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Zbornik - Konacna Verzija 2014
Zbornik - Konacna Verzija 2014
Zbornik - Konacna Verzija 2014
eISSN 2334 – 9573
DOI: 10.14415/konferencijaGFS2014
ЗБОРНИК РАДОВА
ГРАЂЕВИНСКОГ ФАКУЛТЕТА
МЕЂУНАРОДНЕ КОНФЕРЕНЦИЈЕ
САВРЕМЕНА ДОСТИГНУЋА У ГРАЂЕВИНАРСТВУ
JOURNAL OF
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
CONTEMPORARY ACHIEVEMENTS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
E. III СУБОТИЦА
2014
Чланови: Академик Владан Ђорђевић, Универзитет у Београду, РС
Академик Миха Томажевич, Универзитет у Љубљани, СИ
Академик Теодор Атанацковић, Универзитет у Н. Саду, РС
Проф. др Раде Вигњевић, University Cranfiel UK
Проф. др Димитрије Стаменовић, Boston University, USA
Проф. др Синиша Ђ. Месаровић, Washington State University, USA
Проф. др Драган Савић, University of Exeter, UK
Проф. др habil. János Major, HU
Проф. др György L. Balázs, University of Budapest, HU
Проф. др Radu Bancila, University of Timisoara, RO
Проф. др Jan Bujnak, University of Zilina, SK
Проф. др Радомир Фолић, Универзитет у Новом Саду, РС
Проф. др Стјепан Лакушић, Универзитет у Загребу, ХР
Проф. др Дубравка Бјеговић, Универзитет у Загребу, ХР
Проф. др Милан Кљајин, Универзитет у Осијеку, ХР
Проф. др Дамир Маркулак, Универзитет у Осијеку, ХР
Проф. др Мустафа Храсница, Универзитет у Сарајеву, БА
Проф. др Миодраг Роић, Универзитет у Загребу, ХР
Проф. др Синиша Мастелић Ивић, Универзитет у Загребу, ХР
Проф. др Милош Кнежевић, Универзитет Црне Горе, МЕ
Проф. др Душко Лучић, Универзитет Црне Горе, МЕ
Проф. др Мирослав Премров, Универзитет у Марибору, СИ
Проф. др Лудвик Траунер, Универзитет у Марибору, СИ
Проф. др Татјана Исаковић, Универзитет у Љубљани, СИ
Проф. др Милорад Јовановски, Универзитет у Скопљу, МК
Проф. др Душко Најдановић, Универзитет у Београду, РС
Проф. др Дејан Бајић, Универзитет у Београду, РС
Проф. др Драгослав Шумарац, Универзитет у Београду, РС
Проф. др Драгослав Стојић, Универзитет у Нишу, РС
Проф. др Јово Јарић, Универзитет у Београду, РС
Проф. др Борислав Стојков, Универзитет У Београду, РС
Members: Academic Vladan Đorđević, University of Beograd, RS
Academic Miha Tomaževič, University of Ljubljana, SL
Academic Teodor Atanacković, University of Novi Sad, RS
Prof. dr Rade Vignjević, University Cranfiel UK
Prof. dr Dimitrije Stamenović, Boston University, USA
Prof. dr Siniša Đ. Mesarović, Washington State University, USA
Prof. dr Dragan Savić, University of Exeter, UK
Prof. dr habil. János Major PhD, HU
Prof. dr György L. Balázs, University of Budapest, HU
Prof. dr Radu Bancila, University of Timisoara, RO
Prof. dr Jan Bujnak, University of Zilina, SK
Prof. dr Radomir Folić, University of Novi Sad, RS
Prof. dr Stjepan Lakušić, University of Zagreb, CR
Prof. dr Dubravka Bjegović, University of Zagreb, CR
Prof. dr Milan Kljajin, University of Osijek, CR
Prof. dr Damir Markulak, University of Osijek, CR
Prof. dr Mustafa Hrasnica, University of Sarajevo, BA
Prof. dr Miodrag Roić, University of Zagreb, CR
Prof. dr Siniša Mastelić Ivić, University of Zagreb, CR
Prof. dr Miloš Knežević, University of Crna Gora, MNE
Prof. dr Duško Lučić, University of Crna Gora, MNE
Prof. dr Miroslav Premrov, University of Maribor, SL
Prof. dr Ludvik Trauner, University of Maribor, SL
Prof. dr Tatjana Isaković, University of Ljubljana, SL
Prof. dr Milorad Jovanovski, University of Skoplje, MK
Prof. dr Duško Najdanović, University of Beograd, RS
Prof. dr Dejan Bajić, University of Beograd, RS
Prof. dr Dragoslav Šumarac, University of Beograd, RS
Prof. dr Dragoslav Stojić, University of Niš, RS
Prof. dr Jovo Jarić, University of Beograd, RS
Prof. dr Borislav Stojkov, University of Beograd, RSС
САДРЖАЈ
CONTENTS
1. КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ 23
Александар Бојовић, Антонио Мора, Златко Марковић,
Димитрије Алексић, Марко Павловић, Милан Спремић,
Новак Новаковић, Бошко Јањушевић………………………………………….. 25
ЖЕЛЕЗНИЧКО – ДРУМСКИ МОСТ У НОВОМ САДУ. ГЛАВНИ ПРОЈЕКТ И
ИЗВОЂЕЊЕ
RAILWAY - ROAD BRIDGE IN NOVI SAD. GENERAL PROJECT AND CONSTRUCTION
Zsolt Kokrehel………………………………………………………………………….. 87
САВРЕМЕНА РЕШЕЊА ВЕЗА ЕЛЕМЕНАТА У ЧВОРОВИМА МОНТАЖНЕ
КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ ПРИМЕНОМ ВИЈЧАНЕ ВЕЗЕ
MODERN SOLUTIONS ELEMENT CONNECTIONS IN THE NODES OF
PREFABRICATED STRUCTURES USING THE SCREW CONNECTION
Bojan Aranđelović, Dragan Nikolić…………………………………………………. 95
PRESTRESSING FORCE TRANSFER IN HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED
CONCRETE ELEMENTS
ТРАНСФЕР СИЛЕ ПРЕДНАПРЕЗАЊА У ЕЛЕМЕНТИМА ОД БЕТОНА ВИСОКИХ
ЧВРСТОЋА
Љубомир Влајић, Александар Ландовић………………………………………. 101
ЈЕДАН ПРИМЕР САНАЦИЈЕ ЦЕНТРИЧНО ПРИТИСНУТИХ АБ СТУБОВА НА
ОСНОВУ ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛНО-ТЕОРИЈСКЕ АНАЛИЗЕ МОДЕЛСКИХ
ИСПИТИВАЊА
ONE EXAMPLE OF REHABILITATION OF AXIALLY LOADED RC COLUMNS BASED
ON EXPERIMENTAL-THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF MODEL SPECIMENS
Љубомир М. Влајић, Илија М. Миличић, Александар Д. Прокић…………. 107
ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛНА АНАЛИЗА ДИНАМИЧКИХ УТИЦАЈА СПРЕГНУТЕ
КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ У ФАБРИЦИ “БАНИНИ А.Д.” У КИКИНДИ
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC EFFECTS COMPOSITE STRUCTURES IN
THE FACTORY "BANINI A.D." IN KIKINDA
Radmila Sinđić-Grebović…………………………………………………………….. 117
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAMS AND
APPLICATION OF STM
ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛНА АНАЛИЗА СМИЧУЋЕ НОСИВОСТИ ГРЕДА И ПРИМЈЕНА STM
КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ
1
1
Александар Бојовић, дипл.инж. грађ., DEL ING DOO, Јастребовљева 25, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 354
11 20, e – mail: aleksandar.bojovic@deling.rs
2
Antonio Mora, M.S.CE, Azvi Ogranak, Нови Сад, Темеринска 102, тел. 021 552 805. e – mail:
zezelj.bridge.azvi@gmail.com
3
Проф. др. Златко Марковић, дипл.инж.грађ., Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Краља
Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел. 011 32 18 627, e – mail:: zlatko@grf.bg.ac.rs
4
Димитрије Алексић, дипл.инж. грађ., DEL ING DOO, Јастребовљева 25, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 354
11 20, e – mail: dimitrije.aleksic@deling.rs
5
др Марко Павловић, дипл.инж. грађ., Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Краља
Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел. 011 32 18 627, e – mail: marko@grf.bg.ac.rs
6
др Милан Спремић, дипл.инж. грађ., Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Краља
Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел. 011 32 18 627, e – mail: spremic@grf.bg.ac.rs
7
Новак Новаковић, дипл.инж. грађ., DEL ING DOO, Јастребовљева 25, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 354 11
20, e – mail: novak.novakovic@deling.rs
8
Бошко Јаљушевић, дипл.инж. грађ., DEL ING DOO, Јастребовљева 25, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 354
11 20, e – mail: bosko.janjusevic@deling.rs
Железничко-друмски мост преко Дунава у Новом Саду је у изградњи. Гради га
конзорцијум шпанских и италијанске фирме Azvi S.A. – Tadei S.p.A. – Horta
Coslada S.L. у сарадњи са више подизвођача, међу којима су и фирме из Србије,
(видети т. 4).
Мост се гради у Новом Саду на локацији претходног Друмско-железничког моста
(„Жежељевог моста“), срушеног 1999. у ратним дејствима, (слика 1). Мост се
налази на траси међународне железничке магистралне пруге број 2, Будимпешта –
граница са Мађарском – Суботица – Нови Сад – Београд.
Пројектовање и градња моста обављају се према захтевима Урбанистичких услова
града Новог Сада, Пројектном задатку Железница Србије (истом и за Идејни, и за
Главни пројект) и Тендерским документима.
Најважнији технички захтеви Урбанистичких услова и Пројектног задатка:
локација: локација старог моста;
саобраћај на мосту, слика 3: два колосека + две друмске траке + две пешачко-
бициклистичке стазе;
оса колосека број 1 на мосту, слика 3: у оси постојећег колосека на обалама;
статички систем и материјал конструкције: челични, лучни мостови;
фундирање: искористити темеље старог моста колико је могуће;
инсталације на мосту: према захтевима корисника;
убрзање у вертикалној равни од железничких оптерећења: aV ≤ 1,3 m/s2 ;
брзине возова: путничких 160 km/h, теретних 120 km/h;
норме за пројектовање: водећа норма су препоруке Немачких савезних
железница Ril 804:2003 [5], одатле повезане немачке норме DIN-Fb 101 до
104:2009 и европске норме EN 1990:2002, EN 1993-2:2006, EN 1994-2:2005 као
основне, као и норме серије EN 1998 за сезмичка дејства.
Изузетно битан услов, ван поменутих захтева, био је услов о коштању моста:
највише 60 милиона EUR, према захтеву Делегације Европске комисије, обзиром
да је Европска комисија донатор дела средстава за изградњу моста.
Кратак преглед развоја пројекта у целини:
2007-05 до 2010-07: Италијанске фирме Italferr и IRD добијају конкурс
Делегације Европске комисије (DEU) за пројектовање моста; садржај: Идејно
решење + Идејни пројект + Главни пројект + Тендерски документи; градња
моста према Црвеном Фидику. Током времена Железнице Србије два пута
мењају пројектни задатак што је довело до израде два идејна пројекта (!).
Идејни пројект, други по реду, био је у проширеном облику и као замена за
Главни пројект. Ово је био разлог преласка услова изградње моста - са
Црвеног на Жути Фидик; о Идејном пројекту видети литературу [1].
2010-07: расписан конкурс DEU за извођење радова по Жутом Фидику;
2011-01: потписан уговор о изградњи моста са шпанско-италијанским
конзорцијумом Azvi S.A. – Tadei S.p.A. – Horta Coslada S.L.; Главни пројект [2]
је завршен 2011-11 и после свих законских процедура градња је почела 2012-
04. Завршетак изградње моста се очекује 2015.
Главни пројект је приказан у радовима [3] и [4].
Слика 1. Изглед и диспозиција моста
2. ОСНОВНЕ ТЕХНИЧКЕ КАРАКТЕРИСТИКЕ МОСТА
Слика 2. Типичан пресек зоне коловоза
Битни разлози избора конструктивних решења:
Основни конструктивни систем лучних мостова – лукови са затегом, а не
укљештени лукови. Огромне хоризонталне силе од лукова примају се унутар
система затегама, а не тлом – што може да буде изузетно опасно по опстанак
моста у случају размицања ослонаца, поготово у условима лошег тла, какво је
углавном на обалама.
Величина стреле лучних мостова: Одређене из анализе дебљина лимова
пресека лукова и затега – да се обезбеди оптимални избор класа и подкласа
челика у складу са поступцима заваривања.
Вешаљке – каблови или пуне затеге: Изабрани су каблови због убедљивих
предности: без монтажних наставака, много веће отпорности на замор, већег
пригушења осцилација и обезбеђења аероеластичне стабилности.
Коловозна конструкција – спрегнута или челична са ортотропном плочом:
Спрегнута конструкција има изразите предности: битно нижу цену израде,
већу отпорност на замор, мању опасност од залеђивања, одаје мању буку,
лакше се одржава.
[1] Petrangeli, M.P., Bojovic, A., Njagulj, V.: New Railway Road Bridge across the
Danube in Novi Sad. 7th International Conference on Bridges across the Danube
2010, Bridges in the Danube Basin „Theory and practice in bridge engineering“,
Bridges, October 14-15, Sofia, Bulgaria, Proceedings, p. 247-260.
[2] Railway Road Bridge across the Danube in Novi Sad. Detailed Design of the Bridge
Structure. DEL ING d.o.o., Belgrade, (as subcontractor of JV Azvi/Taddei/Horta
Coslada, Belgrade, November 2011.
[3] Bojović, A., Marković, Z. Mora, A., Blom, J., Aleksić, D., Pavlović, M., Spremić,
M., Novaković, N., Janjušević, B.: Detailed design of the railway road bridge in
1. УВОД
Комплекс је пројектован из више целина (WP1 – work package 1 – производна
постројења) које су међусобно повезане углавном цевним мостовима који поред
цевног развода на себи имају и велики број електро регала за „јаку“ струју и
сигнализацију и инструментацију. Постројења у оквиру комплекса (која су била
предмет уговора CB&I) јесу:
постројење за благи хидрокрекинг и хидрообраду;
постројење за производњу сумпора;
постројење за гранулацију сумпора;
постројење за регенерацију амина;
постројење за пречишћавање киселих вода
Слика 1. Изглед компплекса (из пројекта)
У оквиру сваке целине пројектован је (и изведен) већи број грађевинских објеката
и то бетонских конструкција у виду темеља вертикалних и хоризонталних судова,
пумпи, компресора и конструкција базена и челичних конструкција у виду
вишеспратних платформи, отворених зграда или кула.
Комплетно пројектовање овог комплекса обавили су пројектанти чешке филијале
предузећа „CB&I“ (из Брна), а документацију су нострификовали и као одговорни
пројектанти пред законом стајали пројектанти предузећа „Делта инжењеринг“.
3. БЕТОНСКЕ КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ
3.1 Темељи цевних мостова и других челичних конструкција
Темељи цевних мостова и других челичних конструкција су димензионисани у
сектору за бетон грађевинског бироа CB&I-ја, на основу реакција добијених од
Слика 2. Заједнички темељ посуда ДА 4305, ДА 4307 и ДА 4308
4. ЧЕЛИЧНЕ КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ - ЗГРАДА КОМПРЕСОРА
Даље у тексту ће бити приказан пример само једног објекта јер простор не
омогућава приказ типичних конструкција пројектованих и изведених (цевних
мостова, платформи, вишеспратних зграда).
Слика 3. Типичан попречни пресек зграде
Носећа челична конструкција састоји се од 10 попречних рамова чији је распон
17,000 метара. Подужни размак између рамова је (углавном) 6,00 метара.
Калкански зидови у осама 1 и 10 имају у свом саставу вертикалне спрегове, кровна
ригла у калканима (пун носач) подупрта је са 2 стуба (између стубова главног
рама).
У осама 2 до 9 свим главним стубовима је у подужном правцу скраћена дужина
извијања подужним гредама, које своје реакције предају вертикалним спреговима
(по 2 комада у оба подужна зида).
Кровни везач је израђен у виду решетке састављене од 8 поља (углавном по 2,250
м), висине од 2,000 м у слемену.
1. УВОД
Предвиђена је доградња Грађевинског факултета у две фазе, на је катастарској
парцели бр. 19643 KO Стари град у Суботици. У прој фази би се доградио део
објекта намењен за одржавање наставе и формирање истраживачко иновационог
центра који ће објединити : лабораторију за испитивање конструкција, геодезију,
геомеханику, рачунски центар, итд. Поред лабораторија предвиђају се сале –
слушаонице, кабинети наставника, библиотека, читаоница и сала за израду
дипломских радова. Уз наведене садржаје предвиђене су неопходне помоћне и
пратеће просторије: санитарни чворови, оставе, хоризонталне и вертикалне
комуникације. На слици 1 дата је ситуација са диспозицијом постојећег и
новопланираног објекта(фазе 1 и фазе 2).
1
Проф..др Мирослав Т. Бешевић, дипл инж грађ., Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
Универзитет у Новом Саду тел: 024- 554-300, e -mail: miroslav.besevic@gmail.com
2
Драган Стојиљковић ,дипл инж. арх., Београд, e -mail: dsvs.stoj@gmail.com
Слика 1. Ситуација
Слика 2. Основа сутерена планиране доградње
Веза дограђеног и постојећег објекта остварена је на нивоу приземља формирањем
топле везе – пасареле која се налази на три метра од коте терена са које се
приступа сутерену. Функционално се нови објекат повезује директно са делом у
ком је атријум факултета чиме се омогућује брза комуникација између различитих
делова факултета. Сликом број 4 је приказан попречни пресек новодограђеног
дела за обе фазе.
2. КОНСТРУКЦИЈА
Слика 6. Попречни пресек кроз Спортску салу(друга фаза)
На сликама бр. 7 и бр. 8 приказан је постојећи објекат и новопројектовани де фазе
1 и фазе 2.
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Факултет у наредном периоду планира акредитовање нових савремених модула у
складу са захтевима привреде. Из тог разлога је потребна доградња факултета,
како би се новим студенатима омогућило квалитетније одржавање наставе, тј.
студирање. Осим слушаоница и кабинета за наставно особље у дограђеном делу би
се формирале и лабораторије за испитивање конструкција, геодезију, геомеханику,
физику и математику, нова библиотека, кантина као и сала за израду дипломских
радова. Формирање Истраживачко иновационог центра омогућиће рад студената
на докторслим студијама различитих профила али и сарадњу са привредом. У
првој фази би се доградио објекат спратности Су+Прз+Сп и то уз бочну страну
амфитеатра укупне бруто површина цца 1400м2 , а у другој фази унуверзална
спортска сала са одговарајућим помоћним садржајима, бруто површине цца 320м2.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Бешевић М., Стојиљковић Д., .: Идејно решење доградње грађевинског
факултета у Суботици, 2013.
[2] Бешевић М., Програм декана –развој факултета у периоду 2012-2015.
1
Мр Вицко Летица, дипл.грађ.инж., BRANE-HPP-WTP. d.o.o., 11120 Београд, Цвијићева 105/ст.2,
тел: 011 675 44 44, e-mail: office@brane-hpp-wtp.com
1. УВОД
Лепљено ламелирано дрво (ЛЛД) је модеран производ, високе технологије који је
у многоме унапредио физичке особине пуног дрвета. Ламелирано дрво се
производи од осушених дрвених елемената – ламела подједнаке ширине, облика и
дужине, којима су уклоњени недостаци (чворови, смола, итд.). Издвајањем тих
недостатака и слојевитим лепљењем добија се ламелирано дрво. Овако добијени
материјал има механичке карактеристике уједначеније од механичких
карактеристика масивног дрвета - материјала од кога је ЛЛД настало.
У свету је ламелирано дрво доживело велики успон из следећих разлога:
неупоредиво је чвршће и има боље статичке особине у односу на масивно дрво,
нема склоност ка увијању, појава напуклина је сведена на минимум, кратко време
градње, велика пожарна отпорност, висока отпорност на потрес.
Објекти изведени у овој техници намећу се својим изгледом, складношћу форме и
топлином ентеријера.
1
Љиљана Козарић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: kozaric@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
проф.др Мирослав Бешевић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет
Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: mbesevic@gf.uns.ac.rs
3
проф. др Данијел Кукарас, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет
Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: danijel.kukaras@gmail.com
Оптерећења и прорачун конструкције спроведен је према европским стандардима
и на основу тога су приказане димензије носећих елемената конструкције.
Коришћен је пробабилистички концепт граничних стања: гранично стање
носивости и гранично стање употребљивости, уз коришћење парцијални
коефицијената за оптерећења и за материјале.
Поред сопствене тежине конструкције од оптерећења посматрани су и утицаји
ветра и снега.
Сила ветра која утиче на конструкцију рачуната је према ЕC1(ЕNV 1991-2-4)
према следећој формули
Fw qref ce ( ze ) cd c f Aref (1)
где је
qref референтни притисак средње брзине ветра
ce ( ze ) коефицијент изложености
cd динамички фактор
c f коефицијент силе
Aref референтна површина
Сила снега је узета sk 1, 0 kN / m2 према ЕC1.
Прорачун пресечних сила главне носеће конструкције фискултурне сале извршен
је помоћу софтвера Тоwer 6.0. са просторним третманом конструкције, Слика 2.
1
-153.3
-125.7
b/d=16/ 92
b/d=16/92
1
16/92
b/d=16
-111.71
-111.35
b/d= /9 2
99.06
105.4
4
HO P []
b/d=16/30
b/d=16/30
80x80x
0.08 0.08
80x80x
HO P []
7.70
4
Ram: .H_23
Uticaji u gredi: max M3= 105.40 / min M3= -153.31 kNm
0.59
0.03
0.02
0.64
b/d=16/92 b/d=16/92
/92 b/d=16/
-0.59
b/d=16 92
-1.00
-0.65
-1.03 -1.03
4
HO P []
b/d=16/30
b/d=16/30
80x80x
80x80x
HO P []
0.41 0.41
4
Ram: .H_23
Uticaji u gredi: max M2= 0.64 / min M2= -1.03 kNm
0.26
0.30
-0.02 0.02
0.68
b/d=16/92 b/d=16/92
-0.26
/92 b/d=16/
b/d=16 -0.30 92
-0.80 -0.90
-0.67
4
HO P []
b/d=16/30
b/d=16/30
80x80x
0.44 0.44
80x80x
HO P []
4
Ram: .H_23
Uticaji u gredi: max T3= 0.68 / min T3= -0.90 kN
-10.05
13.68 -5.88
50.27
47.63
b/d=16/9 2
b/d= 16/9 2
8.33
-1.26
-1.17
/92 b/ d=16
b/d=16 /92
-2.13
-1.87
0
-115.9
4
HO P []
0 b/d=16/30
b/d=16/30
80x80x
80 x80x
HO P []
4
0.06 0.06
Ram: .H_23
Uticaji u gredi: max T2= 50.27 / min T2= -115.90 kN
-31.87
-31.87
3.35
3.63
/92 b/d=16
b/d=16 /92
2 109.6
88.6
11.16 413.40
-31.99
-36.50
-0.24 0x 4
HO P
b/d=16/30
b/d=16/30
[] 80x8
[] 80x8
HO P
0x 4
Ram: .H_23
Uticaji u gredi: max N1= 109.64 / min N1= -180.48 kN
Trau
1. b/d=16/92
2. b/d=16/30
3. b/d=12/30
4. b/d=12/30
5. HOP [] 80x80x4
6. #.Promenljiv
7. #.Promenljiv
9. #.Promenljiv
10. #.Promenljiv
11. b/d=25/55
12. b/d=25/25
13. D=1.4
14. b/d=10/50
15. b/d=10/50
16. b/d=14/16
Setovi numerickih podataka
Слика 3. Димензионисани елементи конструкције
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
[1] Гојковић, М., Стевановић, Б., Комненовић, М., Кузмановић, С., Стојић, Д.:
Дрвене конструкције, Грађевински факултет Београд, Београд, 2001.
[2] Еврокод 1 - Основе прорачуна и дејства на конструкције, Грађевински
факултет Београд, Београд, 1991.
[3] Еврокод 3 – Прорачун челичних конструкција, Грађевински факултет Београд,
Београд, 1993.
[4] Еврокод 5 – Прорачун дрвених конструкција, Грађевински факултет Београд,
Београд, 2009.
1. INTRODUCTION
According to the Pressure Equipment Directive PED 97/23/EC [1], the term "pressure
equipment" includes vessels, piping, safety equipment and pressure devices, and in
certain parts, flanges, fittings, supports. Directive PED 97/23/EC, applies to a wide range
of products such as: pressure accumulator, heat exchangers, steam generators, industrial
piping, safety devices, pressure accessories as well as flanges, nozzles, couplings, etc..
Such pressure equipment is widely used in the process industries (oil & gas, chemical,
pharmaceutical, plastics and rubber and the food and beverage industry), high
temperature process industry (glass, paper and board), energy production and in the
supply of utilities, heating, air conditioning and gas storage and transportation. Due to its
1
Vujadin Aleksić, M.Sc. Mining Engineer, IWE, Institute for testing materials-IMS Institute, Belgrade, Serbia,
e – mail: vujadin.aleksic@institutims.rs
2
Srđan Bulatović, M.Sc. Mechanical Engineer, Yugoslav River Shipping, Belgrade, Serbia,
e – mail: srdjan.bulatovic@yahoo.com
3
Bojana Aleksić, B.Sc. Technology Engineer, Budget student master studies in 2013/2014 at Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia, e – mail: b_aleksic@hotmail.com
4
Ljubica Milović, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade, Serbia,
e – mail: acibulj@tmf.bg.ac.rs
a) breaking the water tower at the root pole b) through cracks in the steam pipe
Figure 1. Examples of loss of integrity of the water tower and steam lines
The thermal low cycle fatigue load on the steam line caused the fatigue failure of pipes
and steam line leakage [5], fig. 1b. Drastic examples of the corrosion of the pipeline
structure and the spherical tank are shown in fig. 2c and 2d [6,7].
These examples show that ISO 9000 standards haven't been respected, ISO 3834, EN
287 and EN 288 standards weren't properly applied and also independent accredited
laboratory for testing of NDT methods did not confirm the results of NDT testing.
Problems shown in these examples can be reduced considerably in similar constructions
if we pay attention to: irregularity in the design, manufacture and operation, final quality
c) corrosion damage to pipelines d) corrosion damage to the spherical tank
Figure 2. Examples of loss of integrity of the pipeline and spherical tanks for NH3
During the operation period, fatigue of pressure equipment, pipelines and components
may occur. The majority of the mechanisms and consequences of metal damage can be
predicted on the basis of operational conditions. However, some of them are hard to
detect and can cause serious damage in a short time, fig. 1a and 1b.
According to frequency of damage creation, causes are fatigue, ductile fracture and
corrosion of materials. Such phenomena are based on errors in calculation, design and
construction, errors in production and assembly, unexpected operating conditions and
working environment.
After professional analysis of the results of inspection and testing damaged parts of
pressure equipment and pipelines, the appropriate conclusions about the causes and
consequences of failure could be performed.
Organization of the maintenance of such structures depends primarily on their size,
shape, structure, number of employees and their professional experience in system
maintenance and adequate database from maintaining and previous tests of similar
structures. Daily visual inspection should be provided in order to monitor the behavior of
structures in exploitation, and if necessary, NTD of testing should be applied to the most
loaded parts of the structure. Due to the high risk of compromising the integrity of the
equipment, it is necessary to apply new control approach based on risk, RBI (Risk Based
Inspection). In order to minimize the potential loss of integrity of these structures, it is
necessary to constantly monitor the situation and structural behavior through the control
center system for monitoring, updating, detection and analysis of the measured
5. CONCLUSION
Inadequate maintenance of pressure vessels and pipelines in terms of protection entails a
costly repair, and it is necessary to determine preventive measures and very thoroughly
research issues of protection, durability and maintenance, especially critical parts of
pressure vessels and pipelines in operation.
In relation to above stated, assessment of the state of the parts of pressure vessels and
pipelines affected by outside influence is required. This should be followed by the NDT
testing, in order to determine the actual extent of damage, and if necessary, appropriate
measures of rehabilitating critical damages and material degradation should be taken.
RBI provides a methodology for determining the optimal combination of methods, scope
and frequency of inspection, and can be considered as a technique to optimize testing of
equipment under pressure applying NDT methods.
Only by testing the pressure vessels and pipelines under working conditions makes it
possible to assess their condition completely. During examination period, the necessary
data are obtained to determine the quality and structural integrity assessment and
evaluation of the impact of the elements on the capacity and is given the necessary data
to establish the joint work of equimpent and structure.
In case of breakdown of equipment,t systematic testing, control, analysis and
calculations are required. Then, on the basis of a program to determine the cause and
consequence of damage, the appropriate conclusions in order to obtain new information
for the following reliable design and construct pressure vessels and pipelines shoul be
made.
REFERENCES
[1] Direktiva za opremu pod pritiskom PED 97/23/EC sa prilozima.
[2] Pravilnik o tehničkim zahtevima za projektovanje, izradu i ocenjivanje usaglašenosti
opreme pod pritiskom (Službeni glasnik RS broj 87/2011).
[3] Pravilnik o pregledima opreme pod pritiskom tokom veka upotrebe (Službeni
glasnik RS broj 87/2011).
[4] Aleksić V.: Metodološki pristup utvrđivanja uzroka i posledica vetrom srušenog
čeličnog vodotornja, Treći internacionalni naučno stručni skup “ Građevinarstvo –
nauka i praksa”, (Knj.1), Žabljak, 2010, str. 567-572.
[5] Aleksić V., Simić R., Stojanović Z., Milović Lj.: Metodološki pristup sanaciji
oštećenja parovoda u termoelektranama i toplanama, III Međunarodni kongres,
1. INTRODUCTION
Timber-concrete composite structure is known as a structure where two different
sections (made of timber and concrete) are connected to a composite cross-section with
special connection systems. Connecting systems accept shear forces of interface and
provide simultaneous acting of different materials in composite system, under loading.
As connecting systems may be used:
screws, bolts, nail plates or glued threaded rods,
special components made of steel such as s steel lattice glued to timber, and steel
plate glued to timber,
1
M.Sc. Radovan Cvetković, Grad. Civ. Eng., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, radovancvetkovic@yahoo.com,
2
Prof. dr Dragoslav Stojić, Grad. Civ. Eng, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, dragoslav.stojic@gmail.com,
3
Nemanja Marković, Grad. Civ. Eng., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Niš,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, nemanjamarkovic85@gmail.com
Low-cycle fatigue, associated with higher loads (plastic deformation occurs) and shorter
life (<103 cycles), is commonly used methods called "strain-life" to analyze or predict
the fatigue life.
The S-N curve, (Stress Life Method) is the basic method presenting fatigue failure in
high cycles (N > 105) which implies the stress level is relatively low and the deformation
is in elastic range.
The S-N curve for a specific material is the curve of nominal stress S (y axis) against the
number of cycles to failure N (x axis). A log scale is almost always used for N. The stress
is usually nominal stress and is no adjustment for stress concentration. The curve is
usually obtained one by reversed bending experiments with zero mean stress.
The S-N curve of 1045 steel and 2014-T6 aluminium alloy is shown on the Figure 2 to
represent two typical S-N curves of metal materials. On the Figure 3 is shown S-N curve
for a timber. The S-N curve is used to predict the number of cycles sustained under
certain stress before failure. The curve gives to designers a quick reference of the
allowable stress level for an intended service life.
Figure 3. The S-N curve for a timber
3. FATIGUE MODEL FOR CONCRETE
Classical observations on fatigue of concrete focus on the determination of a relationship
beetwen the applied stress level and the fatigue life time, resulting in the well known S-
N curves. In experimental investigations, Holmen (1979) observed S-shaped evolution
curves of the maximum and minimum fatigue strains. Accordingly, the entire fatigue life
can be subdivided into three periods with different deformation mechanisms: initiation
of micro cracks, their stable growth and finally localisation to a macro crack.
For concrete in the compression region a yield/damage criterion of Drucker-Prager type
is applied:
1
, I1 J 2 c qc
(1)
1
3
The final constitutive relation results in:
1
D 0 D da,c D fat ,da : pl cr fat , pl
(2)
4. FATIGUE MODEL FOR A REINFORCING STEEL
The basic concept for the fatigue damage modelling of reinforcing steel is adopted from
Petryna (2002) and Pfanner (2003). The basic variable to determine fatigue damage is the
related number of load cycles n, in analogy to the procedure for concrete. For the evolution of
fatigue damage, an exponential law, according to Peerlings (1999), is applied:
The stress is connected to the damage variable ds with the constitutive law
max E 1 d s max (4)
Figure 4. Fatigue model of reinforcing steel
5. FATIGUE MODEL FOR A TIMBER
The following timber failure models in literature are presented:
damage accumulation laws,
polymer debonding,
energy based models ,
damaged viscoelastic material model,
number of cycles criterion.
In the number of cycles criterion, W¨ohler curves, or S-N diagrams, describe fatigue
resistance by a critical number of load cycles, N, leading to failure at a given stress level,
(SL). It can be described by a relation:
log(N) = A + B ∙ log(SL), (5)
A and B the coefficients depend on the factor R, R =σmin/σmax, where σmin and σmax are
the min and max stress level in a cycle. Steady state crack growth due to stress variations can
be given according to linear elastic fracture mechanics. Relation between crack growth rate
and the stress intensity factor in the following form (Paris law) is given:
da/dn= C (ΔK)m, (6)
In the bridge part of the Eurocode, (EC5-2 1997), an informative annex gives guidelines
for a simplified fatigue verification method. The method considers only number of
cycles. According to the method it should be verified that:
Δσ ≤ ffat,d, (8)
7. CONCLUSION
This short paper presents the basic parts of a very complex mechanical behavior of
timber-concrete composites under high cycle fatique load. Appropriate analysis, analy-
tical and numerical models, material laws will be presented in other works.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the modern design of timber structures, in addition to other conditions and
requirements that must be met, great attention is paid to the resistance, i.e. durability of
the building or designing buildings to life design construction. Basic requirements for
capacity, serviceability and durability of structures are given in the Eurocodes [1]. The
wooden structure should be designed so that capacity and usability throughout the
lifetime of the structure are not affected, and this is achieved by regular maintenance.
Also every timber structure must have adequate: structural resistance, serviceability, and
durability [1]. General principles of durability and reliability of structures are described
in the Eurocodes [1], [2], [3]. The basic reliability elements considered in these papers
include probability of failure p (or equivalent reliability index β) corresponding to a
certain reference period T used in verification of structural reliability [4]. Reliability
index β is determined by the beam loaded by uniform load for three typical cases,
bending, shear and deflection of the beam. Service life of the structure is determined by
the importance of the building and its importance for the environment. At the beginning
1
Stefan Conić, master ing. Scholar of the Ministry, e – mail: stefanvl989@yahoo.com
2
Nemanja Marković, dipl.ing.
3
Nikola Velimirović, dipl.ing.
