also show where the ocean floors spread, just
like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at divergent boundaries. On the other hand,
the areas farther from the marks, located at convergent boundaries, are subduction zones, like the
Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have been broken down by
water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary particles such as gravel, sand, and mud.
These particles can also bury dead plants and animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate,
and those that are at the bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand
becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or plants buried with
them become fossils. These series of events form the different layers of rocks.

Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified

Rocks
There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and absolute dating.

 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating
Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older
than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock is.

In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions of
sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid.
The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any
slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation of layers
called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are
also called strata.

Principles of Relative Dating

The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer
is younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's history because it
indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils.

The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down horizontally.
However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of original horizontality, the
rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as tilting episodes of mountain building.

Principles of Relative Dating

The law of lateral continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to the sides. These
layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the rock, but the
layers on either side of the eroded areas still match.

The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger
features that cut through older features of rocks.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes

Absolute Dating
Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by
measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter
isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the sample could be determined.

Examples
 Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.
 K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.

The Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records,
which describe the relationships between the events that happened throughout the Earth’s history.
The sequence of events is based on the radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the
fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.

A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated
by integrating results from relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time
scale is calibrated.

How the Geologic Time Scale is

Calibrated
 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.
 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative
dating leading to a chronological order of events.
 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric
methods. Absolute dating provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating provides at
least six strata with relative ages – first and last occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic
eruption events.

When plants and animals die, their remains and imprints are buried in rocks or sediments. These
preserved remains or traces are called fossils. Fossils are pieces of evidence that life has
happened in the past. Information from these fossils are used to construct the geologic time scale.

The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth. It is made up of time units
that divide Earth’s history based on the appearance or disappearance of life forms (supported by
fossil remains) in specific times. This scale helps us to study and interpret the history of life on Earth.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes
As shown in the diagram below, the geologic time scale is divided into hierarchical chunks of time.
From largest to smallest, this hierarchy includes eon, era, period, and epoch. The last column,
indicates millions of years ago, it is represented by Ma which means mega-annum.

 An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of
millions of years. There are three major eons, the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic
eons. The Phanerozoic eon is the one we are in today.
 An era is hundreds of millions of years long. The three major eras in the Phanerozoic eon
are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Mass extinctions mark the boundaries
between the eras. We are in the Cenozoic era, which began 65 million years ago, after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
 A period is tens of millions of years long. It is based on the forms of life existing at that time.
For instance, the tertiary and quaternary periods comprise the Cenozoic Era. The tertiary
period is the beginning of the age of mammals while the quaternary period is considered the
age of humans.
 An epoch is several million years long. It is the division of the most recent periods. For
example, the quaternary period, which began with an ice age about 1.8 million years ago, is
divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Each epoch has unique
geography and climate, so plants and animals that existed during those times are unique to
each epoch, too.

The subdivisions of the geologic time scale are identified through marker fossils, or guide fossils.
A marker fossil is a fossil of a plant or an animal that existed for a relatively short period of time. It
helps geologists distinguish between rock strata from different time periods.

For a fossil to be considered as a guide, it should be common, can easily be identified at the species
level, and should be distributed at many locations on the Earth. Also, the shorter the life period of a
fossil, the greater the chances of correlating it with different sediments.

Primitive life forms existed on Earth during Precambrian time and the Paleozoic era. They continue
to evolve through the Mesozoic Era and the current Cenozoic Era.

The diagram below shows the significant events that happened and the organisms that existed and
became extinct at different periods of time. These events became clues to the evolving history of
Earth through time. Several theories were formed from these clues, such as Darwin's theory of
Natural Selection and the theories on events that resulted in the extinction of dinosaurs.
Earth and Life Science Notes
Chapter 2: Earth Materials and Processes