4
Nikola Stojić, dipl.ing. Associate of Highway Institute Belgrade, Serbia
Of all requirements to be met by a wooden structure, the most important features are:
safety and serviceability. Both requirements must be guaranteed for some predefined
period of time – durability, and achieved by minimum cost [4]. Each of these conditions
can be written in the form of limit state conditions, which are generally expressed as:
g ( X 1 , X 2 ,... X n ) 0 (1)
The X i are random variables that are not necessarily physical quantities such as size,
load, etc... They may also be of some other size, such as deflection of the beam etc. [4].
Limit state equation clearly separates the two opposite zones as follows:
safe area and the area of the fracture.
g ( X 1 , X 2 ,... X n ) 0 (2)
Collapse of structures or failure is defined by the failure condition as:
g ( X 1 , X 2 ,... X n ) 0 (3)
Based on the above it follows:
Pf P g ( X 1 , X 2 ,... X n ) 0 (4)
Pf represents a probability of failure. Method for the determination of this probability
depends on the complexity of the function. Some of the basic methods are: Monte-Carlo
method, Basler, in the notation of Cornell, method of Hasofer and Lind etc. In further
are given basic principles of the methods of Hasofer - Lind. The limit state function g is
given as:
g RE (5)
In these expressions R and E are stochastic variables representing, in terms of
structural engineering, the resistance of a section and the stress in this section due to
applied loads and actions, respectively [4]. Toward a solution Hasofer and Lind,
performed the transformation limit state function in the so-called standard space. The
random variables R and E are transformed into U 1 and U 2 :
R R
U1 R U1 R R (6)
R
Using geometry easily be reached to reliability index (shortest distance):
R2 E2 (9)
R E
From the above follows:
1 Pf Pf (10)
3. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL TIMBER MEMBERS
The three types of failure modes (failure limit state function) are represented by
following failure criteria:
4. EXAMPLE
In this example, the values are determined for three cases of structural failure in
terms of the ratio l / h simply supported beam of laminated wood loaded by Fig. 2.
q
h
The example shows that, depending on the selected parameters of the beam in three
modes, a given load q, for each mode corresponds to the value, so that the smallest value
is determined by what mode to calculate reliability. Target values of reliability index
are taken [1] for Class RC2 structural members, for 50 years. For these values are
calculated corresponding load on the reliability limits.
Office complex „GTC Square” (GTCS) (Figs. 1 - 2) [5], located at Block 41a in New
Belgrade, has direct access to motorways E70 (to Austria) and E75 (to Greece). Situated
at the corner of two boulevards, Milutina Milankovića and Bulevar Umetnosti, GTCS is
just 10 and/or 15 minutes drive from the city centre / Belgrade International Airport.
The Employer (Atlas Centar d.o.o., subsidiary of GTC [3]) appoints his representative
the Engineer (EC Harris d.o.o., subsidiary of EC Harris [6]) and the Contractor (Alpine
d.o.o., subsidiary of Alpine Bau GmbH [7]). The contract applied is based on the
Conditions of contract for construction FIDIC [8], recommended for building works
designed by the Employer, or by his representative the Engineer.
GTCS complex (Fig. 1) [9] consists of three separate buildings (denoted: C, A, B in Fig.
2, observed from left to right), an entrance plateau in front (Fig. 1), and an open parking
(Fig. 2) behind the buildings. Retail building (A), with levels U+G, has underground
level (U) for technical rooms and shelter, and ground floor (G) for restaurant. Each of
two office buildings (C, B), with levels U+G+4, has underground level below lift core,
ground floor for retail, and 4 storeys for offices. Buildings “C” and “B” have equivalent
design, function and interior organization. Office building (C or B) has open court
(atrium), which provides better insolation. Gross living area (GLA) of GTCS complex is
~22165 m2 [5]. GTCS office building (C or B) typical floor size is ~2150 m2. Office
building (C or B) layout dimensions are ~66×48 m, and height is ~21 m above ground.
GTCS project team includes: Employer (GTC), Project Manager (EC Harris), Architect
(Slavija biro, with consultants), Structural Designer (Alpine), Quantity Surveyor (EC
Harris), and Contractor (Alpine, with subcontractors).
In GTCS complex (author of architecture B. Putniković), office buildings are designed
using shell & core concept, which splits construction into 2 phases and so accelerates
building. Core refers to structure, vertical transport, building installations and fire
protection. Shell relates to façade and also to external space. The building permit and the
use permit are obtained for finished and functional “shell and core building”. Later in
the second phase, according to office and commercial spaces tenants’ requests, interior
works (local installations, raised floors, light partitions, suspended ceilings, finishes,
interior decoration) are completed.
Fig. 1 - GTC Square (GTCS) [5] Fig. 2 - GTCS Buildings: C, A, B
Fig. 3 - GTCS Site: Aug. 2007 Fig. 4 - GTCS Site: Sep. 2007
Fig. 5- GTCS Site: Nov. 2007 Fig. 6 - GTCS Site: May 2008
Note.- Photo in Fig. 2 is generated using „Bing Maps” in 2014, by the author.
Photos in Figs. 3-6 are shot at the GTCS site in 2007-2008, also by the author.
1. UVOD
Vijčane veze montažne konstrukcije je široko prihvaćen i primenjivan sistem veza na
teritoriji Zapadne Evrope a naročito u Severnoj Evropi zbog klimatskih uslova koji
građevinsku sezonu skraćuju na vrlo mali vremenski period. Težnja što većoj industri-
jalizaciji, prefabrikaciji i smanjivanja potrebnih radova na gradilštu je doveo do razvoja
veza montažne betonske konstrukcije koja su po konstrukciji slična vezama kod čeličnih
konstrukcija.
1
Zsolt KOKREHEL, dipl. inž. građ., Peikko Slovakia S.r.o., Kráľová nad Váhom 660, 92591 Kráľová nad
Váhom, Slovakia, tel: +381.63.58.99.55, e-mail: zsolt.kokrehel@peikko.com
M HPM L
Ø
M
L
HPM P
Ø
L HPKM
Slika 1. Sidreni vijci (kratki i dugački) i papuča stuba
Gornja konstrukcija (montažni stub) se izvodi sa ubetoniranim papučama za stub. Tip
papuča na stubu po dimenziji i nosivosti mora da odgovara dimenziji i nosivosti
ugrađenog ankera u donju konstrukciju.
U potpunosti izvedena veza (nakon podlivanja vijčanog spoja sa neskupljaljućim visoko
kvalitetnim podlivnim materijalom) se ponaša kao monolitna armiranobetonska kruta
veza i u potpunosti može da zameni vezu stuba za temelj klasičnom metodom –
primenom AB čašice. Za ostvarivanje veze potrebno je minimalno 4 komada, para
sidrenih vijaka i papuča stuba dok na osnovu dimenzije poprečnog preseka stuba i
statičkih uticaja na koju treba dimenzionisati vezu mogu se odrediti i više komada u
jednoj vezi: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 … komada.
5
5
15
40
40
25
15
15
5
5
5 15 15 5 5 20 20 5 40
40 50
Slika 2. Raspored papuča stuba u poprečnom preseku
e
M sd,B Uklješten
Slika 3. Proračunska statička šema u fazi montaže
neutrala
x
Msd
y=0.8x
Nsd
es
fcd
ec
podliveno
Vsd
- +
Ns Ns Nc Nsd
e
Dugačka sidra tipa HPM P se sidre po principu sidrenja armaturne šipke u betonu uz
određivanjem potrebne dužine sidrenja lb na osnovu oblika, položaja i iskorišćenosti
armaturne šipke. Dugački ankeri se mogu savijati propisanim prečnicima trnova za
savijanjae koje su definisane kao Dmin = 4Ø za Ø<16mm dok Dmin = 7Ø za Ø>16mm.
c/c c/c
min 10xM
lb propisana
hb
min. armatura
hmin
lb
>h req
HPM L HPM P
Montaža stubova na gradilištu se vrši na unapred nivelisane matice i podloške koje su
navrnute na sidrene vijake. Stub se spušta na sidrene vijke, proverava se vertikalnost u
Slika 6a. i 6b. Faza montaže stubova i podlivanja veze
5. PONAŠANJE VIJČANE VEZE PRI SEIZMIČKOM OPTEREĆENJU
Opširna istraživanja su izvršena za potvrđivanje podobnosti vijčanih veza pri
seizmičkom opterećenju [1]. Prva ispitivanja su vršena tokom 2009 godine u
EUCENTRE (European Centre for Training and Research in Earthquake Engineering) u
Pavia, Italija. Dodatna i proširena ispitivanja se i trenutno rade u istom ispitnom centru a
počele su u novembru 2013. godine.
Ispitivanjem su obuhvaćeni ispitivanje ponašanja papuča i sidrenih vijaka kao
pojedinačnih elemenata. Ovim ispitivanjem su potvrđeni da svi delovi papuča kao i
varovi ostaju u elastičnom području tokom aksijalnog cikličnog opterećenja. Isto tako su
proučavani i uticaji ekscentričnog prenosa sile sa sidrenog vijaka na sidrenu armaturu
papuče stuba.
Druga faza ispitivanja su vršena na realnim modelima i to na stubovima 40x40cm od
betona C35/45 vezan za temeljnu konstrukciju sa 4 HPKM30 papučama i sidrenim
vijcima HPM30 P (dugački).
Da bi ispitivanje bilo sto realnije, stubovi su bili opterećeni aksijalnim silama (pomoću
naknadno utegnutih užadi) u tri različita nivo opterećenja i to: 5%, 10% i 15%
bezdimenzionalnog koeficijenta normalne sile izračunat prema formuli N/(Ac fcd).
Slika 7. Ispitivanje vijčane veze cikličnim opterećenjem
2012. godine izvršena su nezavisna ispitivanja različitih načina veza montažnog stuba za
temelj (glatka čašica, orebljena čašica, zalivene armaturne šipke i vijčana veza).
Ispitivanja su izvršena na Politehničkom Univerzitetu u Valenciji, Španija i rezultati su
objavljeni na 15 WCEE u Lisbou [4].
Ispitivani uzorci su imali srednju duktilnost pri nivou aksijalnog opterećenja od 0.1 i 0.3,
dok pri aksijalnog opterećenja od 0.45 vijčana veza je bila u domenu srednje duktilnosti
dok ostali tipovi veza su pali u domen male duktilnosti kao sto še moglo očekivati jer
duktilnost opada sa povećanjem nivoa aksijalne sile u stubu.
6. PRORAČUN VEZA PREMA EVROKODU 1998 -1:2004
Proračun veza montažne konstukcije u seizmičkim područjima definisan je u tački 5.11.2
gde se veze razvrstavaju u tri grupe: veze dislocirane dalje od kritične zone (tačka
5.11.2.1.1), predimenzionisane veze (tačka 5.11.2.1.2) i veze sa disipacijom energije
(tačka 5.11.2.1.3). Najčešći način veze montažnog stuba se izvodi direktnom vezom za
temeljnu ploču (jastuk) i na tom mestu se javljalju najveći statički uticaji – veza se nalazi
u kritičnoj zoni.
Kod ovako konstruisane veze potrebno je primeniti predimenzionise veze. Propis
propisuje da savojna otpornost veze mora biti predimenzionisan sa koeficijentom
×M , gde je koeficijent jednak 1.20 za srednju duktilnost (DCM) i jednak 1.35 za
Rd Rd Rd
visoku duktilnost (DCH). Ovim koeficijentima uvećava se samo vrednost momenta
savijanja dok normalna sila se ne povećava.
[1] Peikko HPKM Column Shoes For Bolted Column Connections (2012), Technical
Manual
[2] Peikko HPM And PPM Anchor Bolts (2009), Technical Manual, Version 9/2007
[3] European Committee for Standardization (2004) Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures- Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, EN 1992-1-1
[4] European Committee for Standardization (2005). Eurocode 8: Design of structures
for earthquake resistance: EN 1998-1:2004, EN 1998-2:2005 and EN 1998-3:2005
[5] Bianco L., Santagati S,, Bolognini D. and Nascimbene R. (2009). Seismic response
of columns connected to the foundation throuh a fastening technique. PEIKKO
News 1, 13-20,
http://materials.crasman.fi/materials/extloader/?fid=4290&org=2&chk=4bfa9d38
[6] Р.Ј Agustín Romero-Garcia, José L. Bonet, Jose R. Martí-Vargas, Juan Navarro-
Gregori (2012): Behaviour of precast column-to-foundation connections under
cyclic loading, 15 WCEE, Lisboa
1. INTRODUCTION
Transfer length of prestressing force in concrete is the length of cable as measured from
the end of the prestressed element along which the effective stress due to prestressing is
transferred to the concrete. The force of pretensioning in the concrete linearly increases
along the transmission line from the value 0 at the end of the element to the effective
value of prestressing stress on the length lt (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Idealized diagram that refers to the stress in the cable within the prestressed
element[11]
The manufacturing process of pretensioned concrete members consists of three stages:
first the restressing reinforcement is tensioned; next, the concrete member is cast around
1
Bojan Aranđelović, dipl.inž. građ., Institut za ispitivanje materijala, Beograd, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43,
Beograd, Srbija, tel: ++381 11 369 14 69, e – mail: bojan.arandjelovic@institutims.rs
2
Dr Dragan Nikolić, Visoka građevinsko-geodetska škola, Beograd.
There are three mechanisms by which the concrete and steel strand bond to one another
in pretensioned, prestressed concrete members: adhesion, Hoyer’s effect (wedge effect),
and mechanical interlock. Each mechanism is discussed briefly below:
Adhesion—There is a small adhesive effect between the prestressing strand and
surrounding concrete that contributes to bond in pretensioned members. This adhesion is
present only prior to any relative slip that may occur between the strand and the
concrete. Therefore, this component of bond is often neglected.
Hoyer’s effect (wedge action)—As a strand is tensioned, its diameter and cross-sectional
area reduce an amount determined by Poisson’s ratio of the strand. Upon transfer, the
strand near the end of a pretensioned beam tries to return to its original unstressed state.
However, the surrounding concrete prevents the lateral expansion of the strand back to
its original diameter and area. This restraint, in the form of a normal (radial) force on the
strand, induces a frictional force along the longitudinal axis of the strand. This frictional
force opposes any relative movement between the strand and surrounding concrete.
Since Hoyer’s effect may be visualized as the strand wedging itself against the
surrounding concrete to prevent slip, it is often referred to as wedge action.
Figure 2. Adhesion between cables for prestressing and the concrete [11]
Mechanical interlock—Seven-wire strands consist of six small wires wound around one
center wire to form a helical shape. Because of this helical shape, a component of the
normal force between the outer wires of the strand and the surrounding concrete acts
along the axis of the strand. This component acts to resist slip between the strand and
concrete. This mechanism is extremely similar to the pullout resistance provided by
patterned deformations on reinforcing bars in reinforced concrete. Mechanical interlock
will develop in pretensioned members only if twisting of the strand is prevented. When
strand twist is not restrained, the strand will simply slide through the member, as normal
forces will not be developed.
3. FACTORS FOR BOND BEHAVIOR
The bond behavior of prestressing strands in precast pretensioned concrete members, and
its transmission length, depends on several factors. The industry of precast prestressed
concrete members aims to obtain products in the shortest possible time. For this reason,
an early age usually fixed by the concrete compressive strength is required at prestress
transfer.
It is undeniable that the mutual interaction of a larger number of parameters influences
the value of transfer length of prestressing force. Among others, these are: the ratio of
cross-sectional area prestressing cables and cross-sectional area of concrete, boundary
conditions regarding the connection between cables and concrete, cross-section of
cables, the percentage of cables without adhesion, the effective stresses during
prestressing, compressive strength of concrete at the moment of measurement, cement
content, water-cement factor, the value of the prestressing force, strand diameter, strand
surface condition, method of release of prestressing forces on the trail and others.
However, nowadays there are no general expressions being used in order to obtain the
most significant parameters that determine the transfer length of prestressing force.
Some authors propose expressions for transfer length of prestressing force in which
properties of concrete are not being influential parameter, in other words they take into
consideration only concrete compressive strength. On the other hand, there are a lot of
expressions that show a relation between transfer length of prestressing force and the
concrete parameters (quantity of cement, w/c, water content, etc.).
Properties of adhesively prestressed concrete elements, in other words transfer length of
prestressing force depends on several factors. Usually, when discussing the properties of
concrete, the primary parameter for the analysis is compressive strength. Regarding the
strength of concrete, there are various opinions on its impact on transfer length of
prestressing force. According to one group of authors, the strength of concrete
significantly affects the value of transfer length of prestressing force, and it is possible to
establish a clear correlation between these values. According to other authors, the
relation between these two quantities is not systematically determined by aid of
performed tests.
3.1.3. Cement content and water cement ratio
The cement content and the water/cement (w/c) ratio are important parameters of the
concrete mix design. Nevertheless,few studies [1-4] have been undertaken regarding
their influence on the bond properties. [1] conclude that the bond strength decreases
when the w/c ratio increases, and also a bond improvement has been found [2] when the
w/c ratio increases.
On the other hand, greater bond strength to a larger cement content has been found in
[1], whereas the authors in [3,4] concluded that an increased cement content produces a
diminution of bond strength.
The effect of strand surface condition is probably the most important variable affecting
transfer length, yet it is the most difficult to determine [10]. Strands may be lightly
rusted, well rusted, epoxy coated with grit, oiled, or indented. Each of these conditions
will affect the coefficient of friction¾and thus the bonds¾between the strand and the
concrete. The variation in transfer and development lengths with strand surface 11
conditions has been noted by many researchers [5, 7, 8, 10]. In general, wellrusted and
epoxy-coated strands with grit have significantly shorter transfer and development
It is generally accepted that a sudden transfer of prestress caused by flame cutting or
sawing will result in longer transfer lengths. This trend was reported by Kaar et al. [9],
who noted a 20% to 30% increase in transfer length for flame-cut strands. Likewise,
Hanson [7] reported an average increase in transfer length of 4 in. for flame-cut strands.
3.1.6. Effective Prestress Force
Transfer length will logically increase with a higher effective prestress force, fse, since a
higher strand stress must be developed in the transfer zone. Flexural bond length will
correspondingly decrease for a higher fse, since the additional strand tension to be
developed at the critical section will be lower. Most proposed equations assume that the
decrease in flexural bond length will be larger than the increase in transfer length for a
given increase in fse. As a result, the development length decreases with increasing
effective prestress forces.
Russell and Burns [10] reported no difference in measured transfer lengths for 15.2 mm
diameter strands at 51 and 57 mm spacings. Burdette et al. [5] reported similar findings
for 12.7 mm diameter strands at 44 and 51 mm spacings. Naturally, there is a minimum
spacing for a given strand diameter at which the splitting resistance of the concrete will
be exceeded. Further testing is required to determine this minimum spacing for larger
diameter strands. However, it is important to note that splitting was not observed in the
tests of 15.2 mm diameter strands at 51 mm spacing by Russell and Burns [10].
4. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a review of parameters which influence on transfer length of
prestressing force in pretensioned elements. Predicting of the transfer length of
prestressing strands as a function of parameters affecting the transfer length is a difficult
task to achieve.
The three-dimensional behavior of strand bond in pre-tensioned concrete could be
simulated by developing full 3D finite element models. A nonlinear material model
could be implemented on the concrete part of the models to assess damage resulting
from the pre-tension release process. After modelling it is recommended to perform the
testing of experimental beam, in order to compare the results of transfer lengths of
prestressing force.
Slika 1. - Položaj oštećenih stubova
Prilikom pregleda na predmetnim stubovima u osi O' utvrđeno je da je zaštitni sloj
betona delimično je ili potpuno otpao. Na armiranobetonskom "jezgru" stubova uočen je
niz horizontalnih, kosih i vertikalnih prslina (slika 2.), različitih širina i do preko 2mm,
ali nije bilo moguće utvrditi njihovu dubinu propagacije. Ležišna greda, koja u
poprečnom pravcu povezuje dva stuba O' neznatno je oštećena. Pregledom nije bilo
moguće pouzdano utvrditi stepen degradacije armature i betona u dubini "jezgra" stuba.
Na osnovu detaljnog pregleda konstrukcije Komisija je naredila potpunu obustavu
saobraćaja svih drumskih vozila na predmetnom delu oštećene konstrukcije kao i njeno
hitno podupiranje u zoni oštećenih stubova izradom privremenih "jarmova".
Nakon postavljanja privremenih "jarmova", i njihovog prijema izvršeno je izdizanje
konstrukcije hidrauličnim presama za oko 10mm. Privremeni "jarmovi" bili su
postavljeni dovoljno daleko, od stubova O' da ne bi ometali njihovu sanaciju, a dovoljno
blizu, kako se usled prepusta na nosećoj konstrukciji ne bi izazvala njena oštećenja usled
korisnog opterećenja. Takođe je propisano da se predviđeno nadvišenje mora održavati
sve vreme dok se vrši sanacija oštećenih stubova. Neophodno je bilo obezbediti da
oštećeni stubovi (par stubova O') budu potpuno rasterećeni za sve vreme dok se izvode
radovi na njihovoj sanaciji, što je naročito bitno kako bi se novododatni konstruktivni
elementi angažovali za prijem dela ukupnog opterećenja tih stubova.
Slika 2. - Oštećenje zaštitnog sloja, armature i "jezgra" betona i vertikalna prslina
3. URGENTNI RADOVI I TEHNOLOGIJA NJIHOVOG IZVOĐENJA
Postupak sanacije armiranobetonskih stubova sastojao se u postavljanju čeličnog plašta-
cevi (slika 3.a) oko oštećenog stuba i ispunjavanju međuprostora odgovarajućim
materijalom. Upotrebljena je čelična cev debljine zida 12mm, a međuprostor između AB
stuba i čelične cevi širine oko 25mm ispunjen je sitnozrnim betonom. Spoljašnja
površina oštećenih stubova pripremljena je mehaničkim uklanjanjem svih nevezanih
delovi betona. Na gornjem delu čeličnog segmenta formiran je čelični obod koji se
direktno oslanja na armiranobetonsku ležišnu gredu (slika 3.b).
Na donjem delu donjeg segmenta, formiran je identičan čelični obod, koji služi za
njegovo oslanjanje na temeljnu stopu. Zavarivanjem po izvodnicama formirana je cev
spoljašnjeg prečnika Ø734mm. Prvi Autor ovoga rada prikazani postupak sanacije AB
stubova je do sada uspešno primenio na više objekata u Republici Srbiji.
Slika 3. – Rezultati ispitivanja nakon spuštanja glavnih nosača
Slika 4. - Merne trake postavljene u dva ortogonalna pravca
5. REZULTATI EKSPERIMENTALNIH MODELSKIH ISTRAŽIVANJA
Eksperimentalna analiza razmatranog problema izvršena je na modelima stubova u
razmeri 1:3,3. Ispitivani su modeli stubova dimenzija preseka 10×10cm, visine 85cm,
izrađeni od betona fp=50MPa, armirani sa ±2Ø5 i uzengijama UØ4/6(3). Armatura je
izrađena od čelika kvaliteta fy=500MPa. Ojačavanje stuba izvršeno je čeličnom cevi
spoljašnjeg prečnika D=159mm, debljine zida t=2mm i granice razvlačenja fy=220MPa.
Ispunu 1 činio je sitnozrni beton pritisne čvrstoće fp=50MPa, dok je ispunu 2 činio beton
čvrstoće fp=70MPa. U tabeli 1 prikazane su srednje vrednosti graničnih sila dobijene
eksperimentalnim putem, kao i računske vrednosti određene prema evropskim propisima
Evrokod4. Detaljan proračun računskih sila prikazan je u [3].
Tabela 1. Uporedni prikaz sila loma analiziranih stubova
Model stuba Experiment sr.Pu [kN] Numerika EC4 χNpl,Rd [kN]
Kontrolni uzorci 368 -
Ispuna 1 1001 909.8
Ispuna 2 1043 1025.8
Slika 5. Karakteristični lom ispitivanih modela
Analizon eksperimentalnih vrednosti uočava se da armiranobetonski stubovi ojačani
sprezanjem sa čeličnim cevima i ispunom od sitnozrnog betona imaju oko 2.7÷2.8 puta
veću nosivost u odnosu na kontrolne uzorke. Stubovi ojačani čeličnom cevi iskazuju
znatno duktilnije ponašanje, a uočeno je da celokupni poprečni presek spregnutog stuba
učestvuje u prijemu opterećenja [2]. Granična sila stuba određena primenom propisa
Evrokod 4 dosta dobro se slaže sa eksperimentalnim vrednostima, što ukazuje da
nosivost AB stuba ojačanog sprezanjem sa čeličnim cevima može da se sračunava
primenom ovih propisa.
6. RAČUNSKA ANALIZA STUBOVA MOSTA
Računska analiza stubova konstrukcije mosta izvršena je korišćenjem podataka iz [5].
Granični uticaji u stubu: Nu 4116.5kN
Granična nosivost stuba za postojeći presek (presek bez oštećenja) Aa=88cm2,
fy=240MPa, Ab=Ac=3422cm2, fb=fc=27.75MPa, visina ℓ=9.0m, e=0, početna imperfekcija
eo= ℓ/300.
Granična nosivost stuba Nu,o prema Pravilniku BAB:
1
Nu ,o Ab fb Aa v (1)
1 3.2 f / d
25
f d 0.10 e / d eo (2)
100
N u ,o 8896.6kN
Granična nosivost stuba za presek ojačan tokom sanacije 2011.g.: čelik As=272cm2,
fy=235MPa, beton-ispuna: Ac=538cm2, fck=20.5MPa
Granična nosivost stuba Npl,Rd prema propisima Evrokod4 [6]:
Aa f y Ac f ck t f y As f sk
N pl , Rd a 1 c (3)
a c d f ck s
N pl , Rd 19122.4kN
Umanjenje nosivosti usled efekata izvijanja N pl , Rd 17143.6kN
dok je AB ploča dimenzionisana za granična opterećenja:
Подвлаке су конструктивни елементи које на срединама распона примају реакције
спрегнутих носача. Оне међусобно повезују суседне стубове и налазе се у
вертикалној равни као и одговарајући решеткасти кровни носачи. Подвлаке су
рачунате као спрегнути носачи "челик – бетон" Т – пресека, статичког система
просте греде. Челични пресек је INP 400, ојачан је са доње стране ножице
заваривањем подвезицама. У равни међуспратне конструкције налази се монтажни
спрег постављен у циљу одржавања пројектоване геометрије међуспратне
конструкције и бочне стабилности носача. Предвиђени монтажни спрегови и
затеге дати су и у диспозицији (сл. 1). Дијагонале спрегова и затеге урађене су од
профила NP L 45/45/4 или HOP L 50/50/5. Овај кратак опис конструкције објекта
дат је само у обиму неопходном да се сагледа функција објекта, задатак, сврха и
циљ испитивања под утицајем динамичког пробног оптерећења.
4455
552
602
1756
1750
602
S1 N4 S1 N2
3908
P7
SN3' SN1
602
602
P6
P7
S1 SN3' SN1
P7
500
500
1852
P6
S1 S1
P7
SN3' SN1'
500
500
N6 P6
S1 N2
N6
250
N5
550
S2 S2
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1
23
7 5
P7
4
5 6 8 6 10
1
602
24
SN3' 11 SN1
P6
4
3 2
S1 1 2 3 9 7 12 S1
24
SN3' S1 SN1
1 2 3
500
S1
25
500
26 LEGENDA:
250
- DAVAC VIBRACIJA
26' - MERNI PRESEK SA
900 850 MERNIM TRAKAMA
I DILATOMETRIMA
1750
- UGIBOMERI
- KLINOMETRI
A B C D EF
Слика 2 – Диспозиција мерних места и мерних пресека
Слика 3 – Покретно оптерећење – Слика 4 – Мерна опрема
виљушкар
Слика 5 – Регистрована промена дилатација на мерном месту ММ1
Према сл. 5, јавља се смањење (амортизацијa) осцилација, и на основу тога
одређује се коефицијент амортизације према изразу (4):
1 A
Kd ln n (4)
Td An 1
Слика 6 – Увећани део дијаграма са слике 5.
Логаритамски декремент је:
An
d ln ln e d Td d Td (5)
An 1
односно, коефицијент релаксације представљен је реципрочном вредности
коефицијента амортизације:
1
d (6)
Kd
Табела 1. Резултати анализе на основу регистрованих дилатација
Број Логаритамски Коефицијент
Td Kd
амплитуде декремент релаксација
дилатација (s) (-) (-) (-)
0 0.050 6.062 0.303 0.165
1 0.054 13.339 0.720 0.075
2 0.049 12.252 0.600 0.082
3 0.048 13.355 0.641 0.075
Диманички коефицијент спрегнутог носача је:
11.432
d , d din 1.36 (7)
st 8.402
Исто тако, сопствена учестаност осцилација у вертикалној равни износи:
1 1
fd
2.0 Hz (8)
Td 50 10
1000
Напомена: При обради свих података коришћен је софтверски пакет MathCAD 15.
односно, сопствена учестаност осцилација померања у вертикалној равни:
1 1
fp 1.961 2.0 Hz (13)
Tp 51 10
1000
На сл. 9, сл. 10 стављене су у однос прве четири амплитуде по обадве анализе са
вредностима коефицијената амортизације и логаритамског декремента.
Логаритамским декрементом карактерише се постепено престајање осциловања
спрегнутог носача. На тај начин време за које се амплитуда смањи (е) пута назива
се време релаксације. Број тих осцилација за време релаксације показује да је
логаритамски декремент једнак реципрочној вредности броја осцилација
утврђених за време релаксације. На сл. 11, приказана је релаксација амплитуда
осциловања спрегнутог носача у вертикалној равни, где се констатује да је
успешнија спроведена анализа за случај анализе регистрованих дилатација.
Према томе, третирана међуспратна таваница има способност да у великој мери
амортизује додатне новонастале утицаје услед дејства динамичке побуде при чему
се разматране динамичке карактеристике испољавају значајно када је она
неоптерећена, јер се тада успоставља интегрални осцилујући систем „објекат –
оптерећење“.
Слика 9 – Промена коефицијента амортизације осцилација добијених анализом
амплитуда осциловања (дилатација– Kd, и померања – Kp )
Слика 10 – Промена логаритамског декремента добијених анализом амплитуда
осциловања (дилатација– ln_d, и померања– ln_p)
Слика 11 – Промена коефицијента релаксације осцилација добијених анализом
амплитуда осциловања (дилатација– δ_d и померања– δ_p )
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
На основу приказане експерименталне анализе спрегнуте међуспратне таванице у
овом раду, дата су одређена запажања и закључци:
In some reinforced concrete elements, such as for example deep beams, there are areas
where calculation based on hypothesis of linear strain distribution in section cannot be
applied. Such areas are the areas of discontinuity or D-regions. For the calculation of
shear strength of deep reinforced concrete beams where the fracture occurs in D-regions,
strut-and-tie model (STM) is applied.
However, the results of experimental tests are not always consistent with the results
obtained using the STM. Experimental researches also show that results obtained using
the strut-and-tie models for high-strength concrete are less conservative than for normal
strength concrete. Because of this, the effect of concrete strength on the effective
capacity of the elements of strut-and-tie model must be taken into account. Although
STM has been implemented in various building codes throughout the world, there are
many details of the process that have yet to be well-documented, 1.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The experimental research has been done on pairs of identical beams made of high and
normal strength concrete. For high strength concrete (HSC), characteristic value of
compressive strength is fck=90 MPa, of tension strength is fct=4.0MPa, while for normal
strength concrete (NSC) these values are fck=35 MPa, and fct=2.5MPa. The beams have
been exposed the action of one concentrated force in the middle of the span brought to
1
Radmila Sinđić-Grebović, Ph.D. assist.prof., University of Montenegro, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Podgorica, Cetinjski put bb, Podgorica, Montenegro, tel: ++382 20 511 792, e – mail: radmilas@gmail.com
Figure 1. Dimensions and reinforcement of the tested models, 2
3. STRUT-AND-TIE MODEL
STM is a very simple idea with wide-ranging applications. The difficulty lies in
translating a behavior model into a code specification. The critical part for determining
the strength of a truss model is determining the strength of the individual components
(struts, ties, and nodes). STM is governed by the lowerbound theorem of plasticity which
requires only static equilibrium and yield conditions to be satisfied. Therefore, the
appropriate yield condition for struts and nodes must be identified. The yield conditions
for ties are easily quantifiable and readily available to design engineers, but the yield
conditions for struts and nodes vary greatly from code to code, 1.
The observed experimental investigation was carried out on reinforced concrete beams
with shear span to depth ratio of 1.25. The shape and dimensions of the beams, as well as
the plan of reinforcement, are shown in Figure 1. Strut-and-tie model of the tested beams
is shown in Figure 2. It is composed of two compressed struts and one tie, which are
connected with the nodes. Node B is of type CCC, where the elements in compression
come together, while the A and C are nodes of CCT type which connect elements in
compression and one tie in tension. Geometric characteristics of the strut-and-tie model
are determined from the geometrical characteristics of the beam, the position of the
reinforcement geometry and supports, as well as pattern of cracks. The system is always
in balance and equilibrium conditions of the individual nodes get the relation:
Vu=FABsinθ; FAC=FABcosθ; Vu=FACtgθ. From the geometry of the model the following
The behavior of struts and nodes are inseparably linked. A strut must abut a node.
Therefore, there will be a common plane where the strut and node must have equal
stress. The minimum cross-sectional area of a strut, occurs where the strut frames into a
node. In this location the stresses in the strut will be the greatest. To maintain the
equilibrium across the plane of intersection of a strut and a node the stresses on opposite
sides of the plane must be equal. Therefore, the peak stress in a strut will be equal to the
stress at the face of the abutting node, 1.
Figure 3. Stresses along the strut BC (BA) according STM and according strain
measured in the test
Figure 4. Corelation of stresses according STM and strain measured during the test
Diagrams on Figure 4 show correlation between stresses in the strut calculated according
STM for ultimate shear load and the strain measured in the experimental research. Data
from all strain gauges and all beams are shown on the diagram. Strains which are higher
than 2‰ (HSC), or 3‰ (NSC) are measured on the compressed strut B-C in part directly
alongside the node B. Line „long dash dot” shows level of stresses fck , where is
correction factor according (2). This line on HSC (C90/105) diagram is very close to
values of stresses σSTM with corresponding strain ε≈2-2.5‰. For NSC max measured
strain are between 3-4‰. Corresponding stresses according STM have significantly
higher values than fck for concrete C35/45.
Figure 5. STM stress and test strain in D region of the beams without shear
reinforcement
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete (RC) is the most applied material in the history of civil engineering.
The largest number of major infrastructure, residential, public, etc., buildings was made
of reinforced concrete. Because of this fact, the development of new monitoring systems
that will increase the safety of RC buildings is even more important. In this paper an
active monitoring system, using smart aggregate piezoelectric actuators/sensors based on
the wave propagation, will be presented.
In flexural beam members cracks could develop under working load. Cracks occur in
tensile zones because concrete is weak in tension. When the stress at the extreme tension
fibers exceeds the concrete modulus of rupture, the first crack occurs. A crack is formed
in concrete when a narrow opening of indefinite dimension has developed in the
1
Nemanja Marković, dipl.inž. građ., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Niš,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, e – mail: nemanjamarkovic85“@gmail.com
2
Prof. dr Dragoslav Stojić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia
3
Mr. Radovan Cvetković, dipl.inž. građ., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Niš,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia
4
Nikola Velimirović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Niš,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia
Piezoelectric-based approaches have provided an innovative approach for the structural
health monitoring of civil structures with the advantages of structural simplicity, low
cost, quick response and high reliability. Non destructive damage detection can be active
and passive. If the structure have embedded sensors and monitoring could be done due to
the impact caused by the outside, then it is called a passive monitoring system. This
method requires the presence of trained staff that will monitor the reinforced concrete
(RC) structure. However, if the structure has sensors and actuators, then this system is
called active monitoring system for structural damage detection. Development of the
Wireless system made possible the monitoring of the structure without the presence of
trained people on the structure. This type of monitoring provides the ability to monitor
construction at any moment of time, reducing the cost and increasing speed of
monitoring. The piezoelectric smart aggregate wave propagation structural health
monitoring is the active monitoring system which has all the advantages mentioned
above. In general, there are three major piezoelectric-based health monitoring
approaches [2]:
1. The impedance-based health monitoring approach which is a real-time,
qualitative damage detection method. The working principle is based on the
electromechanical coupling property of piezoelectric materials.
2. The vibration-characteristic approach utilizes piezoelectric actuators to
generate certain waves, which propagate within the structure, and compares
the structural vibration-characteristic parameters (modal shape, model
frequency), vibration-characteristic response curves (sweep sine or tone burst
A large number of experimental studies of crack detection in reinforce concrete beam
elements has been done in recent years. Smart aggregates (SA) were used as
piezoelectric actuators and sensors. SA is thin piezoelectric (PZT) patch protected of
water by some insulation and embedded in small mortar or concrete block (Figure 1) [1].
Figure 1. left - PZT SA layers, right - Fabricated smart aggregate.
Because of its piezoelectric properties, the SA can be used as the actuator (indirect
piezoelectric effect) and as a sensor (direct piezoelectric effect). Indirect piezoelectric
effect can be describe as mechanical deformations of piezoelectric materials caused
(generated) by electrical charge, or conversely, mechanical deformation (or
displacement) of piezoelectric element caused by applied electrical filed as direct
piezoelectric effect. This feature allows active monitoring of RC beam elements with far
less number of PZT paths and different configurations of actuator-sensors.
One piezoelectric smart aggregate is used as an actuator to excite the wave propagation
and others SA are used as sensors to detect incoming wave. PZT SA is attached to
reinforcement at the desired points in the reinforced concrete beam, so that after casting
concrete in formwork, the SA will retain the same position and orientation (Figure 2-
left). If in the beam cracks do not occurred, the wave propagation is carried out smoothly
and the energy of the signal output is largest possible for that actuator-sensor
configuration. But, if cracks appear in RC beam, the wave propagation distorts and the
energy of incoming wave decreases. By monitoring the energy of signal output, it is
possible to follow in time the occurrence and development of cracks in reinforced
4. NUMERICAL MODELING
Development of personal computers to the current level, that allows to any scientific
worker to calculate serious (numerically demanding) analysis, led to the fact that it is
possible to do a large number of numerical simulations for a relatively short time period.
This expend of numerical analysis makes possible the development of new methods for
detecting damage and active monitoring system that first are performed numerically and
later are confirmed experimentally. Some of the commonly used mathematical models
from this tasks are the finite element methods (FEM), finite difference methods
(FDM), boundary element methods (BEM) and spectral finite element methods (SFEM).
FEM methods has the advantages compared to other methods: after application of
commercial software availability (ABAQUS, ANSYS, etc.); it is easy to modelling of
different geometric shapes, modelling of cracks and their propagation, etc.
For damage detection based on wave propagation the largest problem is how to
efficiently create numerical model of wave propagation. FEM method provides the
possibility of modelling the wave propagation by implicit and explicit methods. The
starting point is the basic equations of dynamic equilibrium:
(E i, j Eh, j ) 2
RMSD j 1
2n
(5)
2
E
j 1
h, j
where Ei , j is energy vector for damage state and Eh, j is energy vector for healthy
reinforce concrete beam.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Active monitoring systems of reinforced concrete in the future will have a growing
importance because of its comparative advantages compared to other methods and
technology development. Experimental research has demonstrated that PZT SA damage
detection method is active monitoring system which has characteristics of simplicity,
low cost, quick response and high reliability. Numerical analysis is becoming more
significant in relation of aspect of research in developing of new or improving existing
monitoring systems. PZT SA active monitoring systems is currently very poorly
1. INTRODUCTION
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) assumes that the plasticity in the zone ahead
of the crack front can be neglected because the nonlinear deformation of materials is
limited to a very small area around the crack tip. However, in a highly ductile material
that is not happening. In the soft steel, a crack expansion is preceded by large plastic
deformation. Although the element load is below the yield point, just before the
expansion of the crack, the stress field in the zone around the crack tip reaches the yield
point or close to its value. In the elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) various
models and approaches for determining the length of plastic zone ahead of the crack tip
are proposed. Dugdale model [1] attributes the reduction of the stress at the top of crack
to macroscopic plasticity while by Barenblatt model [2] this effect is caused by the large
cohesive forces in the vicinity of the crack tip, and its distribution is a constant of a
material. Inclusion of RDA to the analysis of problems related to fracture mechanics
starts with a paper published by Milašinović [3][4]. This paper shows how the RDA can
be used in the study of stress concentration at the crack tip, calculate: fatigue fracture
frequency, crack depth, fatigue strength, cyclic ductility, crack width, crack opening and
stress intensity factor (SIF).
2. DUGDALE MODEL
Elastic-plastic crack expansion by Dugdale is the classical theoretical basis of EPFM.
1
Ljiljana M. Kozarić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: kozaric@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Dragan D. Milašinović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
By solving the integral
b c
x
dx c(2b c)
b x2 b2
on top of an imaginary crack due to stress σY is obtained
2
K IA Y , a c Y c(2b c )
b (8)
By substituting (3) and (8) into (2) yields
2
1.12 a c Y c(2b c) 0
b
therefore, the Dugdale crack tip plasticity model for the symmetrically placed edge
cracks in an infinite strip is
c(2b c)
1.12
2 Y b( a c )
(9)
in which
For the analysis of critical crack length, the axial stretched cylindrical rod was selected:
elastic modulus E 210 GPa , toughness GC 107 KJm 2 .
Critical crack lenght is calculated for smooth reinforcement bars with diameters
D0 19, 16, 14, 12, 10 and 8 mm .
Rod model is analyzed as a three-dimensional rotationally symmetric and reduced to the
case of plane strain in classical fracture mechanics model with symmetrically placed
edge cracks. Milašinović [4] proposed that initial cracks geometry af of the rod are
obtained as a result of calculation based on the RDA.
Dugdale considered the plastic regions to take the form of narrow strips extending a
distance c from each crack tip. For purpose of the analysis in this paper, the elastic edge
crack of length a= af is allowed to extend elastically to a critical crack length acr= af
+c=a+c; however, an internal stress is applied in the plastic regions c to close extended
part of crack.
Initial crack depth af=a=5.26485 mm was obtained as a result of calculation based on the
RDA at a load of σ∞=142 Mpa [4], which corresponds to the stress proportionality σP for
a given material. According to load, appropriate yield stress is σY=258.17 MPa.
The present study has analyzed the physical mechanism and experimental proof for the
transition from the complex three-dimensinal RDA crack geometry into a simple plane
one using the Dugdale model.
A new analytical RDA model for the predictions related to fatigue crack growth and
failure of rods made of ductile materials has already been presented [4]. Considering of
the initial crack geometry at a load which corresponds to the stress proportionality for a
given material and using the Dugdale model [1], the experimental results [6] show that
the model predictions are reasonable.
REFERENCES
[1] Dugdale, D.S.: : Yielding of steel sheets containing slits. Journal of Physics and
Solids, 1960., vol. 8, p.p. 100-108.
[2] Barenblatt, G.I.: Mathematical theory of equilibrium cracks in brittle fracture.
Advances in Applied Mechanics, 1962., vol. 7, p.p. 55-129.
[3] Milašinović, D.D., Landović, A.: Primena reološko-dinamičke analogije u metodi
konačnih elemenata. Zbornik radova Građevinskog fakulteta 15, 2006.,
[4] Milašinović, D.D.: Fatigue crack growth and failure of inelastic rods based on
rheological - dynamical analogy. International Journal of Fatigue, 2011., vol. 33,
№ 3, p.p. 372-381.
[5] Tada, H., Paris, P.C., Irwin, G.R.: The stress analysis of cracks hand-book 3rd edn.,
NY: ASME1, New York, 2000.
[6] Hertzberg, R.W.: Deformation and fracture mechanics of engineering materials.
Wiley & Sons, 1976., 697 p.
1. INTRODUCTION
The timber-concrete composite (TCC) structure is a structural system in which a timber
beam is connected to an upper concrete slab using different types of connectors. The best
properties of both materials can be exploited because bending and tensile forces induced
by gravity loads are resisted primarily by the timber beam and compression by the
concrete slab, while the connection system transmits the shear forces between the two
components. TCC structural systems are successfully used in bridges, piers, platforms
and in upgrading and strengthening existing timber floors in residential and office
buildings. By connecting a concrete slab to a timber beam it is possible to increase
significantly (even up to four times) the stiffness of the section than when a timber
section is used alone. Because of its lower weight, compared to a reinforced concrete
section, the imposed load on the foundationas as well as the seismic effects are reduced.
The critical part of any composite structure is the connection between the constituent
materials. The shear connector, apart from being stiff, needs to have a certain strength or
shear capacity. In order to properly consider the long term behaviour of TCC, time
dependent behaviour of constituent materials needs to be considered. Concrete displays
creep and shrinkage effects. However timber behaviour is more complex, because its
sensitivity to the environmental effects such as the moisture content. Published records
of long-term loading experiments have demonstrated that connections can creep, even
1
Dragoslav Stojić, Full Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture ,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200, e – mail: dragoslav.stojic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
Nikola Velimirović, PhD student, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture ,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200, e – mail: velimirovic.nikola@gmail.com
3
Radovan Cvetković, Teaching Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture ,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200, e – mail : radovan@gaf.ni.ac.rs
The probabilistic deterioration models can be generally classified into two categories:
random variable models and stochastic process models. The main idea of the random
variable models is that one or more of the variables in deterioration model is random
variable with certain probaility distribution. Since components in a population are
experiencing different rates of deterioration, the rate can be treated as a random variable
with an appropriate probability density function, but deterioration of the component will
be considered with a fixed deterioration rate throughout its service life. However, it has
emerged that for decision making purposes, random variable models have limitations
because it is unable to capture temporal effects that could be relevant for long lifecycles
such as those in construction. These issues acquire an even greater importance when a
composite section such as the one considered here is concerned. Since the late 1990s,
stochastic processes have emerged as an alternative to random variable models in
providing predicted profiles for componental deterioration.
a) P(X (0)) = 0;
b) ΔX(t) = X(t +Δt) - X(t) ~ Ga(Δk(t), θ), Δk(t) = k(t + Δt) - Δk(t)
c) ΔX(t) are independent.
Let X(t) denote the deterioration at time t, t ≥ 0, and let the probability density function
of X(t), in conformity with the definition of the gamma process, be given by
f X (t ) ( x) Ga( x k (t ), ) (3)
with expectation and variance
E ( X (t )) k (t ) , Var ( X (t )) k (t ) 2 (4)
3. APPLICATION OF GAMMA PROCESS MODEL ON TIMBER-
CONCRETE COMPOSITE BEAM
In order to enable efficient management of structure in terms of required maintenance or
replacement, it is essential to have enough information about its state. Therefore, the
progress of deterioration of the observed structure and estimate its service life, have to
be quantified. In particular for TCC beams, component materials will deteriorate at a
different pace over the life-cycle. Any analytical model designed to estimate the long
term behaviour of TCC sections has to include such diverse effects that develop at
different times in the lifecycle. However, closed form solutions will have limited validity
in real conditions. We implement the stochastic process approach for TCC sections
because temporal variability is very significant and available data is extremely limited.
In this paper we consider a simply supported TCC beam of span 4.2 m, where glued steel
bars are used as shear connectors. For medium and long-span composite beams as well
as composite beams exposed to external influences (for examle bridges or roof
structures), the most serious criterion during the design process is the limit states of
maximum deflection [1]. This is so that the focus lies on the modelling deterioration of
deflection in the middle range of the TCC beam over time under a service load. Our
initial approach is to generate the deterioration model at time t from outcomes that can
be based on the available deterministic models or as a result of expert judgement. This
serves to simulate the condition of the beam that is monitored through periodic
inspections and in that way inspections reveal the progress of the deterioration. Current
design code, Eurocode 5, suggests limit value of l/250 for long-term deflections of
simply supported beams where l is the span length, uL. Thus, considered TCC beam will
reach serviceability limit state when deflection reaches that assumed value. As an initial
deflection, deflection at time t0, is assumed to be elastic deflection uel measured
immediately after applying the service load. We observe the relative mid-span deflection
of the beam over time, that is define as follows:
u (t ) u el
X (t ) (5)
u
el
Figure 1. Trend ot the expected relative mid-span deflection increasing over time under
service load
Empirical studies show that the expected deterioration at time t can often be represented
as a power law:
b b b
E ( X (t )) k (t ) ct at t (7)
for some physical constants c > 0, b > 0 and θ > 0. The gamma process is called
stationary if the expected deterioration is linear in time, i.e., when b = 1 and non-
stationary when b≠1. [3] In order to apply the gamma process model to practical
examples, statistical methods for the deterioration parameter estimation are required. We
can assume that a typical data set for the structure consists of inspection times ti, i = 1, . .
. ,n, where 0 = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn, and corresponding observations of the cumulative
amounts of deterioration xi, i = 1, . . , n, where 0 = x0 ≤ x1 ≤ · · · ≤ xn. There is often
engineering knowledge available about the shape of the expected deterioration in terms
of the parameter b. In case that there is no available data of the expected deterioration, as
in our case, estimation of the parameter b can be performed based on the least square
method. The parameter estimate of the power b used here was 1/6, that suggests that the
deterioration is non-linear in time and we can assume that the expected value of the
stochastic gamma process follows a non-linear power function. After determining the
parameter b, it is necessary to estimate the other two parameters of the gamma process,
the shape parameter and scale parameter.
The two most common methods of parameter estimation are Maximum Likelihood
Method and Method of Moments. The latter is considered more appropriate and applied
here. Estimation of parameters c and θ, using the Maximum Likelihood Method, can be
realized by maximizing the logarithm of the likelihood function of the observed
deterioration increments, δi = xi –xi−1, i = 1, ..., n, where likelihood function is
represented as a product of independent probability density functions:
n b b n b b
l (c, ) log L (c, ) (c[ti ti 1 ] 1) log i c [ti ti 1 ]
i 1 i 1
(8)
n b b 1 n
log (c[ti ti 1 ]) i
i 1 i 1
The maximum-likelihood estimates c and θ are 371.118 and 0.0049, respectively. Figure
2 demonstrates the use of Gamma process representation for probability density
functions of cumulative deterioration of relative mid-span deflection at different time.
Figure 2. Probability density functions of deterioration X(t) for certain years
3.2 Distribution of serviceability lifetime
For practice the estimate of the time when the structure would reach serviceability limit
of some form would be of interest to owners and stake holders. The serviceability
lifetime T can be defined as the first time when the sample path of X (t) exceeds the limit
ρ. Due to the gamma distributed deterioration, the serviceability lifetime can then be
written as:
( k (t ), / )
FT (t ) Pr(T t X (t ) ) f X ( t ) ( x ) dx (9)
x ( k (t ))
where
a 1 t
( a, x ) t e dt (10)
tx
is the incomplete gamma function for x ≥ 0 and a > 0.
The cumulative probability function of serviceability lifetime is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Cumulative distribution function for serviceability lifetime
4. CONCLUSIONS
In order to enable efficient management of structures in terms of required
maintenance,and replacement, it is essential to be able to capture the uncertain nature of
the deterioration process. In this paper we have considered a stochastic gamma process
model that can capture the true nature of deterioration of timber-concrete composite
beams. As the increasing deflection can lead to violation of serviceability limit state the
serviceability lifetime is of interest and therefore considered in this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Fragiacomo, M., Ceccotti, A.: A simplified approach for long-term evaluation of
timber-concrete composite beams. Proceedings of The 8th World Conference on
Timber engineering, Lahti, Finland, 2004.
[2] Abdel-Hameed M. : A gamma wear process. IEEE Transaction on Reliability.,
1975., 24(2):152–3
[3] Van Noortwijk, J.M.: A survey of the application of gamma processes in
maintenance. Journal of Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 2009., 94: 2-21.
1
Assist. PhD, State University of Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia , pbarhisnp@gmail.com
2
Prof. PhD, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia,
cvetkovska@gf.ukim.edu.mk
3
Assist. M-r Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia,
marijuana@gf.ukim.edu.mk
4
Assoc.prof. PhD, Faculty of Architecture, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia,
agavriloska@arh.ukim.edu.mk
Slika 1. Tipovi razmatranih preseka spregnutih stubova
Pri analizi vremena požarne otpornosti u zavisnosti od tipa preseka stuba usvojeni su
sledeći parametri, karakteristike i uslovi :
Stub je sa svih strana izložen požarnom opterećenju i opterećen centrično,
Analizirani su stubovi sa visinom H = 3 m, (najčešća spratna visina),
Oslanjanje stubova na krajevima je Z – Z (obostrana zglobna veza),
Požari : (1) nominalni-ISO 834 i hidrokarbonski; (2) prirodni: parametarski,
Usvojeni čelik profila je S 355, armatura kvaliteta B 400/500, beton - C 30/37,[4]
U gornjem zglobnom osloncu je omogućena dilatacija u pravcu podužne ose .
Parametarski požarni scenario je usvojen za stambeni prostor , dimenzija prostorije 4 x 5
m, dva otvora na prostoriji (vrata (1,0 x 2,20 ) i prozor ( 1,20 x 1,40 ), qtk = 948 MJ/m2,
O = 0,043m1/2, b = 1301 J/(m2s0,5K). Parametarska kriva je prikazana sa delom krive
koja predstavlja zagrevanje, i drugim delom koja predstavlja hlađenje. Sve tri požarne
krive, za usvojene požarne scenarije, prikazane su na slici 2 .
1200 T (⁰C) Standardna kriva ISO 834 : ( αc = 25 W/m2K )
1000 Θg = 20+345*log10 (8*t + 1)
Hidrokarbonska kriva : ( αc = 50 W/m2K )
800
Θg = 20 + 1080*(1-0,325*e-0,167t - 0,625*e-2,5t)
600
Parametarska kriva :
400 - Grejanje:
200
PARAMETARSKA KRIVA Θg = 20+1325*(1-0,324*e-0,t*-0,204*e-1,7t*-0,472*e-19t* )
HIDROKARBONSKA KRIVA
ISO 834 KRIVA t (min) - Hlađenje :
0
Θg = Θmax – 625 *(t* - tmax* X)
0
6
12
18
24
30
34
40
46
52
58
64
70
76
82
88
94
100
106
112
Slika 2. Usvojene požarne krive i njihova definicija
U uslovima delovanja požara projektna opterećenja su manja od projektnih opterećenja
koja se usvajaju pod normalnim temperaturama. Činjenica je da se faktori opterećenja i
materijala ,u uslovima normalnih temperature, razlikuju od faktora pri požarnim
uslovima.
Vrednosti aksijalnog centričnog opterećenja (pritisak) analiziranih spregnutih stubova
(čelik-beton) pri dejstvu požara su usvojena je u odnosu na vrednost karakteristične
plastične otpornosti preseka: Nu,fi = 0,60*Npl,Rk . Karakteristična plastična nosivost
spregnutog preseka Npl,Rk određena je prema EC3 i EC4.
Kod većih dimenzija stubova betonski deo preseka ima ulogu „hladnjaka” čeličnog
profila koji je direktno izložen požaru [1][3]. Ovu tvrdnju najbolje potvrđuje Slika br.4 :
Slika 3. Prikaz promene temperature, kroz presek tri PES stuba različitih dimenzija,
za vremenski trenutak t = 82 min ( otkaz stuba sa najmanjim dimenzijama preseka )
Na slici su prikazane i obeležene temperature u preseku tri stuba CFS različitih
dimenzija. Reperno vreme je vreme loma stuba CFS 200 x 200 x6,3 mm (t = 96 min). U
U slučaju hidrokarbonskog požara , kao što se vidi iz tabelarnih rezultata sa predhodnih
slika, ponašanje temperaturnog polja je slično kao kod standardnog ISO 834 požara.
Razlika u vremenima požarne otpornosti kod preseka manjih dimenzija (manji i
srednji), je rezultat brzog rasta temperature kod hidrokarbonskog požara.
Slika 5. Prikaz promene temperature, kroz presek tri PES stuba različitih dimenzija,
za vremenski trenutak t = 81 min (otkaz stuba sa najmanjim dimenzijama preseka )
Pri dejstvu parametarskog požara , sa znatno manjim temperaturama od predhodna dva
scenarija, ne dolazi do otkaza nosivosti nosača bez obzira na tip i veličinu preseka stuba.
3. ZAKLJUČAK
Požarna otpornost spregnutih stubova direktno zavisi od dimenzija poprečnog preseka
stuba i intenziteta požarnog dejstva. Sa povećanjem dimenzija preseka, za isti tip stuba
,temperaturno polje sporije zahvata središte stuba čime se duže zadržavaju nosive
karakteristike materijala , a na taj način i produžava otpornost na požar. Takođe ,
požarna otpornost zavisi i od vida požarnog opterećenja. Za prirodni požar ( srednje
stambeno požarno opterećenje) razmatrani stubovi (svih preseka), su zadržali nosivost i
stabilnost. Za druga dva požarna scenarija trenutak otkaza stuba je zavisio od vida
požarnog opterećenja i dimenzija preseka stuba .
LITERATURA
[1] Cvetkovska, M., Nonlinear Stress Strain Behaviour of RC Elements and Plane
Frame Structures Exposed to Fire, Doctoral dissertation, "Ss Cyril and
Methodius" University, Macedonia, 2002.
[2] CHU Thi Binh, Hollow steel section columns filled with self-compacting concrete
under ordinary and fire conditions, Doctoral dissertation, University of Liege,
2008
[3] Cvetkovska M., Milanović M., Jovanoska M., Cifliganec C., Parametric analysis
of fire resistance of centrically loaded composite steel-concrete columns, 15th
International Symposium of Macedonian Association of Structural Engineers,
Ohrid, Macedonia, 2013.
[4] EN 1992-1-2 - Design of Concrete Structures, General rules-Structural fire
design, 2004.
[5] EN 1994-1-2 - Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures, General
rules-Structural fire design, July 2005.
1. INTRODUCTION
IMS Building Technology is an advanced system for industrialized building. It is based
on prefabricated reinforced concrete elements of the skeleton frame structure, assembled
on-site and joined using post-tensioning tendons.
The prefabricated concrete frame consists of columns, beams, floors slabs, shear walls
and staircases which enable the construction of a wide variety of different buildings,
produced out of relatively small number of typical elements, precast industrially in large
series. IMS building system during its existence withstood numerous foreign regulations
depending on the countries where it was built. European regulations for the design and
building of structures are already in use in most of our neighbours .It’s the matter of time
when they will be used in our country. We recently completed Pilot residential building
with the IMS technology system in the Republic of Croatia in Osijek. Since those
European regulations are already in use in Croatia, IMS technology system had to be
designed and constructed in accordance with European regulations for the very first
time. This pilot project was very important for us, because it showed that it can be
adapted to all the strict requirements of the European group of standards. The paper
mainly presents the way that we conducted proof load tests of some slabs in the IMS
system, a standard that we apply for the tests, as well as concerns that we had during the
designing project in terms of achieving connections at the junction of two adjacent slabs.
1
Nebojša Milovanović, dipl.građ.inž., Institute for testing materials-IMS Institute, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43,
Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381112652165, e–mail: nebojsa.milovanovic@institutims.rs
2
Željko Flajs, dipl.građ.inž., Institute for testing materials-IMS Institute, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43,
Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381112652165, e–mail: zeljko.flajs@institutims.rs
[1] The Residential building in Osijek was in the final stage during the proof load
testing’s . The building has underground garage + ground level + fifth levels and it is
formed in the shape of the letter L. The structure is designed as cast in situ for
underground and ground level, while the rest of levels are formed as a prefabricated
structure. Total area of building is about 8,200 m2. On the building are represented
almost all types of precast slabs that can be manufactured in a facility of "Gradnja" in
Osijek. Throughout the design phase of this project and its performance various
incentives were taken into consideration that would assist in the direction of faster work
execution of the structure. One of the most important is certainly the type of joint
connection between two adjacent slabs during mounting. Every manufactured slab has
extension of reinforcement bars (212mm) at the top of secondary ribs. After slabs
mounting they are welded in the way to keep their continuity in the top zone of
secondary ribs. The detail is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Detail of slab joint
Since the IMS technology system is very specific and incomparable to the typical
prefabricated structures, and as such does not fall into the category of structures that can
be tested according to some of European norms, testing of these kind of structures will
be carried out according to Serbian norm SRPS.U.M1.047 1987 since we have a large
database of samples tested in the IMS technology system that were studied for the last 40
years. In a similar way, testing of this building will be conducted in a similar manner.
3. PROOF LOAD TESTING
Test load of building structure was carried out on the roof level, since it is the simplest
to set up a test load using a crane. In agreement with the Investor (in this case, and
Contractors) as a test load were used euro pallets with clay products known as weight on
the top (650 daN). For as much of the impossibility to insure complete area with design
loads, designers and engineers of this building have decided to load the slabs which are
Figure 2. Regime of slabs testing
For this kind of regime, the appropriate load has been defined as clay product on the
euro pallets with weight of 650 daN/m2 (hatch areas). The presented scheme is just one
isolated part of roof level which has been tested.
a) b)
c) d)
e)
Figure 3(a-e). Load phase
The main objective of this study is primarily a correlation between the stress-strain state
of numerical and experimental (real) model structures. Due to the fact that the continuity
Figure 4. Acquisition devices Figure 5. Acquisition devices
Figure 7. Vertical displacement diagrams [mm]
Figure 8. Diagrams of strain state in phases [Mpa]
6. CONCLUSION
After completing the load testing and processing of data, we concluded that a rigid joint
connection which is achieved by welding the upper reinforcement of two mutually
adjacent ribs during the implementation of work has no impact on the achievement of
rigid connection joints. With it’s abolition (breaking the weld profile fitting) at the spot
and testing it, we have quite similar results that correspond to rigid connection in the
numerical model. The reason for the acomplishment of the rigid connection, despite
interruptions reinforcement bars, are steel cylinders (deviators ropes for pre-stressing)
located directly below mentioned connection joints in secondary ribs , and which are
exposed to strong pressure from two ropes mm. Whilst in the process of work
execution steel cylinders are left in the horizontal gaps in adjacent plates after lowering
tendons into the designed position . Steel cylinders and precast slabs connection is
further secured with injecting mixture into the cylindrical hole, in which way it is
achieved that prefabricated elements work together in the form of rigid connection
joints. Substantial savings were made during work execution of IMS structure and the
simplification of the installation of the elements themselves, since there is no need for
welding reinforcing bars in the upper part of the two adjacent precast slabs.
REFERENCES
[1] Milovanovic, N., Flajs, Z.: Tehnical report IKT 02/13, 2013.
1. INTRODUCTION
At the Zemun side of the Zemun-Borča bridge over the Danube there is a loess plateau
about 15-20m above the Danube with very steep slope. In the proximity of the bridge
construction site there are various properties, mostly small residential buildings of rather
poor construction. Before the beginning of the major construction works related to the
bridge abuttment (the pier number 1, consisting of 12 piles and the foundation block), it
was necessary to make assessment of the construction works induced vibrations and its
influence upon the nearby structures, particularly the two buildings at the very edge of
the loess plateau, left and right of the construction site. Also, it was necessary to make
assesment of the slope stability during construction works having in mind the properties
of the loess soil, the slope shape and various machines, like the rotary drilling rig for
installment of the drilled piles, the concrete mixer, excavating bager, crawling crane, etc.
2. VIBRATION PROPAGATION
Having in mind all circumstances related to construction works-induced vibrations,
especially the fact that it was necessary to make an assessment of the induced vibrations
1
Prof. dr.Stanko Brčić, dipl.civil.eng., (corresponding author), University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 3218 544, e-mail: stanko@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Prof. dr.Zoran Mišković, dipl.civil eng., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bul. kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 3218 620, e-mail: mzoran@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Prof. dr.Dejan Vučković, dipl.eng.geophys., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Đušina
7, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381-11-3219 244, e-mail: dejavu@rgf.bg.ac.rs
Fig. 1(a) Location of measurement points Fig. 1(b) Measurement instrument
In considered case of future construction works, the probable source of vibrations could
be the movement of heavy trucks over uneven ground and resulting shock loads. Also,
the works related to soil compaction during construction of the access road are to be
expected. Having in mind the future dominant construction works with the most
potential for generation of vibrations, for the simulation of construction works a concrete
mixer, a heavy truck and a tracked excavator (bagger) were selected. Figure 2 represents
the machines selected to represent the simulated construction work.
Fig. 2(a) Heavy truck and a mixer Fig. 2(b) Tracked excavator (bager)
Obtained results, presented in the form of the soil velocities distribution, or, as the
velocity maps, for the ambient vibrations, or microtremor, and for induced vibrations
due to simultaneous heavy truck and concrete mixer excitation, are given in the Figure 3.
Velocity maps are isolines of measured ambient and induced velocity components.
Fig. 3(a) Velocity map for microtremor Fig. 3(b) Velocity map for induced
(distribution of ambient vibrations) vibrations due to heavy truck and a mixer
Velocity distribution maps give the overview of the vibration propagation through the
soil in the construction site area. Induced vibration velocity map, Fig. 3(b), clearly
represents that the soil at the site is quite inhomogeneous, with varous discontinuities,
since the velocity propagation from the source is guite different in various radial
directions. The corresponding attenuation (vibration propagation) laws for three
Fig. 4(a) Measured velocity time history Fig. 4(b) Comparative time histories of
near the House-1 (all 3 components) vertical velocities Vz (source and House 1)
There are various international criteria, (but not Serbian!), related to vibration effects
upon the houses and upon the people in houses, mostly based upon the PPV values. For
the dominant vibration frequency range in considered case, allowable PPV values for
buildings are BS 7385-2: 15-20mm/s, DIN 1450-3: 5mm/s, Swiss criteria: 5mm/s, etc.
For people in buildings, PPV based criteria are 11mm/s (Reiher), 5mm/s (Whiffen),
6.1mm/s (Wiss), but DIN 1450-2 defines the so-called KBf parameter, as a measure for
vibration effects upon people. Definition of KBf(t) is rather complicated, so it is not
given here. According to DIN 1450-2 the criteria is: KBf,max < Au and, in this case,
Au=0.20. Calculated values KBf,max for the most exposed buildings were 0.0395 (House-
1), 0.0297 (House-2) and 0.0430 (House-3), therefore, significantly bellow 0.20. Also,
all PPV values were significalnly bellow the adopted 5mm/s limit, so the main
conclusion related to vibration propagation due to construction works and its effects
upon the properties and people in the vicinity of the site is that the palnned construction
works produce no harmfull vibrations to surrounding buildings and people.
3. SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Location of the construction site at the Danube bank on the Zemun side is a loess plateau
which is for about twenty meters above the Danube level. The house called the House-1,
even though it is outside of the construction site, is the most endangered property with
respect to the slope stability. First, it is closest to the edge (some 5-5.5m) towards the
Danube and second, the slope gradient towards the Danube at that location is greater
then at other locations in the surroundig, it is almost vertical. Slope stability analysis was
conducted using the program SLOPE/W, which is the part of the computer code
Fig. 5(a) View at the slope by the House 1 Fig. 5(b) Slope stability analysis (House 1)
The conclusion was that the slope is conditionally stable, i.e. the factor of safety is about
1.0. However, one should keep in mind that the strength parameters of the soil are the
result of soil investigation of only one, relatively far away, drillhole, so the obtained soil
data are not sufficently reliable. Having in mind the the soil data, above all the strenght
parameters, are not sufficently reliable, it may be concluded that the slope at location of
the House-1 is conditionally stable. If into the soil under the house fundations, or in the
immediate surrounding, some larger quantity of water appears, e.g. due to some damage
of plumbing or sewage pipes, there is the great possibility of rapid violation of the slope
stability at any moment. Consequently, the corresponding measures were prescribed.
Besides the slope stability analysis of the profile just outside the construction site limits
(location of the House-1), slope stability analysis was performed for the position of the
bridge abuttment no.1 (longitudinal axis of the bridge). Due to slightly less steep profile
towards the Danube, the factor of safety of 1.070 was obtained, which is slightly better
then 1.030, but it is still low. After the removal of some 2.0m of the top layer soil, as
presented in the Fig. 2(b), the factor of safety was obtained as FoS=1.199. Various
phases of the work process related to construction of the abuttment no.1 were simulated
(drilling of the piles, construction of the concrete block connecting the piles, the final
indentation of the slope edge towards the Danube, protective coffer-dam in the Danube,
etc.) and the correspodnig factors of safety of the slope stability were determined. Based
upon such analysis, the working range of heavy machines, especially the rotary drilling
rig and the excavation bager, was defined and limited. For instance, prior to drilling of
the 12 piles, the rotary drilling rig (or any heavy machine) was not allowed to come
Fig. 6(a) The closest position of the rotary Fig. 6(b) Two heavy machines after
drilling rig (9.0m from the slope edge) construction of the piles
The work presented in this paper is conducted in the framework of the scientific projects
funded by the Ministry of education, science and technological development of the
Republic of Serbia TR-36046, TR-36048 and TR-3303, respectively for each author.
REFERENCES
[1] Brćić S., Mišković Z., Vučković D.: Construction-induced vibration assessment on
the Zemun side of the Zemun-Borča Bridge, Technical report, Belgrade, May 2012
[2] Brćić S., Mišković Z., Vučković D.: Slope stability of the right bank of Danube
during construction works related to Zemun-Borča bridge, Technical report,
Belgrade, June 2012
1. UVOD
Međuspratne tavanice , kao horizontalni površinski konstruktivni elementi, imaju vrlo
bitnu ulogu u obezbeđivanju nosivosti,upotrebljivosti i stabilnosti objekta u celini.
Dejstvo,različitih,stalnih i promenljivih opterećenja na različite tipove međuspratnih
konstrukcija, za usvojene različite statičke sisteme , čini kompleksnim projektovanje,
proračun i dimenzionisanje konstrukcija. Kada navedenim uticajima u preseku tavanica
dodamo i požarno opterećenje, problem proračuna i dimenzionisanja istih postaje još
složeniji. Osnovna potreba je da se obezbediti određeno vreme požarne otpornosti
međuspratnih tavanica, kako bi se omogućilo evakuisanje ljudi i bezbedno gašenje
požara. Strožiji kriterijum, u savremenom projektovanju za dejstva požara, je zahtev da
se oštećenja konstrukcije od požara ograniče na oštećenja lokalnog karaktera.
Konstrukcije treba projektovati i zaštititi tako da se, u toku trajanja požara, jave
oštećenja koja će se kasnije lako sanirati, bez dovođenja u pitanje stabilnost tavanica i
konstrukcije u celini. Zbog prirode međuspratnih konstrukcija da mogu biti izvedene sa
jednim i više matrijala sa različitim karakteristikama (veliki broj savremenih
1
Assist. PhD, State University of Novi Pazar, Novi Pazar, Serbia , pbarhisnp@gmail.com
2
Prof. PhD, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia,
vetkovska@gf.ukim.edu.mk
Slika 1.: Tipovi analiziranih međuspratnih tavanica : a)–masivna AB ploča ; b)- FERT
tavanica ; c)- STIRODOM tavanica sa i bez gipsanog plafona i d) – YTONG tavanica
Pri analizi požarne otpornosti u zavisnosti od tipa međuspratne konstrukcije usvojeni su
sledeći parametri, karakteristike i uslovi:
Međuspratne konstrukcije su izlagane požarnom opterećenju sa donje strane,
Analizirana je izdvojena traka širine b = 1 m, L=6m,
Oslanjanje tavanica na krajevima je slobodno (sistem proste grede),
Sadržaj vlage u betonu je isti za sve tipove preseka - 3 % (30 lit / m3),
Požarni scenario je isti za sve analizirane tavanice, ISO 834 - standardni požar,
Fizičko-mehaničke karakteristike betona su usvojene prema EC2,
Usvojena armatura je kvaliteta B 400/500, beton marke - C 30/37 (EC2,EC3),
U desnom osloncu je omogućena dilatacija u pravcu ose konstrukcije kako bi ista
mogla nesmetano da se izdužuje pri dejstvu temperature.
Ostali materijali su usvojeni prema karakteristikama koje je dao proizvođač,
Usvojeno je stalno i promenljivo opterećenje kako je dato u analizi.
Termičke i mehaničke karakteristike materijala za usvojene tipove međuspratnih
konstrukcija su date u tabeli 1.Ostali materijali su ugrađeni u softver SAFIR prema EC.
80
70
60
50
40
q/q(l/250) ( % )
100 84 67 50
Na Slici 2 prikazan je dijagram vremena požarne otpornosti usvojenih tipova
međuspratnih konstrukcija. Reperna vrednost je opterećenje graničnog ugiba u
ambijentalnim uslovima, usvojena kao 100% vrednost. Ostale vrednosti opterećenja su
date na apcisi dijagrama ( 84% , 67 % i 50%). YTONG tavanica ne dostiže graničnu
deformaciju za sve vrednosti opterećenja. Neizolovana STIRODOM tavanica ima
najmanju požarnu otpornost.Razlog je veoma mala otpornost stirodura na visoke
temperature.Gipsana izolacija kod izolovane STIRODOM tavanice i opekarski punioc
kod FERT konstrukcije doprinose većoj požarnoj otpornosti ovih tavanica. Deformacije
od savijanja analiziranih tavanica,u toku izloženosti požarnom dejstvu, prikazane su na
slici 3. Najmanje deformacije ima YTONG tavanica. Zahvaljujući izuzetnim izolacionim
svojstvama gipsane obloge (30mm),na zagrejanoj strani, tavanica STIRODOM se takođe
dobro ponaša. Kod STIRODOM tavanica bez izolacije, zbog brzog sagorevanja
stirodura,već iznad t=60 min se dostiže granična vrednost ugiba-L/30.
-100
-200
-300
REIFORCED
PUNA CONCRETE
PLOCA
PUNA PLOCA SLAB
FERT TAVANICA
FERT SLAB
FERT TAVANICA
-400
STIRODOM INSULATED
IZOLOVANI
IZOLOVANI SLAB
STIRODOM
STIRODOM
NEIZOLOVANI
STIRODOM WITHOUT STIRODOM
INSULATION
q = 0,50*q(l/250)
NEIZOLOVANI STIRODOM
YTONG GRANICNI
GRANICNISLABUGIBUGIB L/30
L/30
-500 YTONG PLOCA
BORDER DEFLECTION
YTONG PLOCA
U (mm)
-600
Slika 3. Prikaz deformacije ( ugiba ) od savijanja , pri zagrevanju usvojenih tavanica
Iako FERT konstrukcija ima bolju otpornost ( ne velika razlika ) od masivne betonske
ploče (slika 2) , ipak,zbog veće krutosti pune ploče ,deformacije u toku zagrevanja ovih
tavanica,skoro da su identične. Poslednja slika 4, prikazuje temperaturu u armaturnoj
šipki, pune armiranobetonske ploče debljine d=17cm,u odnosu na temperaturu ambijenta
pri standardnom požarnom testu. Takođe je prikazana deformacija savijanja tavanice pri
razvoju temperature u armaturi iste.
Slika 4: Dijagram razvoja ugiba pune AB ploče u sredini raspona, u odnosu na porast
temperature armatur. šipki i temperature u ambijentu ISO-834 požara za vreme od 2 h ;
4. ZAKLJUČAK
Puna armiranobetonska međuspratna tavanica ,koja je nezamenljiva kod izgradnje
objekata visokogradnje, vrlo dobro se ponaša u uslovima požarnog dejstva. Za
Figure 1 (a) Dimensions of the cross section of the EHST column (b) Fixed ended
column test (Source: Zhu, J. and Young, B.)
Three dimensional solid element C3D20 available in ABAQUS was used to steel tube
column and it could be observed in the analysis with various types of element that such
element, which contains 20 nodes with three degrees of freedom in each node is suitable
Figure 2. Elements and boundary conditions used in the FE model of the column
In the experimental analysis, the applied load at ultimate state was predicted with a value
of 185.9 kN and the finite element model was shown the ultimate limit state of the
applied load as 199 kN, which was a coefficient of deviation of 7%. Meanwhile, it could
Figure 3. Stress strain curves of steel from experiment (a) at flat portion (b) at curved
portion. Source: Source: Zhu, J. and Young, B.
Table 1 Detailed loading point, applied load and induced moments at ultimate limit state
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The behaviour of the EHST column section was studied with non-linear finite element
analysis in the subjection of eccentric loadings.
Figure 5. (a) Cross section of the EHST section (b) Interaction diagram of ultimate
applied load with induced moments due to the eccentric loadings
Figure 6. The yielding regions where applied the load was at maximum distance from
the axis (a) From the X axis (b) From the Y axis (c) From the X and Y axis
[1] Kloppel, V.K., Goder, W. (1957). Strength of concrete filled steel tubular columns.
Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 95(12), 2565-2587.
[2] Furlong, R.W. (1967). Strength of steel encased concrete beam columns. Journal of
Structural Division, ASCE, 93(5), 113-124.
[3] Zhu, Ji-Hua., Young, B. (2012). Design of cold-formed steel oval hollow section
columns. J Constr Steel Res 71, 26-37.
[4] Zhu, Ji-Hua., Young, B. (2011). Cold-formed steel oval hollow sections under axial
compression. J Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 137(7), 719-727.
[5] Gattesco, N. (1999). Analytical modelling of nonlinear behavior of composite
beams with deformable connection. J Constr Steel Res 52. pp 195-218.
[6] British Standard Institution. 2005. Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
composite structures. DDENV 1994-1-1. European Committee for standardisation.
[7] ABAQUS user's manual: version 6.11, Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp.,
Providence, RI, USA.
1. INTRODUCTION
In terms of the effects of semi-circle flange and flat-web distortional buckling arisen on
cold-formed Elliptical Hollow Steel Tubular (EHST) section columns due to its
slenderness and flexural rigidities by differing major and minor axes properties, such
section encountered local and global instability issues, which have not been thoroughly
investigated in previous research studies. Non-linear behaviour of the columns was
insisted on the prediction of the interaction between local and global failure criteria in
this research study by considering the material non-linear behaviours such as steel and
concrete. Finite element analysis of CFT columns subjected to an axial compressive
force and bending moment in combination was carried out by Teh Hu et al (1) and the
1
Ma Bavan, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, National University of Malaysia, Bangi,
Selangoor, Malaysia tel: ++60133130643, e – mail: mmbavan@yahoo.com
2
DR. Shahrizan Baharom, Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, National
University of Malaysia, Bangi, Selangoor, Malaysia
Figure 1 (a) Dimensions of the cross section of the EHST column (b) Fixed ended
column test (Source: Zhu, J. and Young, B.)
A series of tests were done in the studies of ultimate strength of cold-formed-steel
elliptical hollow sections subjected to axial compression by Zhu and Young (3, 4). The
Figure 2. Elements and boundary conditions used in the FE model of the column
A section of cold-formed steel tube elliptical column connected with similar geometries
of end plated steel section, which has been experimentally carried out by Zhu and Young
Figure 3. Developed stress strain curve of steel.
(1)
where, σy and are stress and strain values, respectively; fsy and fsu are yield and ultimate
stresses, respectively; and is the strain at the beginning of hardening stage.
The developed FE model was verified against the experimental analysis undertaken by
Zhu and Young (3, 4). The applied load at ultimate limit state was predicted with a
value of 185.9 kN and the FE model was shown the ultimate limit state of the applied
load as 186.1 kN, which was very close to each other. In addition, ABAQUS explicit
solver also was used to predict the reliable behaviour in the concerns of predicting post
buckling effects with considering the shortening of the columns at constant deformation
speeds similar to the experimental analysis of Zhu and Young (3, 4). In this, a quasi
static solution has been determined by the comparison of kinetic and internal energies
and kinetic energy was maintained within five percentage of internal energy throughout
the analysis. The applied load and corresponding support reaction forces were compared
throughout the analysis to confirm the static solution in the explicit solver. The applied
load was predicted as 199kN in the FE model, which was a coefficient of deviation of
7%. Meanwhile, it could be observed very close applied load at ultimate limit state when
the similar steel plates were used instead of rigid plates. The major concerns of the
analysis were in terms of flexural and local buckling effects of EHST columns and thus,
it was analysed with rigid plated end supports in an acceptable deviation of the ultimate
limit state as 7% with comparative experimental analysis. The material fracture
behaviour of the column was observed throughout the analysis and the first yielding
point predicted in the FE model is shown in the Figure 4. In terms of the behaviour of
the columns and predicted ultimate limit state in the FE model, the FE model was
reliable to do the further parametric studies.
Figure 5. Developed concrete material model (a) Compressive behaviour (b) Tensile
behaviour
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where in the compressive behaviour, Ec is the longitudinal modulus of elasticity, σc is
compressive stress, is strain and is strain at the peak point. In the tensile
behaviour, σt is the tensile stress, is the strain at concrete cracking and is the tensile
strain. The ultimate strengths of concrete compressive strength were 25, 30, 35, 40, 45
and 50 Mpa and the respective tensile behaviours were 3.2, 3.4, 3.6 and 3.8 Mpa. The
effects axial load and shortening responses of EHST column with in-filled concrete core
are shown in the Figure 6. The ultimate strength of cold-formed EHST column mostly
was shown an increses by 175 %. It was observed all over the cases that the inward local
buckling of the EHST column was not happening and the column in all cases has
buckled outward locally. The analyses with concrete in-filled were shown in all cases
that ultimate strengths were stable after reached its ultimate strength and failure of the
EHST column was gradually occurred while the column without in-filled concrete
material was a sudden failure. This stability issue could be rectified in the EHST column
Figure 6. Comparison of applied load and shortening responses with various concrete
strengths.
Figure 7. EHST column at concrete in-filled strength of 25 MPa (a) Mises stress contour
of steel column (b) Maximum principal stress of concrete core (c) Minimum principal
stress of concrete core
In the construction, the initial stress and deformation may occur due to the preloads on
the steel tube section and it may reduce the strength and stiffness of EHST column. In
addition, the EHST column is a more adequate section in the corner area due to its
section properties and it may induce early local buckling due to the combined axial loads
and bending moment by axes owing to its shapes. In this regards, the effects of cold-
formed EHST column with including concrete in-filled material with variable strengths
were analysed and it could be observed that the ultimate strength of EHST column
increases by concrete core with avoiding early inward local buckling. The stiffness of
EHST column also significantly increase due to the combined capacity of the steel and
concrete material components. This research study can be extended with analysing the
section behaviour with the effects of column slenderness ratio and column depth-to-
thickness ratio.
Figure 8. EHST column at concrete in-filled strength of 50 MPa (a) Mises stress contour
of steel column (b) Maximum principal stress of concrete core (c) Minimum principal
stress of concrete core
REFERENCES
[1] Teh Hu, H., Huang, C.S., Chen, C.S. (2005). Finite element analysis of CFT
columns subjected to an axial compressive force and bending moment in
combination. J Constr Steel Res 61, 1692-1712.
[2] Prabhu, G.G., Sundarraja, M.C. (2013). Behaviour of concrete filled steel tubular
(CFST) short columns externally reinforced using CFRP strips composite. J
Construction and Building Materials 47, 1362-1371.
[3] Zhu, Ji-Hua., Young, B. (2012). Design of cold-formed steel oval hollow section
columns. J Constr Steel Res 71, 26-37.
1
Проф. др Бошко Стевановић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3218 545, e-mail: bole@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Асист. др Иван Глишовић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3218 545, e-mail: ivang@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Асист. Марија Тодоровић, маст.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3218 545, e-mail: marijat@grf.bg.ac.rs
fc fc f
-mE w c
Слика 1 - Конститутивни материјали за дрво
CFRP материјал се може идеализовати линеарно-еластичним моделом са кртим
обликом лома.
3. ПРОРАЧУН НОСИВОСТИ
Инспирисани рачунским моделима за армирани бетон, различити аутори су
предложили рачунске моделе за ојачане дрвене носаче изложене савијању [1, 2].
Ови модели узимају у обзир реално понашање материјала, а капацитет носивост се
одређује у зависности од могућих облика лома. На основу датих истраживања и
сопствених експерименталних испитивања, теоријски модел је развијен у циљу
предвиђања понашања дрвених носача ојачаних карбонским тракама.
Основне претпоставке и упрошћења усвојеног модела:
- Попречни пресеци при деформацији остају равни;
- Остварени лепљени спој између дрвета и карбонске траке је идеалан;
- Еластична својства лепка се не узимају у обзир;
- Понашање дрвета је линеарно-еластично при затезању и еласто-идеално
пластично при притиску (модел 1, слика 1);
- Понашање карбонске траке при затезању је линеарно-еластично;
- Утицај слабљења попречног пресека услед пластификације се занемарује.
Прорачуном се одређује момент савијања у најоптерећенијем пресеку носача за
одређени ниво дилатације затезања ивичних дрвених влакана. На основу срачунате
вредности момента савијања даље се може израчунати вредност оптерећења.
Експериментална испитивања су показала да је најчешћи механизам лома ојачаних
носача онај при коме се јавља лом дрвета у затегнутој зони, са или без делимичне
пластификације притиснуте зоне. Дрво се понаша линеарно-еластично до
достизања дилатације течења дрвета на горњој ивици пресека. Као што је
cy c
P W2
z2
h
n. o.
z1
ZW
t t Zf
f f
tf
b f
b
Слика 2 - Расподела дилатација и напона у оквиру попречног пресека
Познавајући дилатације εt и εcy из услова компатибилности могу се одредити
карактеристичне дилатације у попречном пресеку:
c z3 z2 / z2 cy , (1)
f z1 tf / 2 / z1 t (2)
са
z2 cy / t z1 , (3)
z3 h z1 z2 , (4)
где је:
εc - дилатација затезања на доњој ивици дрвеног пресека;
εcy - дилатација пластичног течења дрвета;
εt - дилатација притиска на горњој ивици дрвеног пресека;
εf - дилатација затезања у карбонској траци;
z1 - удаљење неутралне осе од доње ивице дрвеног пресека;
z2 - удаљење неутралне осе од зоне пластификације дрвеног пресека;
z3 - висина зоне пластификације дрвеног пресека;
За познате вредности дилатација, одговарајуће вредности напона у попречном
пресеку се могу израчунати према усвојеним везама напон-дилатација:
t Ew t , (5)
21
8
1. УВОД
У Републици Србији се коловозни застор доминантно изводи од асфалт бетона.
Асфалтне коловозне конструкције имају своје предности у односу на цемент
бетонске коловозне конструкције, међутим када су носивост и трајност коловозних
конструкција у питању, предност се даје цемент бетонским коловозним
конструкцијама. Круте коловозне цемент бетонске конструкције су значајно
скупље за извођење и због тога је њихова примена у нашој земљи веома ретка и
условљена је израдом техничко-економске анализе ради утврђивања оправданости
примене. У граду Новом Саду је покренута акција замене асфалт бетонских
застора односно флекибилних коловозних конструкција аутобуских стајалишта са
новим коловозним засторома који су урађени као круте коловозне конструкције са
1
Милош Шешлија, маст. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел 065-399 00 89, e – mail: slavijasrb@gmail.com
2
Небојша Радовић, доц. др, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг Доситеја
Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел 065-440 59 00, e – mail: radovicn@drenik.net
3
Игор Пешко, доц. др, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг Доситеја
Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел 062-288 210, e – mail: igor.pesko@gmail.com
4
Владимир Мученски, доц. др, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг Доситеја
Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел 063-102 87 11, e – mail: mucenskiv@gmail.com
5
Драгана Ђорђевић, маст. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел 069-108 28 90, e – mail: draganadjordjevic@uns.ac.rs
Слика 1. Савијање бетонске плоче због температурног градијента [2]
3. АНАЛИЗА НАПОНА У БЕТОНСКИМ ПЛОЧАМА
Полазни параметар код димензионисања бетонског коловоза је ширина бетонске
плоче. Разматране су ширине плоча од 2.50m, 3.00m, 3.50m и 4.00m. Однос дужине
и ширине плоче је усвојен на основу чињенице да су најмањи укупни утицаји
услед дејства температуре јављају у случају односа l/b=0.8-1.2. Коефицијент
реакције подлоге (k) испод бетонских плоча је одређен на основу познатих
података о структури постојеће коловозне конструкције, ослабљен за потребну
дебљину стругања асфалтних слојева. Прорачун коефицијената (k) је урађен према
поступку Blumer-у на основу опита AASHO Road Test-a.
За врло тешко саобраћајно оптерећење, усвојена је марка бетона MB=40, коју
захтева стандард за димензионисање бетонских коловозних конструкција (SRPS
U.C4.014-1994.) [4]. Распоред и димензије арматуре у спојницама бетонских плоча
одговарају важећем стандард (SRPS U.E3.020) [5].
MB 40, Eb=34000MPa, Δt=65°C/m, α=1x10-5 1/°C
k (MPa/m) Lpp (m) Lpd (m) σipp (MPa) σipd σspp σspd
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
2.5 2.0 0.559 1.180
2.5 1.070 1.070 1.258 1.258
3.0 1.629 1.830
3.0 2.4 0.972 1.815
3.0 1.629 1.629 1.916 1.916
3.6 2.115 2.414
200
3.5 2.8 1.410 2.305
3.5 2.042 2.042 2.402 2.402
4.2 2.382 2.751
4.0 3.2 1.823 2.642
4.0 2.309 2.309 2.717 2.717
4.5 2.553 2.966
Табела 3. – Напони у бетонској плочи дебљине 22cm услед дејства температурних
промена, за коефицјент реакције подлоге 300Mpa/m
MB 40, Eb=34000MPa, Δt=65°C/m, α=1x10-5 1/°C
k (MPa/m) Lpp (m) Lpd (m) σipp (MPa) σipd σspp σspd
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
2.5 2.0 0.802 1.541
2.5 1.386 1.386 1.630 1.630
3.0 1.896 2.152
3.0 2.4 1.264 2.134
3.0 1.896 1.896 2.231 2.231
3.6 2.309 2.654
300
3.5 2.8 1.750 2.606
3.5 2.285 2.285 2.688 2.688
4.2 2.528 2.937
4.0 3.2 2.066 2.829
4.0 2.455 2.455 2.889 2.889
4.5 2.625 3.063
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
На основу изнетих резултата, напони који настају услед дејства температурних
промена са сва три коефицијента тла показују да су напони у средини бетонске
плоче већи него на ивицама, без обзира да ли се гледа у подужном или попречном
1
Мр Вицко Летица, дипл.грађ.инж., BRANE-HPP-WTP. d.o.o., 11120 Београд, Цвијићева 105/ст.2,
тел: 011 675 44 44, e-mail: office@brane-hpp-wtp.com
Агрегат се снабдева водом из доводног цевовода за мању турбину, преко новог
челичног цевовода. Из турбине новог агрегата, вода се преко челичног сифона
одводи у бетонски сифон постојећег агрегата. Тако се у горњој бетонској плочи
постојећег сифона формира отвор пречника 1,80 m. Локација отвора, предвиђена је
у ниши на коти 247,05 mnv, где је на несрећу горња плоча постојећег сифона
најтања. Знајући да је распон горње плоче сифона око 5,10 m и да је дебљина
плоче на месту отвора између 75,00 и 130,00 cm, може се рећи да је на месту
отвора, потребно извршити значајно осигурање и ојачање комплетне горње плоче
сифона постојећег агрегата. Поред тога, радови су се морали одвијати у врло
скученом простору, поред постојеће опреме.
2. ОПИС ПРОЈЕКТОВАНОГ РЕШЕЊА
Локација за додатни агрегат је изабрана на конструктивно осетљивом месту, тојест
на средини горње плоче у зони дилатационе спојнице. Како у зони предвиђеног
отвора, поред допунског терета од новог агрегата (укупна тежина опреме износи
око 220 kN), постоје значајни утицаји од хидростатичког притиска, предвиђа се
осигурање отвора преко целог распона горње плоче постојећег сифона. У ту сврху,
одабрани су челични носачи, који у спрези са новим бетоном са којим ће бити
заливени, формирају монолитну конструкцију.
Према постојећој документацији машинска зграда је изграђена од претежно
масивног бетона марке MB 30, који је армиран са глатком арматуром GA 240/360.
За главно осигурање горње плоче предвиђена су два главна челична носача I 550
(C0563-S355), који обухватају нови сифон и иду преко целокупног распона
постојеће сифонске плоче. Ови носачи се протежу преко целог отвора постојећег
сифона и имају оријентационе дужине 6,00-6,30 m. Носачи се полажу у претходно
исечене нише које се налазе у доњој зони постојеће бетонске конструкције, али
тако да их касније додатни бетон са арматуром прекрије, што значи да у завршној
фази нису у контакту са водом. Поред тога, челични сифон, је у подужном правцу
обухваћен са два профила I 20 (C0563-S355), који се ослањају на главне носаче.
Главни попречни носачи су у бетонским нишама везани за постојећу арматуру са
завареним елементима. На ужем ослонцу челични профили морају да буду
анкеровани у постојећу бетонску конструкцију са по 6 анкера Ø25, због
прихватања утицаја од узгона.
У зони отвора, где се руши комплетна плоча по висини, додаје се арматурна мрежа
у горњој и доњој зони плоче и везује варењем за челичне носаче и челични сифон.
3. ПРОРАЧУН
На основу постојећих цртежа утврђена је висина и дебљина горње плоче
постојећег мањег сифона, а што је дефинисало оптерећење од сопствене тежине
постојеће конструкције. Поред сопствене тежине, на горњу плочу делује
хидростатички притисак (као узгон), тако да у зони отвора делује притисак око
10,00 mvs. У првом кораку је извршен прорачун допунских носача као линијских
елемената. Горња плоча сифона, срачуната је за максималне утицаје од усвојених
оптерећења сопственом тежином, допунским теретом и хидростатичким
оптерећењем. Извршен је прорачун оптерећенијег низводног носача, као
меродавног за димензионисање. У другом кораку је извршен прорачун бетонске
плоче сифона као површинског носача са задатим кружним отвором на месту
продора новог сифона. Нумерички прорачун напона и деформација је спроведен
по методи коначних елемената (FEM).
4. ИЗВОЂЕЊЕ
Грађевински радови су извршени крајем 2013. и почетком 2014. године. Радови су
у односу на количину били мали, али су по питању извршења и постизању
тражених квалитета били врло захтевни. Радови су вршени у врло скученом
простору у ниши на горњој плочи сифона и у самом сифону. При извођењу радова
посебна пажња је вођена о постојећим агрегатима и њиховој заштити.
Извођење сечења и бушења бетона је врло квалитетно урадила фирма „Betomax”
из Земуна. Монтирање носећих профила укључујући и заваривачке радове извела
је „Гоша монтажа” из Велике Плане. Армирачко-бетонски радови су изведени од
стране фирме „Марковић” из Бајине Баште. За наливање ниша око главних носача
употребљена је готова двокомпонентна смеса Реомал 0-8 mm, која је справљена на
лицу места, са чврстоћом на притисак после 28 дана 84 Mpa. За бетонирање нове
плоче сифона употребљена је готова двокомпонентна смеса Реомал 0-16 mm, са
чврстоћом на притисак после 28 дана 75 Mpa. За наливање рупа за анкере
употребљена је готова двокомпонентна смеса Реомал 0-4 mm, са чврстоћом на
притисак после 28 дана 91 Mpa.
Контролу и важну помоћ при извођењу, дала је комплетна постава са
руководством ХЕ „Међувршје”. Међутим треба посебно истаћи уложен труд Рада
Јованића, Поповић Митра и Милана Благојевића.
40
POSTOJE] E STAWE 1295
95 1100 100
425 425 250 50 50
osovi na desne
podu@na di l at aci ja od bakar nog l i ma
10
osa st ar og most a
2,0%
10
15
25
19
pr o{ i r ewe
21
70
st ar i most S 25/30
160 160
56100 44
56100 44
Међународна конференција
15
50
19
pr o{ i r ewe
70
st ar i most
21
56
S 25/30
56
80 15 250 320 195 55 3 55 272 50
ГОДИНА ГРАЂЕВИНСКОГ ФАКУЛТЕТА СУБОТИЦА
105
novof or mi r ana kol ovozna pl o ^ a d = 15cm 15 novof or mi r ana gr eda za kont i nui r awe
65
15
15
S 35/45
20
pr o{ i r ewe
65
19
21
S 35/45
st ar i most
85
S 35/45 S 25/30
70
56
56~100
85~115
14
Савремена достигнућа у грађевинарству 24.-25. април 2014. Суботица, СРБИЈА
209
Слика6,7.Оштећења конзолних препуста на мосту
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Дугогодишњи недостатак редовног одржавања мостова доводи до већих
оштећења, која захтевају знатно инвестиционо улагање да би се мостови довели у
безбедно и функционално стање, за разлику од редовног одржавања које захтева
мања финансијска средства. Као што је у раду наведено, основни проблем
представљају подужне и попречне дилатације, које су карактеристичне за мостове
са „сувим спојницама“ и мостове код којих постоје проширења првобитних
конструкција. Приликом израде пројеката снације треба тежити формирању
„интегралних“ конструкција, без дилатација и лежишта што је у складу са
1. УВОД
Грасдско језгро Суботице углавном чине објекти изграђени почетком XX века.
Све их карактеришу пространи, атрактивни тавански простори који се релативно
лако могу претворити у корисне просторе различитих намена. Да би се то
постигло, неопходна је реконструкција постојеће међуспратне конструкције, која
је типична за објекте изграђене у овом периоду.
Углавном је на овим објектима међуспратна конструкција између последње етаже
и тавана дрвена конструкција изведена на један од три начина:
дрвене тавањаче ослоњене на носеће зидове, задашчане са горње стране,
полуоблице постављене једна до друге и ослоњене на носеће зидове,
1
Мр Анико Тешановић, дипл.инж.грађ., Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, тел: 554-300, e-
mail: misan.dag@gmail.com
2
Драгана Табаковић, дипл.инж.грађ., Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, тел: 554-300, e-
mail: draganatabakovic@gmail.com
3
Јосип Ковач Стрико, дипл.инж.грађ., Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, тел: 554-300, e-
mail: josip.kovacstriko@gmail.com
Слика 1. Пресек кроз постојећу међуспратну конструкцију
Слика 2. Један од карактеристичних пресека уличног дела тавана
Пројектом предвиђене интервенције не задиру у основну носећу кровну
конструкцију, на њој се врше само локалне интервенције уклањањем појединих
елемената уз одговарајуће премошћавање и локално ојачање. Највећи захвати се
односе на међуспратну конструкцију. Због потребног растерећења објекта и
могућности санације постојећих тавањача које су тренутно заробљене између
завршне обраде плафона на I спрату и земљаног застора и полуоблица на поду
тавана, предвиђа се потпуно уклањање земљаног застора и полуоблица. Након
прегледа и санације оштећених тавањача, изводи се нова, независна спрегнута АБ
међуспратна конструкција [2], [3], која се не ослања на тавањаче, како их не би
оптеретила, већ се независно ослања на нове челичне спрегнуте греде, челичне
греде, АБ греде и АБ серклаже који се изводе на дозиданим носећим зидовима I
спрата. Сама међуспратна плоча је формирана од поцинкованих челичних
трапезастих лимова у које се излива ситнозрни тофракцијски бетон марке МБ 30 и
све заједно армира лаком арматурном мрежом у горњој зони ради пријема
хоризонталних сила и напона услед скупљања бетона (слика 3). На овај начин
добијена конструкција обезбеђује једноставно и рационално извођење са једне
стране, а са друге стране велику носивост која је потребна због великог корисног
оптерећења које намеће промена намене из таванског у изложбени простор са
пратећим садржајима. Уједно, веома једноставно су изведене потребне
денивелације финалних кота пода и формирање рампи, а трапезасти челични лим
Слика 4. Пресек кроз спрегнуту
међуспратну конструкцију код улаза за
Слика 3. Спрегнута међуспратна плоча инвалиде
Слика 5. Пресек кроз спрегнуту Слика 6. Пресек кроз спрегнуту
међуспратну конструкцију у холу и међуспратну конструкцију код главног
слушаоници улаза и у изложбеном простору
Спрезање између челичних греда и међуспратне плоче је остварено витким
можданицима. За можданике су кориштени завртњи М20 класе чврстоће 5.6, по
два завртња у сваком пресеку, док је у подужном правцу међусобно растојање
завртњева 254 mm, т.ј. можданици-завртњи су постављени у сваком таласу
трапезастог лима спрегнуте плоче (слика 7 и 8).
Слика 7. Подужни и попречни пресек кроз спрегнути носач на месту можданика
Слика 8. Детаљ можданика и начина његове монтаже
3. ДОДАТНО ОПТЕРЕЋЕЊЕ НАКОН ИЗВРШЕНЕ
РЕКОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ
Пројектом предвиђеним уклањањем земљаног застора и облица из сасатва
постојеће таванске-међуспратне конструкције и израдом нове спрегнуте
међуспратне конструкције, која поред високе носивости има малу сопствену
тежину, постижу се знатне уштеде у укупном оптерећењу. Чак и са повећањем
корисног оптерећења наметнутог променом намене просторија, укупно
оптерећење у нивоу поткровља, а самим тим и оптерећење на носеће зидове нижих
етажа и темеље је углавном мање од постојећег пре реконструкције, што је надаље
приказано.
Стално оптерећење које се скида са тавана
- насута земља 2,91 KN/m2
- полуоблице 1,131 KN/m2
g= 4,041 KN/m2
Стално оптерећење које се враћа на објекат
- нова спрегнута међуспратна конструкција 2,385 KN/m2
- тежина термоизолације и унутрашње облоге крова 0,5 KN/m2
g1= 2,885 KN/m2
- на деловима који остају тавански g2= 0,32 KN/m2
Корисно оптерећење таванских просторија које се укида qt= 1,5 KN/m2
Корисно оптерећење новоформираних просторија поткровља
- тавански делови q= 1,5 KN/m2
- санитарни чворови, ходници, рампе q= 2,0 KN/m2
- изложбена дворана q= 2,5 KN/m2
- слушаоница и хол испред слушаонице q= 4,0 KN/m2
Укупно додатно оптерећење
- тавански делови -3,721 KN/m2
- санитарни чворови, ходници, рампе -0,656 KN/m2
- изложбена дворана -0,156 KN/m2
- слушаоница и хол испред слушаонице +1,344 KN/m2
1
Милован Станојев, мастер инж. грађ., студент докторских студија Грађевинско-архитектонског
факултета Универзитета у Нишу, ул. Александра Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија, тел: 069 2076 774, e –
mail: milovanstanojev@gmail.com
2
мр Драган Златков, асистент Грађевинско-архитектонског факултета Универзитета у Нишу, Ниш,
Србија, тел: 069 1941 280, e – mail: dragan.zlatkov@gmail.com
3
Срђан Будић, дипл. инж. грађ., Пројектинжењеринг, ул. Цара Душана 90-92, Ниш, Србија тел:
069 465 9335, e – mail: srdjan.budic@projektinzenjering.com
4
Предраг Петронијевић, дипл. инж. грађ., Грађевинско-архитектонски факултет у Нишу, ул.
Александра Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија , тел: 066 362 850, e – mail: petronijevicpetronijevic@gmail.com
По висини је објекат подељен на два дела. Први део сушаре (од коте +0,00 до коте
+3,82m) је предвиђен за сушење опекарских блокова који се складиште на
покретним вагонима. У коморе се убацује топао ваздух за сушење робе, а ваздух
засићен влагом се избацује.
Температура у овом делу сушаре је око 40°C. Други део сушаре су смештени
канали за довод и одвод ваздуха. У доводним каналима је температура 130°C
(осим на делу изнад уже коморе од 4,50m), док је у каналима за одвођење влажног
ваздуха температура око 40°C.
Постојећим Главним грађевинским пројектом тунелске сушаре израђеним 1980.
године од стране радне организације за пројектовање и инжењеринг ,,Биро за
грађевинарство'' из Београда, објекат је пројектован као систем континуалних
плоча и стубова.
Како је тунелска сушара пројектована после израде главног пројекта хале, то се
нису могли користити постојећи темељи поменуте хале, већ су рађени одвојено од
главне хале. Према подацима из овог пројекта, фундирање је извршено на
тракастим темељима, при чему је дозвољена носивост тла испод њих (за ширину
од 1,0m) је 232 kN/m2.
Обимни зидови сушаре се према технолошким захтевима зидају од опеке 25cm
дебљине, са слојем минералне вуне 6cm дебљине и спољним заштитним зидом
дебљине 12cm.
Међуспратна конструкција, која се санира, је израђена изнад дела за сушење
опекарских блокова, у армираном бетону дебљине је 22cm.
Слика 2. Подужни пресек
2. ПРОРАЧУН КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ И ДИМЕНЗИОНИСАЊЕ
Моделирање конструкције је извршено у две фазе: постојеће стање и
новопројектовано стање. Најпре је анализирана постојећа конструкција (слика 3),
са материјалима наведеног квалитета у постојећем пројекту, и усвојеним планом
армирања. Стварни (мерени) угиб на делу плоче, који је и предмет овог пројекта,
је већи од прорачунског.
Слика 3. Модел постојеће конструкције
Слика 4. Модел новопројектоване конструкције
Сви челични елементи који се користе при санацији конструкције су пројектовани
од челика квалитета S 235Ј, укључујући IPB профиле и челичне флахове. Статичка
анализа конструкције је урађена применом програма „ТОWЕР 6“.
Сеизмички прорачун је спроведен према меродавној сеизмичкој карти за повратни
период од 500 година, за VIII зону MSK скале за kS=0.050, другу категорију тла и
коефицијент дуктилитета и пригушења kp=1.6. Међуспратна конструкција изнад
простора за сушење је посебно рачуната и на дејство температурне разлике.
3. САНАЦИЈА МЕЂУСПРАТНЕ КОНСТРУКЦИЈЕ
Мерењима на лицу места је утврђено да се на једном делу међуспратне
конструкције изнад простора за сушење опекарских блокова јавио недозвољен
угиб од 42mm. Због ограниченог маневарског простора, положај новопројекто-
Слика 6. Припрема АБ плоче за појачање челичним флаховима
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Постојећим статичким прорачуном армирано-бетонске конструкције тунелске
сушаре из 1981. године нису анализирана гранична стања употребљивости, као и
утицаји услед велике температурне разлике. У току експлоатације појавили су се
знатни угиби у крајњем пољу, јер у пољима није армирана горња зона међуспратне
конструкције, а управо је на тим местима велика температурна разлика, што је
додатно довело до деградације крутости међуспратне конструкције и појаве
прслина. Предложена је санација конструкције новим подужним челичним рамом
који прихвата плочу и појачање њене горње површине челичним флаховима. На
овај начин се смањује распон плоче, омогућава несметана манипулација вагонима
испод ње и истовремено се повећава трајност конструкције.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Станојев, М.: Пројекат санације међуспратне конструкције тунелске сушаре у
Малој Плани (Србија), израдио Пројектинжењеринг, Ниш, 2014.
[2] Фолић, Р.: Оцена стања, одржавање и санација грађевинских објеката и насеља
- Зборник радова са VII научно стручног саветовања, Савез инжењера и
техничара Србије, Златибор 2011.
[3] Радић, Ј.: Трајност конструкција, Јадринг, Универзитет у Загребу, 2010.
1
Проф. др Михаило Мурављов, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет,
Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија
2
Проф. др Бошко Стевановић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, e-mail:bole@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Асист. др Иван Глишовић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, e-mail:ivang@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
Слика 1. Комплекс Споменика са Маузолејом на врху Авале
2 САНАЦИОНЕ ИНТЕРВЕНЦИЈЕ
Слика 3. Диспозиција каблова за преднапрезање
15,2mm
13
DRVENI PODMETAČ
3
15
35
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][200 Rupa za kabl
20
15,2mm
10
ČELIČNI «Г» ЕLEMENT
DETALJ «A2» 13 60 10
sve mere su u cm
DETALJ «B» 5
20
sve mere su u cm KAMENI BLOK 10 Rupa za kabl
15,2mm
KAMENI BLOK Podmetac
13
sa rupom
drveni podmetač
10
15
35
5
10
70
L 100x50x6
][200 Rupa za kabl
20
15,2mm
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13 60 10
prevojnik
1
Проф. др Факултет техничких наука,Косовска Митровицa
2
Асс. Мр Факултет техничких наука,Косовска Митровицa
Slika 1. a) - Efektivna dužina prema tačnom i uprošćenom proračunu prema ENV,
b) - efektivna dužina prema tačnom i uprošćenom metodu prema EC 2
Postojeći k-faktori su definisani na drugačiji način u poređenju sa korespodentnim
faktorima u verziji ENV i nazvani su k1 i k2, kako bi se izbegla konfuzija sa prethodnim
faktorima ka i kb. Aktuelni k-faktori izražavaju relativnu elastičnost uklještenja koje
sprečava rotaciju na krajevima elementa, premadefinicijama na Slici 2 a) i Slici 2 b).
Ovako definisani faktori su primenljivi na različite tipove elastičnog uklještenja, kao na
primer kod greda sa različitim graničnim uslovima, kod fleksibilnih temelja i dr.
U drugoj verziji uvedeni su novi izrazi (1) i (2) za efektivnu dužinu izolovanih elemenata
u ramovima. Izvedeni su da bi dali tačne procene, a zasnovani na definiciji efektivne
dužine u 5.8.1. [1], ovi izrazi zamenjuju Sl. 4.27, kao i izraze (5.22) i (5.23) u ENV [2]
Slika 2 - a) Definicija faktora krutosti k prema EC 2,
b) Poređenje različitih definicija k-faktora; prema ENV i EC 2
- za neukrućene elemente usvaja se veća od dve vrednosti :
k k k k
l0 l max 1 10 1 2 ; 1 1 1 2 , (2)
k1 k 2 1 k1 1 k 2
gde je:
k1,k2 - relativna elastičnost uklještenja koja sprečavaju rotaciju na krajevima
elementa1 i 2; k=(θ/M)∙(EI/l),
θ - rotacija elastičnog uklještenja usled momenta savijanja M,
EI - krutost na savijanje pritisnutog elementa,
l - čista visina pritisnutog elementa između uklještenih krajeva.
Po definiciji je k=0 teorijska granica za kruto rotaciono uklještenje, ak=∞ predstavlja
granicu kada uopšte nema uklještenja.Obzirom da potpuno kruto uklještenje u realnim
konstrukcijama praktično ne postoji,za k1 i k2 se preporučuje kao minimalna vrednost
0,1. Ukoliko susedni pritisnuti element (stub) u čvoru realno doprinosi rotaciji
posmatranog elementa pri izvijanju, vrednost (EI/l) u izrazu za k treba da se zameni sa
(3), gde a i c označavaju pritisnuti element (stub) ispod i iznad čvora, Slika 3.Ovo će
zavisiti od veličine aksijalne sile u susednom stubu.
Slika 3 - Ilustracija razmatranog čvora sa priključnim elementima
Ako oba stuba vezana za posmatrani čvor dostignu svoje opterećenje na izvijanje u isto
vreme (pod proporcionalnim uvećanjem opterećenja), oba će morati da dele ograničenje
koje potiče od drugih vezanih elemenata (greda) i faktor k će tada biti definisan kao (3).
U suprotnom slučaju, kada susedni stub ima relativno malo aksijalno opterećenje, on se
može uključiti među elemente koji doprinose rotaciji posmatranog elementa pri izvijanju
prema (4):
ki
Ecm I col ,i / lcol ,i Ecm I col ,i / lcol ,i ; 2,3,4,6 (5)
M R ,i Ecm I R ,i / lR ,i
si N i i
i 0,8 1,25 (6)
E li
i1
Sl.4 Nomogrami za određivanje efektivne dužine izvijanja za ukrućene i neukrućene
ramove
Reinforced concrete (RC) walls are very efficient for receive of lateral forces and have
been widely used in the last several decades.
Their implementation is the easiest way to achieve necessary lateral stiffness, and to
provide structural resistance to horizontal seismic forces and wind actions.
A number of experimental and analytical studies of behaviour of RC walls have been
conducted for the purpose of predicting response under seismic actions [1].
Predicting the behaviour of RC walls under lateral loading requires advanced numerical
models which are calibrated/verified by experimental testing [2].
2. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS OF MATERIALS
Concrete is a composite material which consists of: cement paste, aggregate and transit
zone between aggregate and cement paste. By increasing the compression stresses in
concrete irreversible deflections and failures occur, which eventually lead to brittle
fracture.
1
Radomir Folic, Professor, Ph. D., Department of Civil Engineering an Geodesy, Faculty of Technical
Sciences University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, tel: ++381 21 485 26 44,
e-mail: r.folic@gmail.com
2
Predrag Petronijević, graduate engineer of civil engineering, University of Niš, The Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200,
e – mail: predrag.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
Figure 1. Cyclic tests on concrete specimens [4], Typical concrete response under cyclic
loads [6]
Under alternative loading (from tension to compression and vice versa) the stiffness
recuperation effect is noticed (figure 2), which depends on orientation and characteristics
of micro cracks. RC walls are subjected to multi axial stress states.
Effect of shear stress on reduction of load bearing capacity of concrete (figure 2-b) is
presented in the paper [7]. For biaxial stress state significant rise of shear bearing
capacity of concrete occurs with the increase of normal compression stress and can reach
20% fc. This effect is less prominent with tension.
With biaxial stress state, the confinement effect can be achieved, which represents the
passive resistance to lateral deflections due to Poisson's effect and has significant
influence on stiffness and force distribution.
Confinement of cross-section can notably change the behaviour of concrete, not only
regarding the load bearing capacity, but also ductility [8].
Figure 2. Effect of alternative loading, biaxial loading and load increment speed on load
bearing capacity of concrete
Another important effect related to behaviour of RC structures during the earthquakes is
load increment speed. When concrete specimens are tested with increasing velocity an
increase of the maximum resistance is observed. That is, mostly, because of high
sensitivity of micro cracks to the stress increment speed. Considering the fact that for
typical earthquakes frequency ranges between 10-6/s and 10-1/s, dependence shown on
(figure 2-d) indicates load capacity increment up to 80% for tension and 25% for
compression [9].
Reinforcement steel is classified in two types: hot rolled and cold drawn, figure 3. Cold
processed steel has higher bearing capacity but lower ductility. If cross-section is
confined and no buckling occurs, behaviour at tension and compression is similar. After
subjecting to alternative cyclic loading steel manifests non-linear response (Bauchinger's
effect). Another important phenomenon is cyclic strengthening which manifests in
increment of load bearing capacity of steel during the later cycles (figure 3-b). There are
several models of steel behaviour, among which are most widely used: elastoplastic
model, bilinear model and multilinear model [10]. During the earthquakes RC walls
dissipate seismic energy by non-elastic deflections, whereby bond between concrete and
steel is highly tensioned and results with: bond failure, forming of cracks, stiffness fall
and degradation of cross-section. Bond between reinforcement bar and concrete is a
results of: chemical adhesion between steel and cement paste, mechanical resistance
associated to the ribs (shear in the concrete between ribs and the compression struts).
Upon bond skidding, different elongation in steel and concrete occurs which leads to
relative displacement (figure 3-c).
Figure 3. Behaviour of reinforcing steel
Figure 4. Macro models and hysteresis of RC wall behaviour [12]
Fibre micro models are presently very common way of modelling in seismic
engineering. Their advantage is ability to efficiently simulate biaxial bending, while
disadvantages are inability to directly simulate shearing and yielding of steel – concrete
bond. They are convenient for columns, which have bending as dominant stress state,
and should not be used for walls, especially short ones. Combined with strut-and-tie
models they can simulate shearing of walls.
Figure 5. Basic types of micromodels of RC walls specimens
1. INTRODUCTION
Contemporary building’s structure due to optimization of design and less inherent
continuity become more vulnerable to progressive collapse. In the design practice of
structural engineering not much attention was paid to progressive collapse of an entire
structure or a disproportionately large part of it. The term “progressive collapse” was
first used in the UK following the partial collapse of a precast concrete wall at Roman
Point, London in May, 1968. A gas explosion in a corner room in the eighteenth floor
blew out one of the external walls, and because of inadequate structural continuity
between the wall and floor elements, the removal of one wall element was sufficient to
cause the total collapse of part of floor area per storey over the height of the entire
building [4] and [10]. This building structure was of large panel concrete building.
Generally, precast concrete structure is more inferior to structures of monolithic concrete
buildings. Reason for that lay in sensitivity of joints and connections and orientation of
precast floor planks [9]. According [5] accidental design situations refers to conditions
applicable to the structure (local overloading) or to exposure, e.g. to fire, gas explosion,
impact or the consequences of localised failure.
1
Dr Radomir Folić, professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, tel:
++381 21 4852644, e – mail: folic@uns.ac.rs
2
Dr Đorđe Lađinović, professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, tel:
++381 21 459 798, e – mail: ladjin@uns.ac.rs
3
Dr Damir Zenunović, Assoc. Professor, University of Tuzla, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Civil
Engineering, BiH, tel: ++387 35 320 589, e – mail: damir.zenunović @gmail.com
Robustness-resistance to progressive collapses of buildings is the characteristic which
defines the structure strength in term of integrity and redundancy. Progressive collapse is
defined as situation where local failure of primary structural components leads to
collapse adjoining members, which leads to additional chain collapse. Extend of total
damage is disproportional to the initial damage. The term disproportionate collapse is
used when the collapse is out of proportion to the event that triggers it, and always is a
progressive collapse but a progressive collapse not always a disproportionate one [15].
The probability of a progressive collapse must be limited to a generally accepted value.
Those value P(F) as a result of an abnormal event can be represented as a chain of
partial probabilities [12] and [14]:
P(F)= P(FIDH) ∙ P(DIH) ∙ P(H) (1)
where: P(H) denotes the probability of an abnormal event that threatens the structure or
more generally a hazard H for the structure; P(DIH) is the probability of local damage D
as a result of the event H; and P(FIDH) denotes the probability of the failure F of the
structure as a result of local damage D by H.
In the expression (1) the first part represents robustness, second, element behaviour and
third hazard. Product of first and second member is indicator of vulnerability and with
hazard (third) can minimise.
Robustness is a term used to describe „the ability of a structure to withstand events like
fire, explosions, impact or the consequences of human error, without being damaged to
an extent disproportionate to the original cause” [7].
Collapse resistance is a property that is influenced by both structural features as well as
possible causes of initial failure. The term defined as insensitivity of a structure to
accidental circumstances (low probability events).
Continuity refers to the continuous of connection of components as well as continues
reinforcement of concrete components (Fig. 1). These properties improved integrity,
redundancy local resistance and/or local resistance.
Ductility is the ability of the component or structural system to withstand large post-
elastic deformations and increases the robustness of structure.
Damage tolerance is compatible with the term robustness, reefers to the ability of a
structure to resist a continuous local deterioration due corrosion or similar.
Integrity related to requirements for continuity, ductility and redundancy. Enhanced
integrity may mitigate progressive collapse. Ties contribute the ability of structure to
redistribute or transfer loads along this load path based on large part on the
interconnectivity between adjacent members.
Key element is a structural member upon which the stability of the remainder of the
structure depends [7]. They should be designed for accidental loads, which are specified
in several standards as 34kPa.
The loss of a major structural element typically results in load redistributions and
member deflections. Structural redundancy refers to the multiple availability of load-
carrying component of multiple load paths which can bear additional loads in the event
a)
Figure 1. Tie to secure robustness: a) horizontal;
b) vertical tie b)
Redundancy depends of geometry of structure and the properties of the individual load-
carrying elements.
Vulnerability describes the sensitivity of a structure to damage events. The structure is
vulnerable if small damage lead to disproportionate consequences.
Key elements are a structural member upon which the stability of the remainder of
structure depends [7]. They should be designed for accidental loads, which are specified
in several standards as 34kPa (Fig. 2a).
Definitions in EN are derived from ISO 2394, ISO 3898, ISO 8939 and ISO 8402. EN
1990 [5] accidental action means action, usually of short duration but of significant
magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given structure during the design working
(service) life. An accidental action can be expected in many cases to cause severe
consequences unless appropriate measures are taken. Impact, snow, wind and seismic
action may be variable or accidental actions, depending on the available information on
statistical distributions. Accidental design situation involves exceptional conditions of
the structure or its exposure, including fire, explosion, impact or local failure. Accidental
design situations for the different consequences classes divided as followed [7]: CC1-
consequences class 1: Low consequences of failure; CC2-consequences class 2: Medium
consequences of failure; CC3-consequences class 1: High consequences of failure.
Hazard in EN 1990 to 1999 is treated an unusual and severe event, e.g. an abnormal
action or environmental influence, insufficient strength or resistance, or excessive
deviation from intended dimensions. A progressive collapse is a chain reaction which
occurs after the damage or loss of load bearing capacity of a small part of a structure
under incidental loads or in case when some bearing elements fail. According to
robustness design Codes (BS) situations where damage to small areas of structure or
failure of single elements may lead to collapse of major parts of the structure should be
avoided [4]. All structures should be robust regardless on the likelihood of accidental
loads. In [7], where designing for robustness is introduced, there are two design
Figure 2. Altentaivemeans of protection against progressive collapse, a) protected
member; b) alternative load paths, after [3]
According to the simplified approach, the situation is considered that any structural
component that has significance for the bearing capacity of the structure can lose its
bearing function. It is then verified if the remaining part of the structure can withstand
the frequently occurring loads with defined target reliability for alternative load paths,
for a relatively short period of time, necessary to mobilize the users of the structure
and/or to carry out necessary repair or strengthening.
Figure 3. Types of ties in sceletal frames [3]
However, for sufficiently robust structures, failure consequences can be significantly
reduced. Requirements and methods for the assessment of robustness in present codes
are vague and seem to be insufficient for practical use. Therefore, the European research
project COST Action TU0601 has been initiated to establish better understanding of the
aspects related to robustness. Available robustness indices can be divided in three levels
with increasing complexity:
1. Deterministic such as the deterministic reserve strength ratio (ISO 19902).
2. Reliability-based such as the redundancy index derived from failure probability of a
damaged and intact structural system.
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project
TR 36043 supported by the Ministry for Education, Science and Technol. Devel.,
Republic of Serbia. This support is gratefully acknowledged (R. Folić and Đ. Lađinović).
REFERENCES
[1] Canisius, T.D.G. et al. Robustness of structural system – a new focus for the Joint
Committee on Structural Safety, Applic. Of Statistics and Probability in Civil Eng. –
Ed. Kanda et al., Taylor and Frances Group, London, 2007, pp.1-10.
[2] CIB Report.88: Draft Guide for the Design of Precast Wall Connections,
Rotterdam, 1985. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 Design Code, T. Telford, 1993.
[3] Dep. of Housing and Urban Devel. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, Report 2.:
Philosophy of Structural Response to Normal and Abnormal Loads, Ilionis, 1976.
[4] Elliott, K.S.: Multi-Storey Precast Concrete Framed Structures, London, 2000.
[5] EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of structural design. CEN, 2002.
[6] EN 1992: Design of Concrete Structure, CEN, 2004.
[7] EN 1991, Actions on structures - Part 1-7: GA - Accidental actions. CEN, 2006.
[8] fib (CEB-FIP) Bulletin 66: Model Code 2010, Final draft-Vol. 2, April, 2012.
[9] Fintel, M., Schultz, D.M.: Structural Integrity of Large Panel Buildings, ACI
Journal, May, 1979, pp. 583-620.
[10] Folić, R.: Reliability of precast concrete structures under incidental loads.
Izgradnja, Beograd, 2007, br. 11-12, pp. 511-526. (in Serbian)
[11] Folić, R.: Design of precast concrete buildings structures under seismic and
incidental actions, Sc. Conf. VSU`2007, Sofia, 14-15 May 2007, pp. II-95 - II-103
[12] GOST Action TU0601 – Robustness of Structures – Structural robustness design
for practising engineers, Sept. 2011.
[13] Rakshith, K.G., Radhakrishna: Progressive collapse analysis of RC framed
structure, IJ of Research in Engineering and Techn, November, 2013. pp. 36-40.
[14] Starossek, U., Haberland, M.: Measures of Structural Robustnee – Requirements &
Applications, ASCE SEI 08 Str. Congress–CB, Vancouver, April 24-26, 2008, p.10
[15] Singhania, A. et al.: Simplified Analysis if RC Framed Structures for Progressive
Colapse, Int. Journal of Scientific & Research, Vol. 4, Issue 5, 2013. pp. 264-
1. INTRODUCTION
Determining bearing capacity of a pile is a complex geotechnical task. Which method
should be used will depend on many factors, such as reliability of the resulting soil
mechanical properties, type of pile, pile performance, and the like. The only methods
commonly used in this country are based on theoretical principles, though the current
code of practice and standards concerning foundation of engineering structures (Off.
Gaz. SFRJ No. 15/1990) [1] allow of pile loading in the axial direction to be determined
and proved at least by two of the given five known methods:
1. Formulae for the soil strength mobility degree
The allowable pile loading, by this method, is estimated using relations for the known
soil shear strength parameters (φ and c) from lab soil tests.
2. Formulae for the soil strength recorded during the pile penetration test
This method uses dynamic relations, based on the free-falling body collision theory,
which requires knowledge of the soil resistance (the number of blows) during pile
driving.
3. Formulae using penetration probing data
1
Nenad Šušić, PhD Civ.Eng., Institute IMS, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: 011-263-526,
e-mail: nenad.susic@institutims.rs
2
Gordana Hadži-Niković, PhD Geol.Eng., Faculty for Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade,
Đušina 7, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: 011-3219 228, e-mail: gordana.hadzinikovic@rgf.bg.ac.rs
3
Ksenija Đoković, MSc Geol.Eng., Institute IMS, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43, Belgrade, Serbia,
tel: 011-2650-322, e-mail: ksenija.djokovic@institutims.rs
1
(290kN/0.29mm)
(580kN/0.40mm)
(870kN/0.65mm)
(1160kN/0.92mm)
Sila
(kN)
(1450kN/1.32mm)
2 (0kN/2.18mm)
(290kN/2.37mm)
(1740kN/1.78mm)
(2030kN/2.25mm)
(870kN/2.68mm)
3 (290kN/2.64mm)
(1450kN/3.07mm) (2320kN/3.03mm)
(2030kN/3.56mm)
(870kN/3.13mm)
4 (1450kN/3.52mm)
(2030kN/3.91mm)
(2609kN/4.13mm)
(2609kN/4.67mm)
5
6
(2761kN/5.54mm)
7
(2913kN/6.93mm)
8
9
(3065kN/9.97mm)
10
11
12
13
)
mm
14
(0kN/14.45mm)
.84
/16
15
(290kN/14.92mm)
N
50k
16 (870kN/15.42mm)
(32
17
(1450kN/16.03mm)
(2030kN/16.38mm)
(2609kN/16.68mm)
(2913kN/16.79mm)
18
19
20
Sleganje
(mm)
Figure 2. Settlement of test pile Š-5
(870kN/0.83mm)
1450 1740 2030 2320 2609 2761 2900 3065 3250
Sila
1 (1160kN/1.21mm) (kN)
2
(1450kN/1.63mm)
(1740kN/2.15mm)
3
(2030kN/2.73mm)
(2320kN/3.65mm)
4
5
6
(2609kN/5.73mm)
7
8 (0kN/7.98mm) (290kN/8.11mm)
(290kN/8.26mm)
(870kN/8.50mm)
(1450kN/8.99mm)
9
10
(870kN/9.11mm)
(1450kN/9.62mm)
(2030kN/9.53mm)
(2900kN/10.14mm)
(2030kN/10.02mm) (2609kN/10.09mm)
11
(2609kN/11.38mm)
12
13
14
(2761kN/13.50mm)
15
16
(2900kN/16.31mm)
17
)
m
2m
18
.3
19
N/
5k
19
06
(3
20
21
22
)
23
m
4m
(0kN/23.75mm)
6.1
24
N/2
(290kN/24.14mm)
50k
25
(870kN/24.90mm)
(32
(1450kN/25.41mm)
26
(2030kN/25.82mm) (2609kN/25.93mm) (2900kN/26.04mm)
Sleganje
(mm)
5. CONCLUSION
The described example shows how differences in the bearing capacity of piles between
the estimates on theoretical models and on the pile loading test data may easily exceed
even 100%. An estimate of the bearing capacity of a pile by load test approximates far
closer the pile behaviour under load, whereas the estimates based on theoretical models
should be taken only for the values predicted.
On the basis of the above stated we may conclude that the best way of determining the
bearing capacity and settlement of a pile is provided by the static loading test. Test-based
data allow the use and adjustment of the related theoretical models in estimates of the
allowable loading and settlement of piles, and the application of a lower safety factor.
Selection of an optimum combination of diameter, length and number of piles and the
achieved bearing capacities of piles will give the best, engineering and financial, model
of a structure foundation.
ПРИЛОГ САВРЕМЕНОM СРПСКОМ НЕИМАРСТВУ
И ГРАДИТЕЉСТВУ – КРОЗ БЕЛЕШКЕ И СЛИКЕ
Мирко Петковић1 УДК: 69(497.11)
DOI: 10.14415/konferencijaGFS2014.035
Резиме: „Зашто се званично скоро нигде у свету не помињу имена и доприноси
Срба историји светског градитељства“? Да ли зато што осим епских прича и
спорадичних случајева таквих доприноса заправо и нема или зато што је
недостатак традиције у богатству и владању над другима онемогућио Србе да
пређу пут од турских дунђера до савремених демијурга и тако остану забележени
у историји светског градитељства? Без обзира каква да је истина презентирани
рад даје допринос сагледавању и памћењу њене лепше стране, без које се не рађа
љубав према градитељској струци нити подстичу опредељења младих за њу.
Кључне речи: Савремено градитељство, српски неимари, доприноси, примери
1. УВОД
Еварист Галоа (Èvariste Galois, 1811-1832), један од највећих талената у историји
математике записао је на маргинама својих последњих листова и несређених списа
једну од најоптужујућих реченица у историји науке: "Немам времена". Та више
пута поновљена реченица заједно са напабирченим белешкама и набацаним
сличицама из главе на папир, која је касније послужила за боље разумевање
његове детињасте памети и бриљантног ума сатканог од чисте математике и
ужасне самоће, оставштине од само 60 страница и капиталног дела посвећеног
условима под којима се алгебарске једначине могу решити кореновањем, се не
ретко користи као потврда о увек већој важности понекад скривеног садржаја од
јасно видљиве бирократске форме и школске јасноће сваког дела, и штете која
може настати од на брзину изречених судова.
На први поглед та опасност лежи и у овом раду са „напабирченим белешкама и на
папир набацаним сличицама“, међу којима се налазе и дела тројице српских и
једног руског академика, насталим на маргинама свакодневних инжењерских
послова2. Међутим, за разлику од тешко разумљивих Еваристових белешки, он
ипак представља јасан прилог савременој градитељској пракси захваљујући пре
свега својим бројним примерима из праксе. У раду је наведено 20-ак проблема и
нетипичних решења из области пројектовања, контроле, експертизе и градње:
(а) Пословних објеката висине до 120м и корисних површина до 130.000м2
1
KECO Invest Engineering GmbH i KG Int. Exp. Group, mirkopetkovic7@gmail.com, тел: 7 926 623 623 1
2
Ђ. Лазаревић, М. Ђурић, Н.Хајдин и Г.И. Марчук од којих на само једном објекту дела тројице њих.
3
Као одговорни пројектант, надзорни орган, главни инжењер, одговорни извођач, директор градње,
директор пројекта и консултант или саветник.
4
Случај који се десио на једном градилишту на коме су се после попуштања комплетне конструкције
многи просто разбежали то врло добро показује. У раду је споменуто још неколико сличних примера.
5
Друго предложено решење се заснивало на истој технологији која је примењена на паришком метроу
Слика 1. Почеци и завршеци градње пословног комплекса Сахаров и Куле Еволуције
Иако се на изглед ради о сасвим различитим објектима и начинима фундирања
Кула Еволуције висине 255м са 53 етажа и 169.000 м2 корисне површине заправо
представља сличну концепцију решења са различитим облицима и геометријама
конструктивних елемената, а истоветним улогама. У склопу дво-фазног извођења
радова фундирање објекта је извршено од стране немачког Bauer-а путем бушених
АРМБ-шипова са стилобатима и двојном тј., дво-етажном темељном плочом6. Без
обзира што Куле еволуције држи својеврсни рекорд у изменама имена, власничке
труктуре, врсти, пореклу и начину одвијања токова новца за потребе те врсте
бизниса у датим околностима, она својом изузетно јаком и стабилном структуром
(МБ 90) и необичном фасадом представља један од најнеобичнијих, а по некима и
тренутно архитектонски најлепше обликовани облакодер у свету чији облик је .
инспирисан фрагментима црквене и авангардне руске архитектуре. Садашњи
носилац послова и главни извођач радова је турска компанија Renaissance. На
фотографији изгледа градилишта, у време обиласка аутора као госта Renaissance-а,
се виде делови пословног центра са кулом Исток (Слика 1д-ж) тренутно највишим
објектом у Европи (360/507м са 93/7 спратова и 207.000м2 корисне површине).
6
Иначе, слична технологија са дужинама шипова преко 100м и пречника преко 1.500 мм је примењена
на северу Џаде при фундирању тренутно највишег објекта у свету - Краљевског торња висине 1.001м.
Слика 3. Арена Химки - од модела до отварања
Слика 4. Снимак објекта током контроле стања од стране аутора
ПРИМЕР 4. Управна зграда висине 80м ћерке једне од највећих компанија у РФ
(Слика 4а-в.). Пројектом је управљала једна домаћа joint venture компанија, а
главни носилац послова пројектовања и изградње је била једна европска компанија
са више локалних подизвођача, као и појединих познатих учесника са простора
бивше Југославије. У сфери бизниса и трансакција пројекат представља пример
несметаног испољавања неких екстремних опредељења и стремљења појединаца,
Слика 5. Универзални базен током израде ободних греда, монтаже и испитивања
8
Висине пресека варених челичних носача су биле до 4.000мм
9
Други пут при реконструкцији делова постројања за рециркулацију фабрике H3PO4 у ИХП Прахову.
10
Дводелна греда сложеног правоугаоног пресека са каскадама и смакнутим спојницама. Због потребе
смањења контактног оптерећења, промењен је и сам механизам преноса и распростирања комплетног
оптерећења и пикова у тлу на тај начин што су доње кампаде ослоњене на полу-цилиндричне љуске и
ослабљене израдом по целој дужини отвора Ø1000. Контролни прорачуни путем неких од МКЕ пакета
нису рађени, али су зато током првих година експлоатације вршена контролна мерења.
1. УВОД
Дијаграмом сила - CMOD за бетонску греду, који се добија експерименталним
путем, Слика 1. , може да се опише уочено нееластично померање када су узорци
растерећени непосредно након максималног оптерећења.
Укупни CMOD се састоји од линеарно еластичног дела (без раста прслине) -
CMODe o , и нелинеарно еластичног дела, CMODes , који укључује раст прслине
нееластичног дела CMOD* .
Слика 1. Дијаграм СИЛА-CMOD
Да би се применио концепт линеарно еластичне механике лома, јасно је да се мора
користити еластични CMOD ( CMODe CMODT CMOD*) .
Посебан проблем при одређивању KIC је одређивање стварне дужине прслине. Да
би се избегло мерење тренутне дужине прслине, које је скупо и компликовано,
дефинише се ефективна дужина прслине, (а) као збир почетне дужине (а0) и
ефективног издужења прслине (le). Изражавањем CMODe може се одредити le,
односно ефективна дужина прслине, која одговара стварној (тренутној) дужини
прслине. Код греде са зарезом испитане на савијање са међусобним односом
висине и дужине 1:4, еластични CMOD може да се изрази као:
Ps 3,96
CMOD e 4,56 A 13, 68 A2 23, 24 A4 2
... 5.1 (1)
dbE ' 1 A
где је:
E ' E - за равно стање напона
E ' E / 1 2 - за равно стање деформација
a , док су P, s, а , b, d приказани на Слици 2.
A 0
d
Понашање композита ојачаних влакнима који садрже зарез почетне дужине а0,
може се посматрати у четири фазе:
1. INTRODUCTION
With respect to construction industry, four principal activities can be distinguished, as
research and development, designing, construction and management, but also
maintenance and eventual retrofitting. Science and structural theory development is
being executed simply by appropriately skilled research workers in the relevant subject.
Design engineering is a process, which involves preparing a set of plans and
specifications that defines the structure in its completed configuration. A considerable
design engineering effort is required to prepare a good set of contract documents. Only
experienced state certified engineers may be authorised to design specified types of
buildings. Construction engineering involves governing and guiding the fabrication and
erection operations needed to produce the structural members to the proper shape, and
get them safely and efficiently in place in the structure, so that the completed assembly
under the dead load conditions and at normal temperature will meet the geometric and
stress requirements stipulated on the design. Building process can be realised only by
approved company, adequately staffed, engaging experienced and trained key
employees. During execution stage, a building is obviously properly supervised. In the
case of adequate teamwork, remarkable buildings can be built without complications.
Inspections, maintenance and structural management provide quality assurance for
construction and play either a very important role during entire and long-time
exploitation. Regular maintenance is important factor influencing durability of structure.
Generally up to now, little emphasis was given to structural inspection and maintenance.
1
Ján Bujňák, prof.Ing.PhD., University of Žilina, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Žilina,
Slovakia, tel:: +421 41 513 5650, e – mail: jan.bujnak@fstav.uniza.sk
2
Jerzy Wirwal, prof,dr.hab.inž., Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Katowicka 48,
45-061 Opole Poland, tel.: +48 77 449 8554, e – mail: j.wyrwal@po.opole.pl
Figure 1. Trough passed bridge with fractured flange and web by lorry impact.
3
Figure 2. Damaged vertical post of a truss bridge, refiting by strenghtening.
The large extra deflection about 100 mm of the originally straight vertical post
developed by the impact to the bridge girder exceeded greatly the standard initial in
perfection given in standard EC 3 [3]. The stress analysis as space structure, with real
member end fixity and the truss joints behaviour was carried out by the computer
program based on the finite element model. Even though the resulting more real
distribution of stresses among the members, the normal bearing capacity of bridge was
reduced at Vn = 22,0 t. This value represented only the halt of the original magnitude.
Figure 3. Concept of truss bridge, horizontal deflection caused by flood, bridge finite
element modelling
As conclusion of the exeptional inspection but somewhat vague one, special pads were
employed at abutments and the bridge superstructure was placed back in the previous
position, but 0,8 m higher. Unfortunately, imperfections of the upper chord alignment
were underestimated. Furthermore, several bolted framings of the upper chord were
detached. Originally, built-up members, made by bolting together two standard structural
U120 chanels acting as one component, started to work as individual units shapes. But
only cross frames consisting of truss vertical and floor beams, compatible with their
locations can provide lateral stability of top flanges. The more-detailed three-
27
32
профила у завареној изради.
Параметри стуба потребни за прорачун:
VR(II)=vb(0)=27.6 m/s – Фундаментална вредност
основне брзине ветра за II категорију тла
II категорија тла; kT=0.19; z0=0.05; Табела 4.2.1
EN 50341 Izometrija
Mreza konacnih elemenata
1
Дипл.инж.грађ, сарадник, Висока пословно-техничка школа струковних студија, Трг Светог Саве 34,
Ужице, Србија, e-mail: djordje.djuricic@vpts.edu.rs ; e-mail: dragoslav.arsovic@vpts.edu.rs
2
Др, редовни професор, Универзитрт Црне Горе, Грађеински факултет у Подгорици, Цетињски пут бб,
Подгорица, Црна Гора, е-mail: dlucic@ac.me
3
Дипл.инж.грађ, сарадник, Висока пословно-техничка школа струковних студија, Трг Светог Саве 34,
Ужице, Србија e-mail: dragoslav.arsovic@vpts.edu.rs
Вредност силе Qwx услед хоризонталног дејства ветра, управно на било који
елемент линије, је
QWx=qh*Gq*Gx*Cx*A (1)
где су:
qh -динамички притисак ветра
Gq -фактор одговора на удар
Gx -фактор резонанце конструкције
Cx -фактор отпора у зависности од од облика елемента
A -површина елемента на коју делује ветар пројектована на раван која је
нормална на правац ветра
Динамички притисак ветра qh је дефинисан у тачки 4.2.2.2 EN 50341 -1-1 и
одређује се према
qh=1/2Vh2 (2)
где је густина ваздуха, једнака 1.225 kg/m3 на 15 ° C и при атмосферском
притиску од 1013 hPa.
Брзина ветра Vh на произвољној висини h изнад тла дефинисана је у норми EN
50341- 1-1 тачка 4.2.2.1.6. и износи
Vh=kT*ln(z/z0)*VR(II) (3)
Брзина ветра Vh по висини стуба је дата у табели 1.
Табела 1. Вредност брзине ветра Vh и вредност динамичког притиска ветра qh(z)
по висини стуба
z (m) 6 12 18 24 27 29.5 32 35
ln(z/zo) 4.79 5.48 5.89 6.17 6.29 6.38 6.46 6.55
Vh (m/s) 27.60 28.74 30.87 32.38 32.99 33.46 33.88 34.35
qh(z) (kN/m2) 0.47 0.51 0.58 0.64 0.67 0.69 0.70 0.72
а) б)
Слика 2. Коефицијент силе ветра према а) EN 1991 -1-4 тачка 7.11 [1]
б) EN1993 3-1 тачка B.2.2.2. [2]
На слици 3 дате су вредности оптерећења од ветра по висини стуба за
анализиране принципе прорачуна дејства ветра
z(m) z(m)
35 2.51 35 2.43
32 2.46 32 2.41
29.5 2.41 29.5 2.39
27 2.37 27 2.38
24 2.31 24 2.36
18 2.15 18 2.32
12 1.94 12 2.28
10 1.83
6 1.83 6 2.24
0 0 2.21
q(kN/m2 ) q(kN/m2 )
а) б)
Слика 3. Притисак ветра по висини стуба према ЕN 50341
а) Општи принцип б) Емпиријски принцип (Национални анекс Немачке)
У градским срединама се због све већег броја становништва, а тако и броја
аутомобила јавља већа потреба за обезбеђењем паркинг места.
Како су површине простора ограничене, посебно у централном делу града -
градском језгру, једино адекватно решење је обезбеђење паркинг места у
подземним деловима стамбених објеката или подземним наменским гаражама.
Ово решење се сматра економичним са становишта уштеде простора али се
грађењу ових објеката мора приступити са посебном пажњом јер изградња ове
врсте објеката може проузроковати проблеме стабилности објекта у изградњи па и
суседних објеката.
При пројектовању ове врсте објеката поред осталог посебну пажњу треба
посветити прорачуну пробоја стубова кроз плочу међуспратне конструкције.
Предмет разматрања у овом раду је објекат пројектован са две подземне
етаже/нивоа.
Сви елементи објекта су монилитни и изводе се од армираног бетона.
Конструкција објекта се састоји од темељне АБ плоче, међуспратне АБ плоче,
кровне АБ плоче, АБ дијафрагми, АБ зидова, АБ стубова и АБ шипова.
1
Ковач Стрико Јосип, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: kovacj@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Чех Арпад, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка
2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: ceh.arpad@gf.uns.ac.rs
3
Табаковић Драгана, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: tabakovic@gf.uns.ac.rs
Слика 1. Критичан пресек 1-1
Figure 1. Critical cross-section 1-1
Прорачун на пробијање стубова (слика 1) урађен је у програму Ansys [3] где је
посматран и анализиран део плоче око наведеног средишњег стуба.
Како се ради о симетричном попречном пресеку стуба моделирана је четвртина
стуба са плочом димензија 2x2м односно четвртином распона између стубова.
Модел у програму Ansys је рађен са две врсте елемената.
Плоча, стуб и челичне цеви су моделирани са елементима типа SOLID45, док је
усвојена арматура моделирана са елементима типа LINK8. Вредности за модуле
еластичности и Poasson-ове коефицијенте за челик и бетон су усвојене као у
претходном примеру у програму Tower.
Искоришћена је иста анализа оптерећења с тим што је оптерећење у овом случају
нането као концентрисано у чворним тачкама елемената.
Након прорачуна овог модела извршена је контрола смичићих напона.
3. РЕЗУЛТАТИ
У програму Tower димензионисање се врши на основу контроле усвојене арматуре
кроз контролу пробоја стуба кроз плочу према важећим прописима и стандардима
и према европским прописима. У програму Аnsys се врши контрола смичућих
напона и њихово поређење са резултатима у Тower-у.
На слици 2 и 3 дати су резултати програма Tower где се може уочити да су
смучићи напони у дозвољеним границама према важећим прописима, док према
европским прописима усвојена арматура не задовољава, за сваки пресек је
потребно 3-5цм2 додатне арматуре за осигурање против пробоја.
Слика 2. Резултати добијени програмом Tower (ПБАБ)
Figure 2. Results obtained by program Tower (PBAB)
Слика 3. Резултати добијени програмом Tower (Eurocode)
Figure 3. Results obtained by program Tower (Eurocode)
Слика 4. Резултати добијени програмом Ansys
Figure 4. Results obtained by program Ansys
Табела 1. Упоредна анализа смичућих напона
Table 1. Comparative analysis of shear stresses
Tower Tower
растојање од стуба [m] Ansys [MPa]
ПБАБ [MPa] Eurocode [MPa]
0.1 1.18 0.64 1.24
0.2 0.94 0.80 0.90
0.3 0.79 0.70 0.74
0.4 0.67 0.67 0.71
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Поређењем резултата из програма Tower (по Правилнику и Еурокоду) може се
закључити да се вредности напона за прорачун према важећим стандардима добро
поклапају са резултатима добијеним програмом Ansys.
Поред тога циљ овог рада је провера рада Тоwer-a и његових резултата, а разлог за
то је што се програм Tower користи на овим просторима за моделирање и
димензионисање разних врста објеката.
[1] Radimpex Beograd: Програмски пакет Tower
[2] Правилник за бетон и Армирани бетон
[3] Ansys, Inc., 275 Technology Dr Canonsburg, PA 15317, US
RHEOLOGICAL-DYNAMICAL APPROACH IN
NONHOMOGENEOUS FINITE STRIP METHOD
Dragan D. Milašinović1
Aleksandar Borković2
Danica Goleš3 UDK: 532.135
DOI: 10.14415/konferencijaGFS2014.040
Summary: This paper presents the finite strip method adapted to the analysis of two-
dimensional nonlinear problems of reinforced concrete plate structures. Non-
homogenous finite strip, divided into cells along longitudinal direction and layered
throughout the thickness, is developed and the interpolation shape functions are
evaluated. The concrete is modelled with a biaxial state of stress that acts in the middle
plane and includes the following effects: nonlinear stress-strain relationship in
compression, compression failure, strength increase in biaxial compression and
cracking. The rebar is idealized by smeared biaxial orthotropic steel layer. Nonlinear
material behaviour is described by one- and two-dimensional models of concrete and
reinforcement using the analytically derived rheological-dynamical viscoelastoplastic
constitutive matrix.
Keywords: Non-homogeneous finite strip method, rheological-dynamical analogy,
reinforced concrete, nonlinear analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Problems of the nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete folded plate structures
(RCFPS) have gained importance during the past years due to the application of various
C/R materials and their utilization of high working stress. In the past years, the presented
problem was treated in the scope of many research projects theoretically and
experimentally. These structures generally include both nonlinearities: the geometric
nonlinear effects and the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of the composite (concrete and
rebar (C/R)) material. The aim of this paper is to present the finite strip method (FSM)
adapted for estimation of the ultimate resistance of RCFPS based on the material
nonlinear behavior. Here are used working diagrams of concrete and rebar, that represent
simultaneous stress-strain pairs, built on the basis of rheological-dynamical analogy
1
Prof. dr Dragan D. Milašinović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Subotica, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
mr Aleksandar Borković, dipl.inž. građ., University of Banjaluka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy, Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, Banjaluka, Bosnia and Herzegovina, tel: +387 65 917 366, e –
mail: aborkovic@agfbl.org
3
Doc. dr Danica Goleš, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: dgoles@gf.uns.ac.rs
The constitutive orthotropic matrix of C/R layers is given by (Ref. [5])
ERx ERx ERy 0
1
D E E
Rx Ry E Ry 0 (4)
1 2
0 0
2
1 GH
30000
Slenderness 50
Slenderness 30
RDA modulus [MPa]
25000
Slenderness 10
20000 Slenderness 5
Analytical curve
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Stress [MPa]
Figure 1. The plots of ER v/s σcr for different slenderness ratios of reference concrete
sample (cylinder) made of grade C35/45
200000
180000
RDA modulus [MPa]
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Stress [MPa]
Figure 2. The plots of ER v/s σcr of rebar (steel B400)
where ERx and ERy are obtained by RDA working diagrams of C/R, as follows
EH 1
ERx
1 cr x K
, cr x
2 K
1 4 K EH x 1 ,
EH 1
ERy
1 cr y K
, cr y
2 K
1 4 K EH y 1 , (5)
1 1
x y , GH
4
ERx ERy 2 ERx ERy
1 2
,
K DE q Q (7)
Solving these linear equations, stress σcr(0) and strain ε(0) in all points of a continuum can
be obtained. When the stress component is greater than the elasticity stress σE, Eq. (7)
may be solved to give a better approximation
1
(1)
cr
2 K 1 4K E
H
(0)
1 (8)
Figure 3. RDA modulus iterative method
The iterative process is deemed to have converged when some measure of change in
the between successive iterations has become tolerably small. Thus,
2 2
( n ) ( n 1 ) (11)
The scheme of the RDA modulus iterative method is illustrated in Fig. 3.
3. NON-HOMOGENEOUS FINITE STRIP MODELLING
In order to apply presented RDA approach on C/R materials, non-homogenous finite
strip, divided into cells and layered throughout the thickness, is developed. As shown in
Fig. 4 the strip is divided along longitudinal direction into nc cells while throughout
thickness there are nl layers, which constitute non-homogeneous LO2 finite strip.
Figure 4. Division of strip into nc longitudinal cells and nl layers throughout thickness
During the integration required for determination of stiffness matrix, the following two
independent integrals should be evaluated for longitudinal non-homogenous strip
РЕОЛОШКО-ДИНАМИЧКО МОДЕЛИРАЊЕ У
НЕХОМОГЕНОМ МЕТОДУ КОНАЧНИХ ТРАКА
Резиме: Рад представља метод коначних трака који је прилагођен анализи
дводимензионалних нелинеарних проблема армиранобетонских плочастих
конструкција. Развијене су нехомогене коначне траке које су подељене у ћелије у
подужном правцу и слојеве по дебљини. За њих су формиране одговарајуће
интерполационе функције. Бетон је моделиран у двоаксијалном стању напона у
средњој равни коначне траке укључујући следеће ефекте: нелинеарна веза напон-
деформација у притиску, лом у притиску, ојачање у притиску и прслине.
Арматура је моделирана као размазан ортотропан слој у двоаксијалном стању
напона. Нелинеарно понашање материјала је описано једнодимензионалним и
дводименѕионалним моделима бетона и арматуре коришћењем аналитички
изведене реолошко-динамичке конститутивне матрице.
Кључне речи: Нехомогени метод коначних трака, реолошко-динамичка аналогија,
армирани бетон, нелинеарна анализа
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete folded plate structures (RCFPS) have significant nonlinear
behaviour. In earlier work [1] the authors showed how the geometric nonlinear analysis
of these structures can be performed using the harmonic coupled finite strip method
(HCFSM) [2]. Also, the impact regarding the neglecting of these effects on the results of
RCFPS with various lengths is presented in Ref. [3].
This paper describes a numerical analysis of a feasible RCFPS, based on inelastic
relationship between stress and strain of the constituent materials. The influence of the
effects of material nonlinearity on RCFPS is shown through comparison with the results
of the linear analysis on the same structure.
Performed analysis ilustrates the application of non-homogeneous finite strip method
(NHFSM) with viscoelastoplastic constitutive matrix for one- and two-dimensional state
of stress in concrete and rebar developed using the rheological-dynamical theory. The
1
Prof. dr Dragan D. Milašinović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Subotica, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
mr Aleksandar Borković, dipl.inž. građ., University of Banjaluka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy, Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, Banjaluka, Bosnia and Herzegovina, tel: +387 65 917 366, e –
mail: aborkovic@agfbl.org
3
Doc. dr Danica Goleš, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: dgoles@gf.uns.ac.rs
Figure 1. Cross-section, load and discretization scheme of analysed RCFPS
Structure is designed according to linear homogenous FSM solution. The properties of
the concrete and steel are specified in Table 1. The rebar characteristics are summarized
in Table 2 and Table 3.
The load in Fig. 1 is multiplied by factor 1.8 in order to reach the limit state of structure.
This load intensity causes yield stress in the bottom steel layer of the beam's central
cross-section, which is furter considered as rebar failure. All presented results are shown
for this load level. The tension stiffening effects of concrete (after the cracking at 2.3
MPa) are not included in the computation, but they should be taken into account when
geometrically nonlinear problems are investigated.
4
Milašinović, D.D., Borković, A., Goleš, D.: Rheological-dynamical approach in non homogeneous finite strip
method
10
10
10
5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4
45,75
45,75
45,75
45,75
25,75
25,75
25,75
25,75
100
100
100
100
35,95
35,95
35,95
35,95
40,85
40,85
40,85
40,85
45,75
45,75
45,75
45,75
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
20
20
20
20
After exhaustive convergence tests, the following discretization is adopted: beam is
divided into 14 and each plate into nsp=12 strips. Five series terms and nc=10 cells are
used. Cross-section of plates has ten concrete and four steel layers numbered as shown in
Fig. 1. In the beam, strips 8 and 13 represent rows 4 and 5 of rebar, while strip 2
represents sum of rows 1, 2, and 3 of rebar that are illustrated in Table 2 and Fig. 1.
Norm of residual strains is set to be less or equal to δ=0.001.
zy zx
zy 10
zx x
y
Asy Asx
3. RESULTS OF ANALYSIS
The crack pattern of the RCFPS's beam reflects the pure flexural failure of concrete with
cracks opening only in longitudinal direction. In contrast to this the NHFSM plates
model leads to crack patterns shown in Fig. 2 simultaneous in both directions. It is
obvious that all crack patterns are realistic.
Figure 2. Plan view of bottom layer of plates: Numerically computed crack pattern
(white-elastic; hatched-cracked; gray-plastic)
Figure 3. Variation of moment Mx and force Nx along the transverse central line: left -
elastic solution; right - last iteration solution
Fig. 4 illustrates the types of NHFSM convergence of the stresses by number of strips in
plates. It is apparent that forty strips in plates are required for the stress in steel layer to
converge to the exact answer. On the other hand the stress value in concrete in this case
converges at a slower rate.
Y stress in steel layer in the
X stress in concrete in the
bottom layer at the top of
-17 412
bottom of beam [MPa]
the structure [MPa]
-18
-19 411
-20
-21 410
-22
-23 409
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of strips in plate for five series terms Number of strips in plate for five series terms
Figure 4. Types of NHFSM convergence by number of strips in plates: left –
compression stress σx in titled concrete layer; right – tension stress σy in titled steel layer
The rate of convergence for stresses by number of series terms was also analyzed. As it
is shown in Fig. 5, although nonlinear behaviour is very prominent, only seven terms are
required for the stresses to converge to the exact answer.
beam [MPa]
-21 405
-21.2
400
-21.4
-21.6 395
-21.8
390
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number of series terms for 38 strips and 10 cells
Number of series terms for 38 strips and 10 cells
Figure 5. Types of NHFSM convergence by number of series terms: left – compression
stress σx in marked concrete layer; right – tension stress σy in marked steel layer
4. CONCLUSIONS
The non-homogeneous finite strip method is successfully applied to material nonlinear
analysis of reinforced concrete folded plate structure. The RDA modulus iterative
method proves to be very useful for tracing the structural response after cracking. The
results obtained from the NHFSM algorithm implemented in Wolfram Mathematica
show very good convergence properties by number of series terms and number of strips.
REFERENCES
[1] Milašinović, D., Goleš, D.: Analiza stabilnosti armiranobetonskih složenica,
Građevinar, 2013, vol. 65, № 5, p.p. 411-422.
[2] Milašinović, D.D.: Geometric non-linear analysis of thin plate structures using the
harmonic coupled finite strip method. Thin-Walled Structures, 2011, vol. 49, № 2,
p.p. 280-290.
[3] Goleš, D., Milašinović, D., Živanov, Ž.: Izbor racionalnog metoda analize
armiranobetonskih poliedarskih ljuski u funkciji njihovog raspona, Zbornik radova
GF Subotica, 2013, p.p. 17-30.
1. УВОД
Предмет рада је анализа бифуркационе стабилности танких плоча која се спроводи
усвајањем Кирхоф – Лов (Kirchoff-Love) хипотезе. Бифуркациона стабилност је
област линеарне анализе у којој се критично отерећење добија рјешавањем
одговарајућег проблема својствених вриједности. За дискретизацију у методу
коначних елемената је кориштен правоугани коначни елемент са 12 степени
слободе приказан на слици 1. Овај елемент, иако неконформан са степеном
континуитета C0 , даје рјешења која конвергирају ка тачним [1]. Интерполационе
функције овог елемента приказане су за чвор k на слици 2. Проблем
бифуркационе стабилности система коначних елемената дефинисан је изразом (14)
1
Наташа Мрђа, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско – грађевинско – геодетски
факултет, Војводе Степе Степановића 77/3, Бањалука, Босна и Херцеговина, тел: +387 66 860 858, e –
mail: mnatasa@agfbl.org
2
Проф. др Драган Д. Милашиновић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински
факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
Слика 1. Правоугаони елемент плоче са 12 степени слободе
wk 1 xk 1 yk 1
K 0 K g 0 (14)
2. МАТРИЦА КРУТОСТИ ЕЛЕМЕНАТА K 0
Вектор генералисаних помјерања u у тачкама елемента се дефинише преко
вектора параметара помјерања q у чворовима елемента
u Aqq (15)
A q је матрица која успоставља везу између поменута два вектора, а чији су
елементи интерполационе функције, те се по њима и ова матрица назива матрица
интерполационих функција. Једначином (15) дефинисано је поље помјерања у
елементу у зависности од помјерања у чворовима. Када је познато поље помјерања
може се одредити и поље деформација. Компоненте деформација у зависности од
компонената помјерања добијају се диференцирањем израза (15) односно
примјеном одговарајуће матрице оператора над матрицом интерполационих
функција. На овај начин, за вектор деформација, се добија:
ε Bq q (16)
Из (26) и (33) слиједи да је
K g BTNL N PN B NL dF (34)
F
гдје је B NL матрица трансформације нелинеарне деформације, а N PN матрица
почетних напона, односно матрица почетних сила.
Да би одредили геометријску матрицу крутости потребно је да познајемо десну
страну једначине (26). С обзиром да нам напони нису познати, у теорији
бифуркационе стабилности предпостављамо да је позната квалитативна расподјела
напона у плочи. Знајући квалитативну расподјелу напона у плочи можемо
ријешити нелинеаран проблем користећи једначине линеарне теорије. Овај
поступак се назива линеаризација једначина, а теорија која се бави проучавањем
истих, линеаризована теорија.
На слици 4 су дати облици извијања којима се показује могућност програма.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Sekulović, M.: Metod konačnih elemenata, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1988.
[2] Milašinović, D.D.: The Finite Strip Method in Computational Mechanics, Faculties
of Civil Engineering: University of Novi Sad, Technical University of Budapest and
University of Belgrade: Subotica, Budapest, Belgrade, 1997.
[3] Timoshenko S., Gere J.: Theory of elastic stability, McGraw-Hill, 1963.
[4] Umanski, A.A.: Konstrukterski priručnik, Građevinska knjiga, 1980.
[5] Abaqus. Theory manual. Version 6.11, Dassault systems, 2007.
Након замјене (1) и (2) у формулу за виртуални рад добија се израз
δW = - P δu dV - - P δε M + σ δε dV
V Ω ,x V Ω xx ij ij
P δ v ,x2 + w ,x2 (37)
= - σ ijδε ij dV = 0
V Ω 2
из којег се дефинише стање равнотеже нелинеарно-еластичног елемента.
Λ T + 3ΛS E 0 4Λ T E 0
C 11 = 2
, C 22 = 2
,
2 + 3ΛS - 4ν Λ T - 1- 2ν 2 + 3ΛS - 4ν Λ T - 1- 2ν
(40)
4ν + 2ΛT - 2 E 0 2E 0
C 12 = C 21 = 2
, C 33 =
2 + 3ΛS - 4ν Λ T - 1- 2ν 2ν -1+ 3ΛS
гдје су ΛT=E0/ET i ΛS=E0/ES.
Вриједност тангентног и секантног модула, ET i ES, зависе од вриједности напона
којим је плоча притиснута и добијају се са одговарајуће напон-деформација криве
која описује понашање материјала. У овом раду је кориштена Рамберг-Осгудова
(Ramberg-Osgood) крива према [4]
n
σ σ
ε= + 0.002 (41)
E0 σ 0.2
гдје је σ02 напон пластичног течења за деформацију 0.2%, док је n параметар
деформацијског ојачања материјала.
Конститутивна RDA матрица у случају равног стања напона, има следећи облик
према [2]
ER ν ER
2 2
0
1- ν 1- ν
ν ER E0 3E 0
Ct = 2 2
0 , ER = (42)
1- ν 1- ν 5 - 4ν + 2 1+ ν φ*
E0
0 0
1+ ν
при чему су: ER реолошко-динамички модул еластичности, а φ* реолошко-
динамички параметар материјала. Примјеном RDA матрице у првој итерацији се
добија напон течења, док се у некој од наредних, када текући напон више не мјења
реолошко-динамички модул, добија напон лома.
3. ИЛУСТРАТИВНИ ПРИМЈЕР
На слици 2 приказане су вриједност критичних напона σcr добијених аналитички
по четири теорије: а) линаерно-еластична, б) еласто-пластична теорија
деформације, ц) еласто-пластична теорија течења и д) еласто-пластична реолошко-
динамичка теорија.
1. INTRODUCTION
Needs for easily accessible, available and mobile public transport have produced higher
level of traffic induced vibrations. These vibrations, produced by interaction between
rolling wheels and the road surface, belong to a low frequency disturbance, which lay in
the range between 5-30 Hz. Inside the buildings traffic induced vibrations can cause
nuisance among residents, malfunctioning to sensitive equipment and in the extreme
cases some minor damages to historical buildings. Hence, the prediction of magnitude of
the expected vibrations in building caused by traffic is of great interest. Many unknowns
and uncertainties, like vibration inputs, structural characteristics, interaction with the
ground and damping in the building and soil, make the reliable predictions of traffic-
relate vibration in a building practically impossible. The prediction can be reasonable
only for low frequency range.
Models for prediction of vibrataions in buildings caused by traffic can be generally
devide into two main groups: empirical (semi-empirical) models and numerical models.
Numerical models are based on the numerical simulation of moving vehicle
1
Associate Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73,
Serbia, tel: ++381 11 32 18 552, e – mail: pmira@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Student of Master study, Faculty of Civil Engineering, dragankovacevic2404@yahoo.com
3
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, marija@grf.bg.ac.rs
2. NUMERICAL MODEL
The simple numerical model for predicting building vibration is based on the fact that
traffic produces much larger vertical vibrations than horizontal ones. These vertical
vibrations affect building’s walls and columns. The disturbances travel through each
element independently as longitudinal waves. It is assumed that only one column, or
wall, may be considered for wave propagation analysis. Due to that, walls are modeled
as one-dimensional spectral elements. Floor slabs are treated as rigid and modeled as
lumped mass. Influence of the soil, presented with spring and dashpot in the model at
Fig. 1, is taken into account using the dynamic stiffness of the foundation.
20
osnova, H=0m 1.2 osnova, H=0m osnova, H=0m
u/u0
u/u0
q/qo
q/qo
q/qo
1 1.5
u/u0
15
0.8
10 0.6
1
0.4
0.5
5
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
frekvencija [Hz]
70 80 90 100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
frekvencija [Hz]
70 80 90 100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
frekvencija [Hz]
70 80 90 100
a) b) c)
Figure 2. a)Wall without SSI, b)Wall with SSI , c) Wall-rigid floor-SSI
For the fixed base the resonance frequency is 48 Hz, the amplification factor for the top
displacement is 32. For the case with SSI, the first resonance occurs at the frequency of
10 Hz, the second at 96 Hz. Amplification factor is less than previous, 1.8, due to
damping in the soil (radiation and material). When rigid floors are taken into account,
the resonant frequency decreases to 7.5 Hz and the amplification factor becomes 2.5.
The second resonance frequency occurs at 60 Hz and is more pronounced than in the
previous case.
3.2. Two-, six- and therteen-storey buildings
The proposed numerical models were used to calculate the dynamic response of three
typical low-, mid- and high-rise buildings subjected to ground vibrations induced by a
14t truck crossing a 3 cm thick rubber unevenness, at a speed of 50 km/h. The vibrations
of the buildings were measured in New Belgrade [2]. The measurements were carried
out by the Geophysical Institute, using I/O System One that consists of 5 three-
component geophones. The velocities were measured simultaneously at five different
points at the buildings site in three orthogonal directions. Mesured velocities in vertical
direction at the base of the structures were used as input in the numerical models, while
the measured velocities at the top of the structure were used for validation of the
numerical results. For the pupose of the analysis measured velocities are transformed to
the frequency domain using the Fourier transform and after that vertical base
displacements are obtained diveding the velocities by i .
a) b)
Fig. 3. Low-rise building: a) Ground velocity time history, b) Predicted and measured
displacements
Mid-rise building
The mid-rise building consists of basement, ground floor and six floors. The height of
each floor is 3 m. The cross section of the RC wall is 20x0.25m while the dimensions of
strip foundation are 20x3m. The floor slabs are 5.5m wide and 0.16cm tick. The
measured ground velocity and vertical displacements time history (measured and
predicted) at the top of the wall are presented in Fig. 4a and 4b.
a) b)
Fig. 4. Mid-rise building: a) Ground velocity time history, b) Predicted and measured
displacements
High-rise building
The high-rise building consists of ground floor and 13 floors. The height of each floor is
2.9 m. The reinforced concrete (RC) walls are founded on the reinforced grid foundation.
The cross section of the RC wall parallel to the road is 20x0.20m. The dimensions of the
foundation grid which belongs to the wall are 20x1m. The floor slabs are 5m wide and
0.12cm tick. The velocity time history at the base of the building and the measured and
predicted displacement time histories at the top floor, are presented in Figs. 5a and 5b.
a) b)
Fig. 5. High-rise building: a) Ground velocity time history, b) Predicted and measured
displacements
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper the simple numerical model for predicting of building vibrations is
presented. The numerical simulations show the dependence of the predicted dynamic
response on the dimensions of floor slabs, foundation properties and height of the
buildings. The numerical predictions closely matched with the measured responses for
low- and mid-rise buildings. In the case of high-rise buildings the discrepancy between
obtained results and measured values is obvious, due to many uncertainties of the
analysis, e.g.: arrangement of the walls in the buildings, the dimensions of the floor
slabs, the details concerning grid foundation and subsoil as well as some disturbances
and other side effects. In addition, in the case of high-rise buildings the influence of
bending on the dynamic response should be analysed further.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the support of the Ministry of education, science and technology,
Republic of Serbia, via Project TR 36046 „Investigation of influence of traffic induced
vibrations on buildings and humans in the aim of sustainable development of cities“.
REFERENCES
[1] Auersch, L.: Building Response due to Ground Vibration—Simple Prediction
Model Based on Experience with Detailed Models and Measurements, International
Journal of Acoustics and Vibration, 2010, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 101–112
[2] Petronijevic, M., and Nefovska-Danilovic, M.: Geodinamička analiza osetljivosti
objekata na dejstvo postojećih vibracija prema postojećim standardima i procena
njihove osetljivosti na dejstvo lakog metroa“, GEOZAVOD i Građevinski fakultet
Univerziteta u Beogradu, 2006.
[3] Kovačević, D.: Jednostavan model za predviđanje vibracija zgrada od saobraćaja
primenom spektralnih elemenata, Sintezni rad, Građevinski fakultet Univerziteta u
Beogradu, 2013.
[4] Nefovska-Danilovic M., Petronijevic, M., Savija, B.: Traffic-induced vibrations of
frame structures, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2013, Vol. 40, Issue 2, pp
158-171
1. UVOD
Za potrebe analize konstrukcija, nezavisno od toga da li je u pitanju linearna ili
nelinearna analiza, do današnjih dana razvijen je veliki broj softverskih paketa. Tačnost
rezultata proračuna zavisi od nivoa idealizacija koje su usvojene u modelu. Jasno je da
će naponsko-deformacijsko stanje u konstrukciji koju modeliramo biti bliže stvarnom
ukoliko stepen idealizacija svedemo na najmanju moguću meru.
1
Emir Maslak, dipl.inž. građ., Državni Univerzitet u Novom Pazaru, Departman tehničkih nauka, Novi Pazar,
tel: 020 317 754, e – mail: e_maslak@yahoo.com
2
Enis Sadović, dipl.inž. građ., Ph.D. student na Građevinsko-arhitektonskom fakultetu Univerziteta u Nišu,
„Formel“ doo, Rifata Burdževića 46, Novi Pazar, tel: 020 316256, e –mail: enis_sadovic@yahoo.com
Jedan od najčešćih fenomena u fizičkom ponašanju je nelinearno ponašanje konstrukcija.
Postoji mnogo situacija kada je dovoljno pretpostaviti linearno ponašanje i rezultati su
zadovoljavajući. S druge strane postoje situacije ili problemi kod kojih je neophodno, u
cilju što boljeg sagledavanja odgovora konstrukcije, pratiti njeno ponašanje i u
nelinearnoj oblasti. U opštem slučaju, kao posledica smenjenja modula elastičnosti, a
samim tim i krutosti, deformacije konstrukcije će se povećati kada u proračun uključimo
bilo geometrijsku, bilo materijalnu nelinearnosti, kao i promenu graničnih uslova. Ove
nelinearnosti su detaljno obrađene u literaturi [2].
Za nelinearnu analizu na armiranim nosačima je aplicirana koncentrisana sila od 11.0kN.
U ovom primeru biće izvršen proračun poštujući materijalnu nelinearnost. Kada u
konstrukciji napon u nekom preseku značajno poraste dolazi do promene krutosti
konstrukcije. U tom trenutku odnos napon-dilatacija vise nije linearan. Cilj je da se sada
nelinearni odgovor konstrukcije proračuna sistemom linearnih jednačina. Jedan od
načina je da se opterećenje podeli pa da se na konstrukciju nanosi postepeno i da se vrši
korekcija matrice krutosti na kraju svakog koraka. Problem kod ovakog načina
proračuna je akumulacija greške (Slika 1).
Slika 1. Razlika proračunatih i stvarnih vrednosti u nelinearnoj oblasti
Slika 2. Karakteristike modela tretiranih u analizi
Slika 3. Radni dijagram betona (multilinearan)- levo i čelika (bilinearan)- desno
Da bi pratili razvoj prslina i mrvljenja u betonskom preseku, potrebno je definisati još i
sledeće parametre i njihove brojne vrednosti:
koeficijent prenosa smicanja kod otvorene prsline je 0,4 ;
koeficijent prenosa smicanja kod zatvorene prsline je 0,8 ;
čvrstoća pri zatezanju je 2000.0 kN/m2 ;
čvrstoća na pritisak je 33300.0 kN/m2.
Neophodno je definisati i mehaničke karakteristike armature. Pretpostavljna je rebrasta
armatura R400/500. Modul elastičnosti, kao i Poisson-ov koeficijent su usvojeni kao za
čelik, E=2.10x108 kN/m2, ν=0.30, dok je za rad armature u nelinearnoj oblasti definisan
bilinearni radni dijagram (Slika 3-desno),sa granicom tečenja fy=4.0x105 kN/m2, i drugim
modulom elastičnosti veličine Eb=0.01E.
4. REZULTATI ANALIZE
Na slikama koje slede dati su rezultati proračuna tako što je sa lijeve strane slike model
bez uzengija, a sa desne strane model sa uzengijama (da bi mogle da se, u određenoj
meri, vide šipke od armature, solid elementi su prikazani kao transparentni).
Slika 4. Pomeranja Uy za nosače Armirani 1 i Armirani 2 (P=11.0kN) [m]
Slika 5. Normalni naponi σz za nosače Armirani 1 i Armirani 2 (P=11.0kN) [kN/m2]
Figure 2. Adopted reinforcement: beam-support, beam- field and column
Seismic action for nonlinear dynamic analysis is introduced over seven recorded (real)
accelerograms. Characteristics of applied accelerograms are: amax 0.23g,
vmax/amax = 0.08 s to 0.15 s and Ms = 6.6 to 7.8. The average response spectrum for all
applied accelerograms is shown in Figure 3.
Se(T)[m/s/s] Response Spectrum
10.0
Kocaeli
Landers
9.0
Northridge
Chi Chi
8.0 Coalinga
Loma Prieta
7.0 Irpinia
Horizontal elastic response spectrum - EN 1998-1
90 % - Horizontal elastic response spectrum - EN 1998-1
6.0 Average response spectrum
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
T[s]
Figure 3. Response spectrum
-600
-50 S500 C
-400
-40
-200
-30 0
200
-20
C35/45 - unconfined 400
C35/45 - confined - column
-10 C35/45 - confined - beam 600
0 800
0.0000 -0.0050 -0.0100 -0.0150 -0.0200 -0.0250 0.090 0.060 0.030 0.000 -0.030 -0.060 -0.090
ε[/]
ε[/]
Figure 3. Relation stress-strain for concrete C 35/45 and for steel S 500
The extreme story displacement and interstorey drift of the frame due to the effect of the
accelerogram are shown in Figure 4.
Storey Relative Horizontal Displacements
5
Kocaeli
Landers
Northridge
4 Chi Chi
Coalinga
Loma Prieta
Irpinia
3 Max
Average
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Displacement [cm]
Figure 4. Story dispalcement of the frame
Storey Interstorey Drift Kocaeli
5 Landers
Northridge
Chi Chi
Coalinga
4 Loma Prieta
Irpinia
Max
Average
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Drift [cm]
Figure 4. Interstorey drift of the frame
Figure 5. Formation of the plastic hinges (accelerogram Coalinga)
3. CONCLUSIONS
The basic behaviour requirements for structural design in seismic areas (EN 1998-1, [1])
demand that the structure does not collapse and limit the damage level of design seismic
actions. Capacity significantly impacts the seismic response of the structure, whether it
will be linear or non-linear behaviour during the earthquake. However, to provide the
sufficient seismic stability of the structure, the capacity of deformation or displacement
is of crucial importance. Elastic acceleration spectrum, which indicates maximum
expected seismic forces, may be reduced depending on the behaviour mode and the
damage degree that a structural engineer wants to allow. The linear method design gives
a good estimate of seismic forces, but for the estimate of seismic performance
displacements and deformations are primarily relevant. To achieve the desired behaviour
of structures during earthquakes, the balance between stiffness, strength and ductility is
the most important. This results in the demand of non-linear analysis methods in the
design. The most accurate insight into the achieved level of damages can be obtained by
applying the nonlinear time-history analysis.
Real earthquake records, practically, cannot achieve an exact match between the project
and the average elastic spectrum according to applied accelerograms. The differences
between the maximum relative storey displacements and between interstory drifts are a
The work has been done within the scientific research project TR 36043 "Development
and application of a comprehensive approach to the design of new and safety assessment
of existing structures for seismic risk reduction in Serbia", which is funded by the
Ministry of Science of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] EN1998-1:2004, Proračun seizmički otpornih konstrukcija, deo 1: Opšta pravila,
seizmička dejstva i pravila za zgrade. Beograd: Građevinski fakultet Univerziteta u
Beogradu, 2009.
[2] EN1992-1-1:2004, Proračun betonskih konstrukcija, deo 1-1: Opšta pravila i pravila
za zgrade. Beograd: Građevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, 2006.
[3] EN1991-1-1 Evrokod 1: Dejstva na konstrukcije. Deo 1-1: Zapreminske težine,
Sopstvena težina, Korisna opterećenja za zgrade. Beograd, novembar 2009.
[4] EN1990:2002, Osnove proračuna konstrukcija, Beograd: Građevinski fakultet
Univerziteta u Beogradu.
[5] A. Starčev-Ćurčin, Đ. Lađinović, A. Radujković, A. Rašeta.: GNP2014, 17-22
february 2014.
1. УВОД
1
Анзелм Ринд, дипл.инж. грађ.,студент докторских студија, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински
факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: ranzelm@yahoo.com
2
Др Драган Милашиновић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет
Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
3
Др Данијел Кукарас, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: ranzelm@yahoo.com
Слика 1. Хаварија затегнутог склопа анкер-анкерна плоча (детаљ анкер плоче)
02 RU 16...714 01 270x10...270
01 270x10...270
02 RU 16...714
84
80
7
270
110
270
110
76
80
45 180 45 10 240 80
270 330
01 270x10...270 02 RU 16...714
10
7
240
330
02 RU 16...714
80
10 240 80
330
45 180 45
270
3. ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛНА АНАЛИЗА
Слика 4. Дијаграм оптерећења
Напомена: Величина силе се односи на 4 анкера
4. НУМЕРИЧКА АНАЛИЗА
77 18 78
74 75 76
72
69 17
64 67 73
70
59
OSA 4 62
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 16 71
65
15 68
60
43 10 44 11 45 12 46 13 47 14 66
63
OSA 3 61
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 58
29 6 30 7 31 8 32 9 33
OSA 2
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
1 2 3 4 5
12 13 14 15 16 17
X
OSA 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
OSA C
OSA D
OSA A
OSA B
OSA E
Слика 5. Мрежа коначних елемената
Укупан број чворова: 81
Укупан број елемената: 18
Укупан број спречених чворова: 17
Тип анализе: Равно стање деформације
Број чворова по елементу: 8 - Serendipiti елемент
Укупан број различитих материјала: 2
Број Гаусових тачака за нумеричку
интеграцију: 2
Критериј течења: Von Mises
Укупан број инкремената оптерећења 10
Модул еластичности: E 21000 kN / cm 2
Poasonov коефицијент: 0.3
24 kN / cm 2
Једноаксијални напон течења: za Č0361
40 kN / cm 2
za RA 400/500
Табела 1. Улазни подаци
10,0 -9.0
5,0
0 OSA 3
34 36 38 40 42
-5,0
-10,0
-15,0
-20,0
plastifikacija u varu
-25,0 26.5
-30,0
Слика 6. Екстремне вредности y- y напона (оса 3)
-100.0
-105.0
-110.0
-115.0
-10.0
-15.0
-20.0
-25.0
-30.0
-35.0
-40.0
-45.0
-50.0
-55.0
-60.0
-65.0
-70.0
-75.0
-80.0
-85.0
-90.0
-95.0
x-x[kN/cm^2]
-5.0
0.0
-44.0
54
-110.3
plastifikacija u RA400/500
40
24
7
OSA D
Слика 7. Екстремне вредности x- x напона (оса D)
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
Circular composite concrete filled steel tube (CFT) columns, Fig. 1a, are widely used in
practice because of their numerous advantages over pure steel or reinforced concrete
columns: higher capacity and ductility, better resistance against fire, etc. Analysis of
composite CFT columns, in accordance with the Eurocode 4 (EC4) [1], is based on the
limit state concept. Under the most unfavorable combination of actions, section forces in
all column cross-sections should not exceed the column cross-section resistance. For
circular CFT columns with uniform cross-section over the column length, the simplified
design method of EC4 can be applied if relative slenderness satisfies the condition
2.0 and the maximal cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement is
1
Dr Svetlana M. Kostić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 590, e – mail: svetlana@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
MSc Marija Lazović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 590, e – mail: mlazovic@grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Prof dr Biljana Deretić-Stojanović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 535, e – mail: biljads@grf.bg.ac.rs
4
Doc dr Saša Stošić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 535, e – mail: sasa@grf.bg.ac.rs
Figure 1. a) CFT column cross-section; b) Stress distribution at an ultimate limit state
2. RESISTANCE OF A COLUMN CROSS-SECTION UNDER
COMPRESSION AND BENDING
In the absence of bending, the resistance of the fully plastified cross-section to axial load
Npl,Rd is equal to the sum of the axial resistances of each part of the composite section,
i.e. steel section, concrete and reinforcement:
N pl , Rd Aa f yd Ac f cd As f sd (1)
Where Aa, Ac and As are area of steel section, concrete and reinforcement, respectively,
and fyd, fsd, fcd are the corresponding design strengths of steel, concrete and
reinforcement steel. It should be noticed that, in contrast to the composite columns with
encased steel section, there is no reduction of the concrete design strength because of
confinement effects of the steel tube. Besides, when relative slenderness does not
exceed 0.5 and when the eccentricity of loading is less than 0.1d, the increased strength
of concrete can be taken [3].
In the presence of bending moment, the composite CFT column cross-section resistance
Npl,Rd decreases. In this case, the relation between the axial section resistance to
compression Npl,Rd and the resistance to bending Mpl,Rd is given by the interaction curve
(Fig. 2a). A column cross section has a sufficient resistance when subjected to the design
axial force NEd and the design bending moment MEd if the point (NEd, MEd) is inside the
area limited with the interaction curve.
Construction of the interaction curve can be done point by point, placing the plastic
neutral axis into the different positions. For each of these positions, assuming the
rectangular stress block diagram (Fig. 1b), the resulting axial force and the bending
moment can be found. In order to obtain the continuous interaction curve, the plastic
neutral axis needs to be moved in small steps, which is very time consuming process
without the use of a computer. Therefore, EC4 [1] allows to approximate the continuous
Figure 3. Interaction curves for CFT columns d=219.1 mm: a) t=5 mm; b) t=6.3 mm
Figure 4. Interaction curves for CFT columns d=273.0 mm: a) t=6.3 mm; b) t=7.1 mm
Figure 5. Interaction curves for CFT columns d=323.9 mm: a) t=6.3 mm; b) t=7.1 mm
Figure 6. Interaction curves for CFT columns d=355.6 mm: a) t=7.1 mm; b) t=8 mm
In all considered cases, reinforcement is neglected and the calculated interaction curves
are, therefore, on the safe side. Using the given interaction curves, design of circular
CFT columns is simplified and number of iterations during design due to variation of
section dimensions (diameter and thickness) and material properties (steel and concrete
classes) is reduced.
4. CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION
The arch is one of the basic and frequently used linear structural elements for the design
of large structures [1]. Based on the geometrical form of the arch, several structural
systems have developed, first, linear arch structural system, then dome structural system,
and later on, simply and doubly curved thin-wall structural systems.
The application of arches in constructions arose as early as prehistoric times. At first,
they were used as the elements for bridging the small spans, without sufficient
knowledge of their characteristics and use of their properties. Only much later, when
arches started to be studied as independent structural elements, their properties,
depending on a large number of various parameters, were fully utilized [2]. The first
arches were made of stone and bricks, as the available and most commonly used
materials of that time. Later, with the appearance of new kinds of materials, arches were
made of reinforced concrete, steel, and glued-laminated timber.
1
Vuk Milošević, PhD student of architecture, University of Nis, Faculty od Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Nis, Serbia, е – mail: vukamer@yahoo.com
2
Nikola Milošević, student of architecture, University of Nis, Faculty od Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Nis, Serbia, е – mail: nikola_1991_ks@yahoo.com
3
Mr Bojan Milošević, lecturer, University of Belgrade, College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and
Geodesy, 2, Hajduk Stankova St. Belgrade, Serbia, е – mail: prodic_80@yahoo.com
Arches represent curved girders of large radius compared to the cross-sectional
dimensions, where the knowledge of the longitudinal arch geometry is one of their most
important characteristics. It is longitudinal geometry that is responsible for the types of
stress which occur in arches. Regardless of the type of load, the axial pressure forces in
arches are dominant compared to bending moments and transverse forces [4]. Axial
pressure forces occur because of fixed suports of the arches and the curvature of the arch
axis, which most commonly has a form of a circular arch, parabola or higher order
polynomial.
We have analysed the changes of bending moments and axial force pressure depending
on the change of the longitudinal geometry of arches, for the same span and the same
intensity of evenly distributed load, Figure 1. The analysis has been conducted for one
girder, three circular arches with variable height of the arch, and one parabolic arch,
applying software package Sofistik. Geometric features of these models are not detailed
in this paper.
On the basis of the obtained diagrams of bending moments, we can notice that the beams
have the greatest bending moments, and that the shallowest arch has the smallest
bending moment of all circular arches. Based on the analysis obtained for circular
arches, we can conclude that shallow arches have smaller bending moments than deep
arches, so shallow semicircular arches can be applied in practice as more rational. In the
example of parabolic arches, we can see that the axial pressure forces are dominant, and
there is no bending moment.
Namely, the depth of the arch is not directly correlated with the intensity of the bending
moment. Bending moments primarily depend on how the geometry of the longitudinal
section differs from the geometry of the thrust line. If the geometry of the longitudinal
section follows the thrust line, the moment in the whole arch is equal to zero. If they do
not match, then the intensity of the bending moment, depends not only on the differences
in geometry, but on the nature and intensity of load, too.
Therefore, a small bending moment and high axial force pressure in shallow arches,
represent their positive features regarding the capacity utilization of materials. The
disadvantage of shallow arches, and the reason they are rarely used in practice, are large
Figure 1. Beam and arches, and corresponding diagrams of bending moments and axial
forces
3. THRUST LINE
Hook was among the first who in 1670 dealt with the importance and shape of the thrust
line and he tried to solve the problem of the shape and thrust. To illustrate the thrust line,
he uses the catenary because he believes that the thrust line is an inverted catenary. He
argues that, in the same way that flexible thread hangs, so will, but conversely, stand
rigid arch, but he cannot not define the mathematical formulation of catenary [6].
However, this approach should be taken with reserve because it has certain limitations.
La Hire (1695-1712) also dealt with the stability of arches and he considered the balance
of the wedge-shaped stone blocks by using appropriate chain polygon and thus
unconsciously defined the thrust line. Based on previous research, Couplet (1729-1730)
in the analysis of arch accurately introduces material properties and states that the
friction that occurs between the stone blocks prevents them from moving. Poleni (1748)
explicitly states that, for the stability of masonry arches, it is only necessary that the line
Figure 3. Thrust lines for different sags of the arch for self-weight load
4. CONCLUSION
Although arches have been used for centuries, their use today is still very common and
popular. The best proof of it are some of the most spectacular world’s buildings where
the major structural elements are arches. Besides bridge structures, where the use of
arches is common and where they reach the highest spans, they are used in other types of
buildings as well. Although the application of the arch structural system has not been
considered the most attractive in recent decades, arches, as structural elements, are more
often used in hybrid structural systems. Because of this, it is obvious that arches in the
future will also play an important role among applied structural systems.
This paper deals with the importance of knowledge of the thrust line shape and its
dependence on the load and sag. The thrust line is one of the most important
characteristics of the arch but very little is written about its dependence on the load and
sag. This paper presents the influence of different types of load on the thrust line as well
as the influence of the sag on the thrust line. The obtained results have been analysed
and presented for the purpose of better understanding of these dependences and more
rational designing of arches in practice.
REFERENCES
[1] Čandrlić, V., Mrakovčić, S., Skazlić, M.: Nove konstrukcije velikih montažnih
lučnih mostova. Građevinar, 2003., vol. 55, pp. 255-262..
[2] Gotovac, B., Sesartić, R., Kožulić V.: Točna numerička formulacija zakrivljenog
grednog elementa, Građevinar, 2009., vol. 61, pp. 1129-1141
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper presents the theoretical analysis of the beams loaded by pressing forces at the
simply supported and free edges of the ones. However, in the real structures it is difficult
to accomplish the complete fixity as well as the simple support, so the side of the beam
is usually partially semirigidly connected in joints, ie elastically fixed. The fixing degree
is represented by the full fixing and actual fixing moment ratio MlMo. Fixing degree
values can be determined only experimentally while arithmetically the ones can be
estimated only by assuming that they vary within certain empirically detemlined limits.
The fixing degree estimate ie MlMo ratio is extremely important during the statistical
calculation of the structures, taking into consideration the fixing degree influence on the
structure behavior while in operation. Consideration of the fixed end rigidity problem in
the surface girders is more complex than the one in the linear ones, for the surface
1
PhD Slavko Zdravković, Member ofthe Serbian Association of Royal Academicians, Scientists and
Innovators. Expert ofthe formal Federal Ministry of Science, Technology and Development in the following
fields: Civil Engineering, Aseismic.Engineering, Bridge stability, The" Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Architecture in Niš (GAF, Nis). Address: 14 Aleksandra Medvedeva Street, Niš, Serbia, e-mail:
slavko.zdravkovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
MA Živko P. Cuckić, BSc in the field of Construction, Assistant Professor at the Department of the Surface
Systems and Structural Dynamics at the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Priština, 1982-1987, Director of
Binačka Morava from Gnjilane and the Regional Road Fund, completed his specialization studies for the
Prefabrication in Prague, approved by the Academic Lubor Janda, an author of several Strategic Projects
especially the ISG in New York City upon the Formation of free economic zones in Old Serbia, via
cooperation between the EU and Russia. The owner of the Company "Dadge International LLC", e-mail:
dadge_serbia@yahoo.com
3
Arch. Vesna Cuckić, Longtime associate of the Faculty of Architecture and civil engineering in Priština
As for the plates under load, uniformly positioned along the edges, x=0 and x=b (Fig. 1)
the critical voltage is calculated according to the following formula:
(1)
The coefficient k depends on the boundary conditions and the side panels length ratio
(a,b) = rectangular plate sides
h = plate thickness
E,G = elasticity material modulus during stretching, compression and rigidity
υ = Poisson's ratio
D = E h3/12(1-υ2) - cylindrical rigidity:
Coefficient k value in the case of the fixed end edge y=0 and the ones of the same edges
hinge joint supported (Fig.3) are given in the Table 3.
3. THE CASE OF THE ELASTIC FIXED END
Coefficient k value in the case ofthe elastically fixed end edge is x=0, while the other
edges are hinge joint supported (Fig 4.) are all given in the Table 4.
As for the semi-rigid fixed end edges y=0, y=a whereas the other two sides are hinge
joint supported, the coefficient k values are given in the Tables 5 and 6 (Fig. 5)
4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
1. For the rectangular hinge joint supported plate whose side lengths are a=b=6.0m, ie
a) a/b=1 and the case of b) a/b=1.5, plate thickness h=0.01m, E = 2.1×108 KN/m2
and the calculated critical voltage is υ=0.30 I
Solution: Formula (1) and Table 1 is applied
a) σkv = k·π2·D/12(1-υ2) · (h/b)2=4/9,8696·2,1·108/12(1-0,32)(0,01/6)2=4·3,1089·
108/10,92·4·189800000·0,00000278 =4·527,074=2108,30 kN/m2
b) σkv = k·π2·D/12(1-υ2) · (h/b)2=k·9,8696·2,1·108/12(1-0,32)(0,01/4)2= 4,34·189800000
·0,00000277 =4,34·5257,746=2281,737kN/m2 =228.1t/m2=22.81kg/cm2
2. Calculated critical voltage (Formula 1) in the case that the edges are uniformly rigidly
joined y=0 and y=b, while the remaining two edges are hinge joint supported.
Solution: Formula (1) and Table 5 is applied
a) σkv 0,25= k·π2·D/12(1-υ2) · (h/b)2=4,79/9.8696·2,1·108/12(1-0,32)(h/4)2 = 4,79·
189800000(0.015/4)2=4.79·18980·1.406=4.79·2669.06=12784,81kN/m2=127,85kN/cm2
σkv 1,0=6,14·2669,06=16388,028kN/m2=163,88kN/cm2
σkv 10=7,64·2669,06=20391.162kN/m2=203,91kN/cm2
Solution: Formula (1) and Table 6 is applied
3.1 a) σkv 0,25= k·π2·E/12(1-υ2)·(h/b)2=9,40·189800000· (0,015/5,71)2
σkv 1,0 = 11,99·1309,804=15709,570KN/m2=157,02kg/cm2
σkv 10 = 14,62·1309,804=19149,34KN/m2=191,49kg/cm2
b) σkv 0,25=12,83·189800000·0,00000225=12,83·127,05=5479,05kN/m2
=54,79kg/cm2
σkv 1,0 = 13,86·127,05=5918,91kN/m2=59,19kg/cm2
σkv 10 = 14,62·427,05=6243,47kN/m2=62,43kg/cm2
3.2 a) σkv = k·π2·E/12(1-υ2)·(h/b)2=k·9,8696·2,1·108/10,52·(0,015/5,71)2=
= k·1309,804
σkv 0,25=29·1309,804= 37984,316kN/m2=379,84kg/cm2
σkv 1,0 = 35,95·1309,804=47035,01kN/m2=470,35kg/cm2
σkv 10 = 44,14·1309,804=57814,748kN/m2=578,15kg/cm2
b) σkv = k·π2·E/12(1-υ2)·(h/b)2=k·9,8696·2,1·108/10,92·(0,015/10)2=
= k·427,05
σkv 0,25=34,05·427,05=14541,052kN/m2=145,41kg/cm2
σkv 1,0 = 37,79·427,05=16138,22kN/m2=161,38kg/cm2
σkv 10 = 40,32·427,05=17218,65kN/m2=172,18kg/cm2
5. CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION
Experience and observations suggest that the instability of slopes in most cases shows as
sliding mass of soil, the sliding body, in a straight or curved sliding surface. Because of
the stresses in the top and negligible soil strength, especially in the case of fine-grained
soil, an opening crack occures, which due to the direction of motion, may be revealed as
a scarp on the surface. The apperance of such crack is a clear sign of instability of the
slope at an early stage of its occurence. Crack suggests that it may continue into the new
sliding surface. The area of the sliding body and the environment around it, is called a
1
Božana Baćić, dipl.inž.građ., Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Dresden, Mommsenstraße
9, 01069 Dresden, Germany, e-mail: bozana.bacic@gmail.com
2
dr Mato Uljarević, dipl.inž.građ., Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Banja Luka,
Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Designing of buildings onto the stable slopes, similar to the design of any other building
is implemented iteratively and progressively. The basic features of the structure are
assumed, including the slope. And then critical estimating situations through which the
construction of the building needs to pass, are being evaluated .
During calculation of geotechnical structures, according to Eurocode 7, "proof by
method of partial coefficients " is being used. The method includes:
- design models ,
- effects, that can be given as loads or specific displacements ,
- properties of soil, rocks or other materials,
- geometrical data,
- deformation limit values ,
- crack width ,
- deformation ...
According to the regulations , the calculation model should describe the behavior of the
soil for a given limit state and include a method of analysis which is usually based on the
analytical model, and if needed, modification of the analysis results to ensure that the
model results are accurate and on the side of safety .
The geotechnical analysis takes into account the effect of :
- weight of soil, rocks and water,
- current stresses in the soil,
- pressures of groundwater,
- constant load, and loads coming from structures in the region,
- displacements caused by earthquakes, dynamic loading,
- the effects of hydrostatic forces ...
The calculation is carried out with the partial safety factors. In the case of an abnormally
high risk stricter values must be taken into account. For emergencies all numerical
values of partial factors should be equal to 1.00.
3. METHODOLY OF SOLVING THE SLOPE STABILITY
Solving the slope stability, for a long time represented a hardly solvable problem
because of the undevelopment of science and technology. However, today there are
various calculation methods that are supported by programming software (GEO5,
SLOPE/W). The methods can be divided into those which assume circular surface
rupture (Bishop, Fellenius) and those which assume irregular surface rupture (Yanbu,
Bjerrum).
Figure 1. The instability of the soil mass that acts as an equivalent continuum
For computer programming and solving the general problem of slope stability, as well as
for defining the fracture mechanisms, the most appropriate method of calculation is
hypothetical division of the sliding body into slices. Allocated slice from sliding body
with forces acting on it, is shown in Figure 2.
Forces acting on an allocated slice are:
N'- normal effective forces in basis of each slice
T - shearing forces in basis of each slice
r - the positions of normal components of interslice forces
The safety factor greater than 1.00 indicates that the block is stable.
4. THE CHOICE OF SLOPE STABILITY CALCULATION METHOD
In practice, slopes usually occur in inhomogeneous and anisotropic material which
results in the appearance of the sliding surfaces of arbitrary shape. All methods for
determining the safety factor of slopes can be divided into exact and approximate. Exact
methods are those that satisfy all conditions of equilibrium by introducing various
assumptions without neglecting individual components of external and internal forces.
Approximate methods are those that either ignore certain forces or ignore some
equilibrium conditions .
The first one in a series of analytical methods that takes into account interslice forces,
was presented by Bishop in 1954. on the Conference of Stability of Earth Materials in
Oslo. This method is named after him, Bishop’s method. Bishop’s method assumes
circular surface rupture. It represents the slice method, and so it is possible to analyze the
stability of inhomogeneous slopes containing materials of different shearing strengths.
Bishop 's method is graphically presented in Figure 3.
The safety factor, according to Bishop’s method can be calculated as:
(1)
5. SOIL PARAMETERS
Cohesion (c) is the result of bonds between the particles. It has great importance is the
cohesive soil, especially clay, while is negligible in cohesionless soil (sand, gravel ...).
The angle of internal friction (φ) is the result of friction between the soil particles. It is
higher in the sand than in clay. Shear stress state in any soil will cause the fracture of
soil. Shear strength of the soil is the shearing stress that can be applied on the structure
of soil in a particular direction. It directly depends on the cohesion and angle of internal
friction of the soil. It is defined by the empirical expression which represents the Mohr -
Coulomb 's law of breaking:
(2)
As already stated, the problem of slope stability is defined by determining the
relationship between the available shear strength and mobilized shear strength, which is
needed in order to maintain the sliding body in balance. Safety factor is a number that is
necessary to reduce the effective shear strength in order to achieve the state of limit
equilibrium of the fracture surfaces.
(3)
The engineering methods of limit equilibrium imply that the safety factor, Fs, is a
constant value along the sliding surface. Similar to the safety factor, the values of
cohesion and angle of internal friction are defined. The stability analysis’s task is to find
the sliding surface, which gives the minimum value of the safety factor.
6. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a methodology of slope stability analysis and provides an insight
into the basics of landslides and their general terms. Natural processes are constantly
affected by change in the relationship of shearing stress and resistance, and the natural
conditions often lead to the destabilization of slopes. Intensive construction of
increasingly demanding buildings, as well as other actions, become an important factor
in causing adverse conditions which may also result in the destabilization process of the
field. In both cases, the consequences can be very harmful. In order to prevent their
occurrence, the rules to avoid activities that could lead to a reduction of the degree of
Полазећи од претпоставке да је пресек апсолутно крут у својој равни померања
произвољне тачке можемо описати помоћу три параметра, померања тежишне
тачке пресека u и v у правцима оса x и y и обртања пресека око тежишне
тачке:
u* u y (1)
v* v x
Слика 1
Веза између компонената померања * и * произвољне тачке пресека, у
правцима нормале и тангенте на средњу линију, и компонената u* и v* је следећа:
* v* sin u* cos
* v* cos u* sin (2)
Где је угао између x и n осе.
Померање тачака у правцу осе штапа може се разложити у два дела.
Други део аксијалног померања, који потиче од депланације пресека, је изражен
преко функције депланације коју је у својој докторској дисертацији предложио
Прокић. Она представља основу даљег излагања и пружа могућност јединственог
приказа теорије танкозидних носача отвореног и затвореног попречног пресека.
wds i x, y wi z i 1, 2,..., n
i
(6)
депланација дуж средње линије пресека. За непознате параметре померања wi
можемо бирати померања произвољних тачака на средњој линији пресека. Како су
то најчешће чворне тачке, тако је и укупан број непознатих wi једнак броју
чворова.
i
Функција зависна је од начина промене померања између чворова пресека.
Претпостављена је линеарна расподела па функција i добија једноставно
геометријско значење (Слика 2).
Слика 2
Функција i различита је од нуле само на деловима контуре који се сустичу у
чвору i , линеарно се мењајући од вредности један у чвору i , до вредности нула у
суседним чворовима.
wde x, y z (7)
Интензитет депланације је одређен параметром а за функцију се усваја
функција Saint-Venant-ове слободне торзије:
hn e (8)
Узимајући у обзир изразе (6), (8) и (9) укупно аксијално померање се добија на
основу израза:
w* w y x x y i wi
i
(9)
3. ДЕФОРМАЦИЈСКЕ И НАПОНСКЕ ВЕЛИЧИНЕ
Деформацијске величине које су различите од нуле су дилатација z и клизање
zs и zn .
Имајући у виду изразе (3) и (11) за дилатацију и клизање добијамо:
w*
z w y x x y i wi
z i
w
zs * * v x cos u y sin , s i wi h 2e
z s i
(10)
w
zn * * v x sin u y cos
z e
Како се ради о анизотропном материјалу везе између напона и деформација су
дате матричном једначином
Q Q16
z 11 z
Q
zs 16 Q66 zs (11)
zn Q55 zn
Rs Ru 0 (14)
Рад спољашних сила, редукован на јединицу дужине осе штапа, износи:
Rs , z u u, z dF p u ds
F s
(15)
Рад унутрашњих сила једнак је негативном раду компоненталних напона при
задатим виртуалним деформацијама. Редукован на јединицу дужине штапа он
износи:
z zs , s dF pz ds 0
i i i
F s
[1] Прокић, А.: Докторска дисертација-Танкозидни носачи отворено-затвореног
попречног пресека, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет Београд
1990
[2] Прокић, А.: New warping function for thin-walled beams. I: Theory. J Struct Eng
(ASCE) ,1996;122(12):1437–42.
[3] Прокић, А.: New warping function for thin-walled beams. II: Finite element
method and applications. J Struct Eng (ASCE) 1996;122(12):1443–52.
[4] Прокић, А.: New finite element for analysis of shear lag. Computers and Structures
80 ,2002, 1011-1024
1. INTRODUCTION
Primary objective of designing structures in seismically active areas is to ensure the
appropriate safety and performance level of the structure during and after earthquakes.
[1] When it comes to city bridges, as well as bridges on vital roads, aseismic design
should provide adequate functionality after earthquakes. The level of functionality
primarily depends on the strength of the earthquake, philosophy and design quality at all
stages of development and performance criteria. It is common, based on their
importance, for bridges to be classified in specific categories, which would determine the
risk factors depending on the return period of the designed earthquakes.
Basic method for determining the seismic action in structural design is through the
application of response spectra. The alternative methods for assessing the seismic
performance of structures include the implementation of artificial and/or real
1
MSc, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg D. Obradovića 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, e – mail: idzolev@uns.ac.rs
2
PhD, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg D. Obradovića 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, e – mail: ladjin@uns.ac.rs
3
MSc, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg D. Obradovića 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, e – mail: araseta@gmail.com
4
MSc, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg D. Obradovića 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, e – mail: leksa@uns.ac.rs
Figure 1. Structural model of RC girder bridge and
cross-sections of the deck and columns
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
T[s]
Figure 2. Response spectrum
Material nonlinearity in the plastic hinge region is introduced through the fiber model of
the cross-section, consisting of the confined part of the section (core of the column,
EN 1998-2), unconfined part (protective concrete cover to the reinforcement, EN 1992-
1-1) and the adopted longitudinal reinforcement (see Fig. 1). Stress-strain relations for
confined and unconfined concrete parts of the cross-section are presented in Fig. 3.
Concrete C 30/37 Steel S 500 (class C)
60 800
50 600
400
40
σ [MPa]
200
σ [MPa]
30
0
20 -100 -50 0 50 100
-200
10 confined concrete
-400
unconfined concrete steel
0 -600
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-800
ε [‰] ε [‰]
Figure 3. Stress-strain relations for concrete C30/37 and steel S500
4. RESULTS
Achieved local ductility μd in the critical cross-sections of the bridge columns can be
estimated according to the rotation of the plastic hinge at the yield point θy and
maximum achieved rotation θd for a given earthquake. Based on the results of nonlinear
dynamic analysis, it can be concluded that inelastic deformations occurred only in the
critical sections of the shorter column. Table 1 presents results of the achieved local
ductility in the critical cross-sections of the shorter column of the bridge for the
estimated rotation at the yield point θy = 0.002123 rad.
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
θ [rad]
Figure 4. Moment-rotation relation
(fiber model – shorter column – longitudinal direction)
5. CONCLUSIONS
According to EN 1998-2, the structure can be designed in a manner that limited level of
damage caused by bending in pre-determined regions is allowed. Such design method is
also known as the capacity design method. Basic concept of this method is to allow
damage (i.e. plastic deformations) of the cross-sections due to bending in pre-defined
critical regions, in order to dissipate the induced seismic energy. Damaging in RC girder
bridges, i.e. plastification of the cross-sections is usually permitted in the bridge
columns, while the bridge deck has to remain undamaged after the seismic action, in
order to maintain the basic functions of the bridge (pedestrian trafic and trasportation of
the vehicles belonging to special services). The foundation structure and the abutments
should remain undamaged because of the long and difficult repair.
Based on the results of nonlinear dynamic analysis, it can be concluded that the damage
has occured only in the critical regions of the shorter column of the bridge. Maximum
value of the achieved local ductility in longitudinal direction is 2.92, which is less than
the adopted behaviour factor q = 3.5. Maximum value of the achieved local ductility in
lateral direction is less than 1.0, regardless of the adopted behaviour factor q = 3.5.
The work has been done within the scientific research project TR 36043 "Development
and application of a comprehensive approach to the design of new and safety assessment
of existing structures for seismic risk reduction in Serbia", which is funded by the
Ministry of Science of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1998-1-1: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance : General Rules,
Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings, Brussels, 2004
[2] EN 1998-2: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance: Bridges, Brussels,
2005
[3] SAP2000: Linear and Nonlinear Static and Dynamic Analysis and Design of Three-
Dimensional Structures, CSI – Computers and Structures, Inc. Berkley, California,
2009
[4] Lađinović Đ., Rašeta A., Folić R., Prokić A.: Comparative Analysis of Seismic
Response of Irregular Multi-Span Continuous Bridges, 15th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, 24-28 September, 2012, pp 1-8
Нека је геометрија осе штапа дата произвољном NURBS линијом, односно
N
r RI ( )rI (1)
i 1
при чему величине Ri ( ) представљају базне функције NURBS-а а ri координате
контролних тачака у односу на усвојени Декартов координатни систем [1,2].
Еуклидски тродимензионални простор E3 чија је једна координатна линија
посматрана крива употпуњен је постављањем нормале и бинормале у свакој тачки
криве, слика 1.
1
Глигор Раденковић, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља Александра 73,
Република Србија
Слика 1. Оса штапа
2. МЕТРИКА ШТАПА
Са слике 1 је јасно да су координатне линије у правцу нормале и бинормале
праволиниског карактера. Усвајање праволинијских координата и није
учињено ради једноставности већ из захтева техничке теорије штапа која
претпоставља равне пресеке и после деформације. Квадрат дужине
диференцијалног елемента линије одређен је као
ds 2 dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 (dx m ) 2 (2)
где је
dx m N N
dx m d x,1m d ( RI ,1 ( ) xIm )d x,1m RI ,1 ( ) xIm (3)
d I 1 I 1
одакле следи да је
dx m N N
dx m d x,1m d ( RI ,1 ( ) xIm )d x,1m RI ,1 ( ) xIm (4)
d I 1 I 1
1 1 m 1 g,1 m
g2 n K ( x,11 x,1 ) im x,2m im (5)
K gK 2 g
1 1
g3 b ( g1 g 2 ) x,1m x,11
k
emkl i l x,3m im
g g gK
при чему су уведене ознаке једнаке
m 1 m 1 m m 1 klm
x, 2 ( x,11 11 x,1 ) x,3 xk ,1 xl ,11e
K gK
(6)
1 m 1 m m
K g K x,11 ( xm ,11 11 x,1 ) x,11 xm ,2
K
при чему су u m u m његове компоненте мерене у односу на Декартове координате.
Сагласно изразима (1) и (16) деформисана геометрија осе штапа дефинисана је
следећим изразом
n
n
r * Ri ( ) (ri ui ) Ri ( ) ri * (17)
i 1 i 1
одакле следи да је
G1* ( x,1m u,1m )im x,1*m im G2* ( x,2m u,2m )im x,2*m im G3* ( x,3m u,3m )im x,3*m im (18)
1 *n 1 *n *k
x,2*n
*
*1 * n
( x,11 11 x,1 ) xm* ,3 x,1 x,2 enkm (19)
K G*
Приписујући , , координатама конвективни карактер нормалну компоненту
тензора деформације одредићемо као полуразлику компоненте метричког тензора
G11 после и пре деформације, односно
1 1 1
11 (G11* G11 ) ( x,1m xm,1 2 x,1m um,1 u,1m um ,1 x,1m xm,1 ) x,1m um ,1 u,1m um ,1
(20)
2 2 2
У складу са конвективним карактером , , координате вектор положаја тачке на
произвољном одстојању од осе штапа у деформисаном положају написаћемо као
r * r * G2* G3* G1* (1 *3 *2 )G1* 1*G2* 1*G3* (21)
при чему су K * , * и G* флексија, торзија и детерминанта метричког тензора
деформисане осе штапа, респективно. У једначинама (19) и (21) фигуришу
*1
тренутне вредности функција флексије K * и Кристофеловог симбола 11 па се
захтева и њихова линеаризација. Линеаризацију свих тренутних функција
извршићемо Тајлоровим развојем у околини оригиналног положаја задржавајући
при томе само линеарне чланове. Обзиром да је оригинални (почетни) положај
линије познат, величине K , 111, x,2n , G у тренутним функцијама имају карактер
константи док су променљиве померања и градијенти померања као и њихови
изводи. Сагласно томе Тајлоров развој ма које тренутне функције има облик
F * F *
F * ( F * )u m 0 ( m )u m 0 u,mi F ( m )u m 0 u,mi (22)
u,i u,i
Коришћењем претходног израза за линеаризоване вредности функција [1]
G* , G* , 11
*1
, K * , xm* ,2 , xm* ,3 добијамо
xm* ,2 xm,2 Amn un ,11 Bmn un ,1 xm* ,3 xm,3 Cmn u n ,11 Dmn u n ,1
x,1m 1 m
am bm
( x,11 2111 x,1m ) (24)
G G
1 1
Amn ( mn a n xm ,1 x,2n xm ,2 ) Bmn (b n xm,1 mn 11 1 1 n
11 x,2 xm,2 )
K K (25)
1 1 1
Cmn erkm x,1r Ank Dmn erkm x,1r Bnk xm ,3 xn ,1 (26)
G G G
Из израза (18) и (23) следи да су прираштаји компоненталних померања у правцу
главних оса инерције једнаки
1 1
um,2 Amn un ,11 Bmn un ,1 um ,3 ( enkm x,1n ) u,2k ( xr ,3 xm,1 ) u,1r (27)
G G
5. ПРЕСЕЧНЕ СИЛЕ
Полазећи од напонско-деформацијске релације
ij 2 (G ik G jl kl G ij 11 ) (35)
аксијалну силу штапа одредићемо изразом
R1 11 G d d E (G11 )2 A111 E (G11 ) 2 I 2 2 E (G11 ) 2 I 3 3 (36)
A
Компоненте главног момента свих вектора напона унутар попречног пресека у
односу на његово тежиште као редукционе тачке, односно
M 1 G d d 1 G d d M i G i ( G2 G3 ) (37)
A A
4 имају вредности [1]
M 1 G11 I111 M 2 E (G11 )3/ 2 ( I 211 I 22 2 I 23 3 )
(38)
M 3 E (G11 )3/ 2 ( I 311 I 32 2 I 33 3 )
5 при чему су геометријске карактеристике попречног пресека једнаке [1]
1 K3 K 2 (1 K 3 K 2 )
A1 G d d I 2 G d d
A G 0 A
G0
(1 K 3 K 2 ) 2
I3 G d d I 22 G d d (39)
A G0 A G0
2 1
I 23 Gd d I 32 I 33 G d d I11 ( 2 2 ) Gd d
A
G0 A
G0 A
G0
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
Слика 1. Математички модел полу-круте везе
Стање деформација правог штапа са деформабилним везама на крајевима штапа,
пре и после деформације (слика 2.), може се описати једначинама:
(2)
На основу принципа суперпозиције једначине (2) могу се написати у облику:
(3)
где су:
и углови обртања тангенти на крајевима i и k једне просте греде услед
задатог оптерећења p, и исти углови услед температурних разлика
, а
и односно и углови обртања услед јединичних момената
савијања и .
Слика 2. Прав штап са деформабилним везама на крајевима i и k,
пре и после деформације
Све ове вредности су одређене према Теорији другог реда за исту вредност
нормалне силе притиска „ “ односно величине „ “ познатом методом почетних
параметара [5], [6].
Ако уведемо обележавање:
(4)
тада су:
(5)
2.2. МАТРИЦА КРУТОСТИ ШТАПА СА ДЕФОРМАБИЛНИМ ВЕЗАМА
До матрице крутости штапа са деформабилним везама на крајевима штапа по
Теорији другог реда може се доћи полазећи од базне матрице крутости. Веза
(16)
Коначно, матрица крутости штапа са деформабилним везама на крајевима штапа
добијена из израза (6) након елементарних трансформација:
(17)
Као што је приказано у [2], утицај деформабилних веза уводи се преко параметара
. Са оваквим значењем коефицијената, матрица крутости штапа са
деформабилним везама има општи карактер, то јест, може се применити како за
прорачун по Теорији првог, тако и за прорачун по Теорији другог реда.
Такође се може запазити да матрица крутости штапа са идеално крутим везама
представља посебан случај матрице крутости штапа са деформабилним везама.
Наиме, може се показати да, када крутост везе тежи бесконачности сви параметри
теже јединици, односно:
(18)
па матрица крутости (17) прелази у матрицу крутости штапа са идеално крутим
везама по Теорији другог реда. Код система са великим бројем штапова, односно
чворово, прорачун по Теорији другог реда уз коришћење матрице крутости (17),
може да буде веома компликован и спор, чак и уз примену персоналних рачунара.
За анализу сложенијих система примењује се варијациони поступак, код којег се
полази од приближног решења диференцијалне једначине у облику полиномне
функције. На овај начин, вариjационим поступком, полазећи од израза за
деформациону енергију штапа, може се добити матрица крутости која представља
збир матрице крутости по Теорији првог реда и геометријске матрице крутости, па
основна једначина штапа по Теорији другог реда има облик:
(20)
[1] Живковић, С., Милошевић, М., Вацев, Т.: Functional dependence between the
degree of restraint and rotational stiffness of semi-rigid connections. The 15th
International Symposium of MASE, Struga, Ohrid Lake, Macedonia, 2013., CT-7
[2] Живковић, С.: Анализа понашања реалних веза у оквирним челичним
конструкцијама. Наука+Пракса, Ниш, 2009., бр. 12 (2).
[3] Chen, W.F., Kishi, N.: Semi rigid steel beam-to-column connections, data base and
modeling. J. Struct. Div., 1989., бр. 115(1), стр. 105-119.
[4] Живковић, С., Мијалковић, М.: Класификација М-Φ карактерисика
полукрутих веза у оквирним челичним конструкцијама. Зборник радова
Грађевинско-архитектонског факултета, Ниш, 2008., бр. 23, стр. 65-75.
[5] Ђурић, М.: Стабилност и динамика конструкција. Грађевински факултет,
Београд, 1977.
[6] Чаушевић, М., Здравковић. С.: Статика и стабилност конструкција по теорији
другог реда. Свјетлост, Сарајево, 1992.
[7] Chan, S. L., Chui, P. P. T.: Non/linear static and cyclic analysis of steel frames with
semi-rigid connections. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford, UK, 2000.
1. УВОД
У складу са изведеном теоријом из првог дела рада формиран је рачунарски код за
прорачун носача у spline параметарским координатама. Анализирана су два
различита носача. Добијени резултати су поређени са комерцијалним софтвером
ABAQUS 6.10. Бернули-Ојлерови гредни елементи моделирани су у ABAQUS-у
користећи елементе B23 са два чвора и кубном интерполацијом.
2. ПРИМЕР 1
Посматра се кружни штап полупречника r=2 m статичког система и геометријских
карактеристика приказаних као на слици 1. Такође, на слици 1 приказана је
почетна геометрија и полигон контролних тачака за 5 кубних елемената
континуитета C2 односно, са укупно 8 контролних тачака. Оргинална геометрија
кружнице егзактно је представљена квадртаним рационалним spline-ом (NURBS)
1
Глигор Раденковић, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља Александра 73,
Република Србија
2
Саша Ковачевић, Булевар Војводе Степе Степановића 124, Бања Лука, Република Српска, e – mail:
sasakovacevic988@gmail.com
Слика 1. Почетна геометрија носача и полигон контролних тачака
Слика 2. Конвергенција померања за мултиплицитет j=1
Слика 3. Конвергенција померања за мултиплицитет j=2
Слика 4. Конвергенција померања по елементима
Недеформисана и деформисана геометрија са различитим континуитетима између
елемената, за случај 5 кубних елемената, приказане су на слици 5.
Слика 6. Геометрија носача и полигон контролних сила
Слика 7. Конвергенција померања по елементима
Слика 8. Конвергенција померања за мултиплицитет j=1
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1
Ognjen Mijatović, dipl. inž. građ., student master studija, tel: +387 65 765 484, e – mail:
mijatovicognjen@yahoo.com
2
Manuel Desančić, dipl. inž. građ., student master studija, tel: +387 65 497 002, e – mail:
manueldesancic@yahoo.com
3
Prof. dr Dragan D. Milašinović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Subotica, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: ddmil@gf.uns.ac.rs
Slika 1. Elektromagnetni oscilator
Slika 2. Prosta greda sa konturnim uslovima
Ton: 116 Frekvencija: 2516 Hz Ton: 116 Frekvencija: 2543 Hz
Relativna greška: 1%
Slika 3. Ploča uklještena u centru
Ploča na slici 3 za koju su ispitani svojstveni oblici oscilovanja je uklještena u svom
težištu pomoću dvije matice koje je pritežu tako da su joj onemogućena pomjeranja i
rotacije u bilo kom pravcu. Pobuda koja dolazi sa elektromagneta prenosi se preko
osovine na ploču u njenom težištu te ploča počinje da osciluje frekvencijom koja je
zadana u softveru preko računara.
3. MODALNI OBLICI TRODIMENZIONALNIH KONSTRUKCIJA
Ispitivanja prostornih (većih) konstrukcija vršena su na dvoosnom mehaničkom
pobuđivaču vibracija koji ima mogućnost proizvoljnog podešavanja amplitude i
frekvencije oscilovanja.
a) Način rada dvoosnog mehaničkog pobuđivača
Prilikom dejstva harmonijske sile na konstrukciju, uspostavlja se "naprijed-nazad"
kretanje oko ravnotežnog položaja. Takvo kretanje se naziva periodično kretanje,
harmonijsko kretanje, oscilovanje ili vibriranje. Prilikom tog kretanja u sistemu dolazi
Slika 4. Šematski prikaz dvoosnog mehaničkog pobuđivača vibracija
b) Opšte karakteristike pobuđivača
Ovdje se daju samo osnovne karakteristike izvedenog uređaja:
- Težina: 980 kg
- Dimenzije u osnovi: 310 cm x 250 cm
- Vrsta pogonskih motora: monofazni kolektorski elektromotor
- Broj pogonskih motora: 2
- Elektromotor horizontalnog mehanizma:
Snaga: 2.2 kW
Broj obrtaja: 6200 obr/min
- Elektromotor vertikalnog mehanizma:
Snaga: 2.0 kW
Broj obrtaja: 6000 obr/min
- Način veze platforme sa podlogom: pomoću četiri opruge
- Maksimalna nosivost platforme: 450 kg
Slika 5. Dinamička ispitivanja na napravljenim uređajima, (IMK RS)
Prikaz ispitivanja koja su napravljena u Intitutu za materijale i konstrukcije Republike
Srpske (IMK RS) dat je na slikama 5 i 6.
Slika 6. Modalni oblici i mjerenja odziva konstrukcije
10m
1m
100u
10u
0 4 8 12
[Hz]
a b c
Slika 7. (a) Odziv usljed pobude modalnim čekićem, (b) Odziv za pobudu od 3Hz, (c)
Odziv konstrukcije u nivou prve tavanice za pobudu od 3Hz
Rezultati mjereni predhodno opisanim mjernim sistemom se približno poklapaju sa
rezultatima dobijenim u programu SAP2000. Odgovori konstrukcije daju najveće
vrijednosti u područjima dominantnih modalnih oblika (Slike 7 a, c), te se vidi da je
odgovor pobuđivača približno harmonijski (Slika 7 b).
LITERATURA
[1] Vukotić, R.: Ispitivanje konstrukcija, Beograd, Naučna knjiga, 1998.
[2] Ančić, D., Fajfar, P., Petrović, B., Szavits, N. A., Tomažević, M.: Zemljotresno
Inženjerstvo, Beograd, Građevinska knjiga, 1990.
[3] Brčić, V.: Dinamika konstrukcija, Beograd, Građevinska knjiga, 1981.
1D analysis used in this paper is based on the transfer function of the vertically
propagating SH-wave in the frequency domain. This function represents response
parameter (displacement, acceleration etc.) with respect to an input motion parameter
(such as bedrock acceleration). It is usually defined with the following expression:
A1
H , (1)
An
where A1 and An are amplitudes of the motion parameters on the ground surface and on
the bedrock, respectively. Transfer function is a complex function that can be visualized
by its modulus which is called amplification function. This has local maximums at so
called natural frequencies of the soil deposit. Soil behavior is assumed to be viscoelastic,
according to Kelvin-Voight model, and bedrock is elastic.
Initial step in the analysis is to express bedrock motion time history as a Fourier series,
so the stochastic input motion is converted into the sum of harmonic functions. By
multiplying each term in series with the transfer function, Fourier series of the ground
surface motion is calculated. Output motion in time domain is expressed by inverse FT.
This analysis, therefore, uses the principle of the superposition – it is limited to the
analysis of linear systems, where shear modulus G and damping ξ are assumed to be
constant. In real soil they are strain-dependent. Nonlinear soil behavior is approximated
by iterative procedure. In first iteration initial estimates of G and ξ are made and ground
response is calculated. Then the effective shear strain γeff in each layer is calculated, and
it is assumed as 65% of maximum shear strain to avoid influence of local maximums in
input motion [1]. Based on γeff, new values of G and ξ are chosen for next iteration, and
procedure is repeated until differences between dynamic properties in two successive
iterations fall below defined tolerance (assumed 5%) in all layers. Described method is
still linear analysis – G and ξ are constant during single iteration, but they are compatible
with the achieved strain level. The main step in the analysis is calculation of the transfer
function for the layered half-space, consisting of N layers, where Nth layer is bedrock.
Equation of motion for vertically propagating SH-wave state as follows:
*
i t k z *
i t k z
u z , t Ae Be (2)
where A and B are amplitudes of the transmitted and reflected waves, travelling in the –z
(upward) and the +z (downward) directions, respectively, and k*= /vs* is the complex
wave number [1]. From compatibility conditions and equilibrium equations on the layer
boundaries, the following recursion relation between amplitudes in two nearby layers
can be obtained:
Am * Bm *
Am 1 1 e
m
* ik m hm
1 e
m
* ik m h m
, m=1,,,N (3)
2 2
Bm 1 1 e
m
* ik m h m
1 e
m
* ik m h m
, m=1,,,N (4)
2 2
Figure 1. Bedrock displacements time history
Figure 2. Fourier Amplitude Spectrum of bedrock displacements
a)
b)
b)
Figure 4. Ground surface motions for a) Loma Prieta and b) Chi-Chi earthquakes
5. CONCLUSIONS
From the results of ground response analysis presented above, the following conclusions
were made:
Maximum ground response is acquired for LP earthquake in P6. Reason for this can
be that fundamental frequency of the LP earthquake (0.88 Hz) is the same as the
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the support of the Ministry of education, science and technology,
Republic of Serbia, via Project TR 36046.
REFERENCES
[1] Kramer, S.L.: Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, USA, 1996
[2] Inženjerskogeološka dokumentacija u zoni trase lakog metroa po varijanti „Akademija“ –
Knjiga 1 – Osnovna dokumentacija, Geoinstitut, Beograd, 2006
[3] Seizmička mikrorejonizacija lokacije mosta preko Ade – Stub broj 6, Republički seizmološki
zavod, Beograd, 2008
[4] Sun, J.I., Golesorkhi, R., Seed, H.B.: Dynamic moduli and damping ratios for cohesive soils.
Report No. EERC-88/15, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California,
Berkeley, 1988
[5] Seed, H.B., Wong, R.T., Idriss, I.M., Tokimatsu, K.: Moduli and damping factors for
dynamic analyses of cohesionless soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1986, Vol.
112, No. 11, 1016-1032
[6] Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M.: Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response analyses.
Report No. EERC 70-10, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California,
Berkeley, 1970
[7] Schnabel, P.B., Lysmer, J., Seed, H.B.: SHAKE: A computer program for earthquake
response analysis of horizontally layered sites. Report No. EERC 72-12, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, 1972
[8] peer.berkeley.edu
Figure 1. Characteristic function of clamped-free beam (LJ=3) when computed at IEEE
754 binary64 precision. To improve readability only the first 15 modes are shown
As can be seen from Figure 1 when approaching the m roots the characteristic function
changes its sign suddenly, mimicking the behavior of the signum function while in the
m ± ε area. The local extrema of the characteristic function tend to approach ±em,
making the resulting root-finding errors even larger - the function ”falls from huge
height” when approaching its root, as observed by the interaction with the x=13 vertical.
With each increasing mode the root-finding error grows exponentially and once the
higher modes (up to 100) are reached (not shown on Fig. 1 to improve its readability) it
becomes a very serious issue.
These two properties of the selected characteristic function lead to very large root-
finding errors, with the absolute error going up to 10121 when using the (semi-)analytic
solution from Eq. (4) for solving the selected characteristic equation.
m = (2m - 1)π/2 (4)
As shown on Figure 2, the analytic solution fails to yield accurate roots for most modes.
Furthermore, the analytic solution fails to produce accurate roots even when computed
using the high arbitrary-precision floating point arithmetic [2], as evidenced by Figure 3.
This makes the resulting root-finding errors unacceptable, especially for higher modes.
To combat the approximation error caused by the analytic solution we tried to find the
exact closed-form solution of the selected characteristic equation, but both SymPy [3],
and Mathematica have failed to find the exact closed-form solution, even when given
substantial computation time and resources.
Figure 2. Characteristic function root-finding errors of clamped-free beam when
computed at IEEE 754 binary64 precision
Figure 4. Basic function Ywm(y) of clamped-free beam (LJ=3) for mode 25
Based on this, it can be said the presented hybrid method should always be used when
solving the characteristic equations or computing the basic function Ywm(y).
3. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has demonstrated that the analytic solutions of characteristic equations may
result in very large root-finding errors, especially for higher modes, and that tournament
based numerical optimization should be used instead. Furthermore it has been shown
that the computations should be performed with arbitrary-precision floating point
arithmetic, as the IEEE 754 standard fails to provide sufficient precision.
A hybrid method, which couples these two approaches, has been proposed along with its
reference Open Source implementation, while demonstrating their effects and benefits.
1. FLUTTER
Classic flutter is a type of the flutter, in which two degrees of freedom of the structure,
namely rotation and vertical translation, couple in a flow-driven unstable oscillation. The
motion is characterized by the fluid forces feeding energy into the system during one
cycle of its oscillation. This energy counteracts the energy absorptions by structural
damping. The critical condition is reached by the certain wind speed, called critical wind
velocity, related to the total zero damping, i.e. structural and aerodynamic damping
together. In addition, the structure oscillates with the same frequency in bending and
torsion (critical frequency).
Experiments are performed in the boundary layer wind tunnel of Ruhr University
Bochum. The flutter derivatives are identified based on the forced vibration method. The
experimental rig also provides a set up for the investigation of a fixed bridge deck placed
Figure 1. Quasi-stationary force coefficients
All eight flutter derivatives used in Eq. 1 and 2 are presented in Figure 2. They are
presented for the range of reduced velocities till Ured=30 (where Ured =U/Bf=2π/K).
Based on these functions, aeroelastic loads can be evaluated by the Eq. 1 and 2. Using
the 2DOF model described in Section 2.2 critical velocity can be estimated. In this case
structural properties of the used bridge deck are given in Table 1. The critical velocity is
obtained around Ucr=70.46m/s.
In addition to flutter derivatives evaluated from the wind tunnel tests, Figure 2 also
shows quasi-steady approximations of derivatives. They are evaluated comparing the
coefficients which stand beside considered displacements and its first derivatives in two
aeroelastic formulations: aeroelastic forces based on the derivatives (Eq. 1 and 2) and
quasi-steady approximation (Eq. 6 and 7). As it can be observed, not all flutter
derivatives have their counterparts in quasi-steady approximation. The missing ones are
H4* and A4* which are not decisive related practical examples of bridge aerodynamics.
It can be remarked that the approximations are following the same trend. Another
unknown in case of quasi-steady approximation is related to the choice of eccentricity
parameters i . They have strong influence on most important damping derivatives H*2
and A*2 . Namely, parameters i describe the position of the neutral points for the
respective force components. In general case of the bridge section a common point does
not exist (Salvatori, 2007, Neuhaus and Höffer (2011)). Therefore, i parameters must
be evaluated from dynamic tests. Here following the procedure described in Neuhaus
and Höffer (2011) parameters are evaluated from H*2 and A*2 curves which leads to
βz=1.761 and βα=-1.378. Based on the quasi-steady flutter derivatives from Figure 2
critical velocity is evaluated as more conservative value Ucr=66.97m/s.
Based on these measured flutter derivatives, indicial functions are evaluated and selected
ones are presented in Figure 3. As it is already mentioned, as an outcome of the
nonlinear optimisation for each indicial function non-dimensional coefficients anRr and
bnRr are identified. Based on the relationships between indicial function and flutter
Figure 2. Flutter derivatives obtained directly from the measurements, using quasi-
steady approximation and using optimized values from identified indicial functions
4
Values are taken from Øiseth at al. (2010), where the similar bridge deck section is considered with the use
of multi-modal analisys. Two heave and pitch modes are corresponding to the presented main coupled modes
from the related paper.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The main concern of this paper is to present different bridge flutter approaches. Three
different methods are presented: approach related to the frequency domain, approach
related to the time domain and an approximation based on the quasi-steady coefficients.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the fruitful cooperation with Prof. Dr. Ing. R.
Höffer, Ruhr University Bochum related to the measurements in the wind tunnel also the
financial support through the project TP36046 of the Ministry of Science and
Technology of the Republic of Serbia is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Borri, C., Höffer, R.: Aeroelastic wind forces on flexible girders. Meccanica, 2000,
vol. 35, p.p. 1-15.
[2] Mannini, C.: Flutter vulnerability assessment of flexible bridges, University of
Florence and University of Braunschweig, Florence, 2006.
[3] Neuhaus, C., Höffer, R.: Identification of quasi-stationary aeroelastic force
coefficients for bridge deck section using forced vibration wind tunnel testing.
Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN
2011, 2011, p.p. 1386-1392.
[4] Salvatori, L., Borri, C.: Frequency- and time-domain methods for the numerical
modeling of full-bridge aeroelasticity. Computers and Structures, 2007, vol. 85, p.p.
675-687.
[5] Šarkić, A., Fisch, R., Höffer, R., Bletzinger, K.U.: Bridge flutter derivatives
based on computed, validated pressure fields. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, 2012. vol. 104-106, p.p. 141-151.
[6] Scanlan, R.T.: Airfoil and bridge deck flutter derivatives. Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division Proceedings of the ASCE, 1971, vol. 97, № 6, p.p.
1717-1737.
[7] Øiseth, O., Rӧnnquist, A., Sigbjӧrnsson, R.: Simplified prediction of wind-induced
response and stability limit of slender long-span suspension bridges, based on
1. INTRODUCTION
Truss optimization is one of the most active branches of the structural optimization. Size
optimization of truss structures involves determining optimum values for member cross-
sectional areas that would minimize the weight of a given truss structure. This minimum
design should also satisfy the inequality constraints that limit design variable sizes and
structural responses. In the last decades, different nature inspired evolutionary
algorithms have been developed and employed for structural optimization, such as
Genetic Algorithms, Bat Algorithm, Wolf Pack Search, Rats Herds Algorithm, Ant
Colony Optimization, Particle Swarm Optimizer and many other heuristic procedures
that incorporate random variation and selection mechanisms. Information obtained in
each cycle are used for choosing new starting points in the subsequent cycles. These
algorithms do not require for a given function to be derivable and an explicit relationship
between the objective function and constraints is not needed.
Big Bang – Big Crunch (BB-BC) algorithm, introduced by Erol and Eksin [1], is
relatively new optimization method that relies on one of the theories of the evolution of
the universe namely, the Big Bang and Big Crunch theory and has a low computational
time and high convergence speed.
1
Doc. dr Aleksandar Milajić, dipl.inž. građ., University Union Nikola Tesla, Faculty of Construction
Management, Cara Dušana 6264, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 63 85 85 830, e-mail:
aleksandar.milajic@gmail.com
2
Doc. dr Dejan Beljaković, dipl.inž. građ., University Union Nikola Tesla, Faculty of Construction
Management, Cara Dušana 6264, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 64 122 43 01, e-mail: beljak @mail.com
3
Dušan Barović, dipl.inž.građ., University Union Nikola Tesla, Faculty of Construction Management, Cara
Dušana 6264, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: dusan.barovic@gmail.com
A A1 , A2 ,..., An , Ai D (1)
where A is the set of design variables, Ai is the cross-sectional area of member i, ng is the
number of groups of members and D denotes the allowable set of values for the design
variable Ai, to minimize
nm
W(A) i Ai Li (2)
i 1
where W(A) is weight of the structure; nm is the number of members of the structure; γi
represents the material density of member i and Li is the length of member i, subject to
constraints:
g j ( A) 0, j 1,2,..., n (3)
Usual constraints for stress structures are stress nodal displacements limitations.
3. BIG BANGBIG CRUNCH (BB-BC) ALGORITHM
The BB-BC method developed by Erol and Eksin [1] consists of two phases: a Big Bang
phase and a Big Crunch phase. The authors associated the random nature of the Big
Bang to energy dissipation or the transformation from an ordered state (a convergent
solution) to a disorder or chaos state (new set of solution candidates). This method is
basically similar to the Genetic Algorithms in respect to creating an initial population
randomly. The creation of the initial population randomly is called the Big Bang phase.
In this phase, the candidate solutions are spread all over the search space in a uniform
manner.
where xi is a point within an n-dimensional search space generated, fi is a fitness function
value of this point, and N is the population size in Big Bang phase.
The convergence operator in the Big Crunch phase is different from ‘exaggerated’
selection since the output term may contain additional information (new candidate or
member having different parameters than others) than the participating ones, hence
differing from the population members. This one-step convergence is superior compared
to selecting two members and finding their centre of gravity. This method takes the
population members as a whole in the Big-Crunch phase that acts as a contraction
operator.
After the Big Crunch phase, the algorithm creates the new solutions to be used as the Big
Bang of the next iteration step, by using the previous result (centre of mass). This can be
accomplished by spreading new off-springs around the centre of mass using a normal
distribution operation in every direction, where the standard deviation of this normal
distribution function decreases as the number of iterations of the algorithm increases:
l r
x new x c (5)
k
where xc stands for centre of mass, l is the upper limit of the parameter, r is a normal
random number and k is the iteration step. Then new point xnew is both upper and lower
bounded.
After the second explosion, the new centre of mass is calculated and successive
explosion-contraction steps are carried repeatedly until a stopping criterion has been met.
The BB–BC approach takes the following steps [1]:
Step 1: Form an initial generation of N candidates in a random manner. Respect
the limits of the search space.
Step 2: Calculate the fitness function values of all the candidate solutions.
Step 3: Find the centre of mass according to (10). Best fitness individual can be
chosen as the centre of mass.
4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
The topology and nodal numbers of a 25-bar spatial truss structure are shown in Figure
1. In this example, designs for two load cases (Case 1 – discrete variables, Case 2 –
continuous variables, Table 1) are performed and the results are compared to those of
other optimization techniques employed by different authors [2–10]. In these studies, the
material density is considered as 2767.990 kg/m3 and the modulus of elasticity is taken
as 68.950 MPa. Twenty five members are categorized into eight groups, and the design
variables are the areas of each truss group. The design variable A1 is the member that
connects node 1 to node 2; A2 are members 1-4, 2-3, 1-5 and 2-6; A3 are members 2-5,
2-4, 1-3 and 1-6; A4 are members 3-6 and 4-5; A5 are members 3-4 and 5-6; A6 are
members 3-10, 6-7, 4-9 and 5-8; A7 are members 3-8, 4-7, 6-9 and 5-10; and A8 are
members 3-7, 4-8, 5-9 and 6-10. The range of cross-sectional areas varies from 0.6452–
21.94 cm2. Maximum allowable node displacement are ± 8.89 mm in every direction,
while the axial stress constraints and loading conditions are presented in Table 1.
Figure 1. 25-bar spatial truss
Loading conditions (kN) Stress limitations (MPa)
Node 1 2 3 6 Group Compression Tension
Px 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1,4,5 241.96 275.80
Case 1 Py 89 89 0.0 0.0 2 79.913 275.80
Pz 22.25 22.25 0.0 0.0 3 119.31 275.80
Px 4.45 0.0 2.22 0.5 6 46.603 275.80
Case 2 Py 44.5 44.5 0.0 0.0 7 47.982 275.80
Pz 22.25 22.25 0.0 0.0 8 76.410 275.80
Obtained results and comparison with results of other authors are presented in Table 2.
It can be concluded that the final results are very satisfactory because proposed
algorithm reaches a satisfying solution for the discrete design variables (Case 1) and an
excellent solution for the continuous variables (Case 2). Besides that, BB–BC has low
computational time and high convergence speed compared to the Genetic Algorithms.
REFERENCES
[1] Erol, O.K., Eksin, I.: New optimization method: Big Bang–Big Crunch. Advances in
Engineering Software, 2006., vol. 37, p.p. 106–11.
[2] Rajeev, S., Krishnamoorthy, C.S.: Discrete optimization of structures using genetic
algorithms. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1992., vol. 188, № 5, p.p.
1233–50.
[3] Erbatur, F., Hasancebi, O., Tutuncu, I., Kılıc, H.: Optimal design of planar and
space structures with genetic algorithms. Computers and Structures, 2000., vol. 75,
p.p. 209–24.
[4] Coello, C.A., Christiansen, A.D.: Multiobjective optimization of trusses using
genetic algorithms. Computers and Structures. 2000., vol. 75, p.p. 647–60.
[5] Togan, V., Daloglu, A.T.: An improved genetic algorithm with initial population
strategy and self-adaptive member grouping. Computers and Structures, 2008., vol.
86 p.p. 1204–1218.
[6] Lemonge, A.C.C. and Barbosa H. J.C.: An adaptive penalty scheme for genetic
algorithms in structural optimization. International Journal for Numerical Methods
in Engineering, 2004., vol. 59, p.p. 703–736.
[7] Venkayya, V.B.: Design of optimum structures, Computers and Structures, 1971.,
vol. 1, № 1–2, p.p. 265–309.
[8] Lee, K.S., Geem, Z.W.: A new structural optimization method based on the
harmony search algorithm. Computers and Structures, 2004., vol. 82, p.p. 781–98.
[9] Saka, M.P.: Optimum design of pin-jointed steel structures with practical
applications. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE. 1990., vol. 116, № 10, p.p.
2599–620.
[10] Adeli, H., Kamal, O.: Efficient optimization of space trusses. Computers and
Structures, 1986., vol. 24, № 3, p.p. 501–11.
[11] Milajić, A.: Optimum structural design of truss structures using self-adaptive
metaheuristics (in Serbian), PhD thesis, 2012., University Union Nikola Tesla,
Belgrade.
Slika 1. Glavna forma programa ’Construct SECTIONS‘
Slika 2. Glavna forma programa’Construct ELEMENT’
Proračun pomeranja pri savijanju greda;
Primena približnog Bransonovog postupka;
Primena tačnijeg postupka u kombinaciji sa postupkom pod 2.
U nazivu podprograma pojedina slova imaju sledeća značenja:
Delta – pomeranje; Crack – prslina.
(4) RC Section - Podprogram za armiranje poprečnih AB preseka.
Mogu se obaviti sledeći zadaci :
Armiranje pravougaonog preseka;
Armiranje ’T’ preseka;
A ) Kontrola rezultata
U radu sa programima potrebno je steći poverenje u dobijene rezultate.
Vrlo često se koriste približni postupci kao gruba kontrola. Iskustvo na drugim
primerima, takođe, je dragoceno. Ovde će biti prikazane samo neke mogućnosti kontrole
podprograma zbog ograničenog prostora.
(1) Primena Dpres
Proračun armature u preseku može se obaviti primenom vezanog dimenzionisanja
preseka, a zatim izvršiti kontrolu globalnog koeficijenta sigurnosti. Rezultati u oba
slučaja treba da budu u granicama dopštenih napona i potrebnih koeficijenata
sigurnosti.
(2) Primena SRC Crack
Sračunate servisne napona u isprskalom preseku je moguće uporediti sa rezultatima
primenom programa pod (1);
(3) Primena St Element
Uporedno prikazani naponi za servisno stanje i granične sile za centrično i ekscentrično
opterećene vitke elemente, sa utiajem tečenja betona, mogu da pokažu njihovu
ispravnost.
(4) Primena SCOMa ili SCOMb
Proračun napona i dilatacija preseka sadrži kontrolu Nb=Na, koja pokazuje da
relaksacija sile u betonu treba da bude jednaka promeni sile u čeliku.
B ) Kombinovanje rezultata
(1) Primena programa za proračun napona i dilatacija (npr. SRC Hom ili SCOMa
..i dr.) zahteva prethodno poznavanje sila M, Q i N. odnosno primenu programa
StructSTATICS, radi kontrole napona ili određivanja granične nosivosti elemenata.
(2) Često je potrebno, pre poslova pod (1), naći momente inercije preseka i dr.
karakteristike preseka.
(3) Proračun viskoznih pomeranja ij v zahteva poznavanje elastičnih pomeranja ij,
odnosno primenu programa pod (1).
(4) Kombinovanje programa je potrebno i za analizu AB isprskalih preseka.
U prvoj fazi te analize nalazi se položaj neutralne linije x za isprskali presek primenom
SRC Crack podprograma, koji se traži u vremenu t=0. U drugoj fazi nalazimo, sa
fiksiranim položajem neutralne linije x, pomoću SCOMb, napone usled tečenja i
skupljanja betona [1] [12].
4. ZAKLJUČCI
1. Tri navedena programa mogu da obave vrlo različite poslove pri planiranju,
projektovanju i građenju konstrukcija od AB, PB i spregnutih konstrukcija.
2. Preporućuje se primena najnovije verzije programa, zato sto ona može da se odrazi
na lakše, brže i tačnije izvršenje poslova.
3. Iako se programi prvenstveno odnose na betonske konstrukcije oni se mogu uspešno
primeniti i na neke zadatke drugih vrsta konstrukcija. Na primer, program MInetia je
5. LITERATURA
[1] A. Landović, Diplomski rad, Građevinski fakultet u Subotici, 2002.
[2] Beton i armirani beton prema BAB87, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1991.
[3] EVROKOD 2: Proračun betonskih konstrukcija, Prevod, GF Beograd, 1994.
[4] I. Tomičić, Betonske konstrukcije, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 1984.
[5] M. Đurić: Teorija spregnutih i PB konstrukcija, SANU, Beograd, 1963.
[6] V. Brčić: Otpornost materijala, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1985.
[7] V. Mihailović: Predavanja iz AB I na GF u Subotici, 1991÷1995.
[8] V. Mihailović: Spregnute i prednapregnute konstrukcije, Naučna knjiga i GF u
Subotici, Beograd, 1989, (Sa širim bibliografskim podacima).
[9] V Mihailović.: Numerička integracija složenih funkcija i procena greške, Zb. radova
GF 4, 110-124, Subotica, 1988.;
[10] V. Mihailović, A. Landović: Priručnik za vežbe (Primeri primene programaDelta i
dr.), GF Subotica, 2003.
[11] V. Mihailović, A. Landović: Aplikativni programi za betonske konstrukcije
'Construct 04', Zbornik radova GF, Subotica, 2004.
1. INTRODUCTION
Laminar composites are used as main load carrying members for different engineering
purposes. They are composed from several orthotropic layers, which orthotropy comes
from the high-strength fibers oriented in the arbitrary direction for each lamina
individually. Lower-order plate theories are not adequate for the analysis of thick plates,
because of the neglection of transverse shear deformation. While exposed to different
transient loadings, laminar composites suffer high transverse shear deformation, so
higher-order plate theories (such as layerwise plate theory) must be used. It is of the
great importance that perfect bonding between the layers in laminar composites remains
intact during the service life of the structure, to provide the composite panel to perform
correctly. This is not always satisfied, so delamination between the layers often occurs,
usually in the production phase or due to impact forces.
In this paper, extended version of Reddy’s Generalized Laminated Plate Theory (GLPT)
served as a basis for the development of enriched finite elements [1-3]. GLPT allows
independent interpolation of in-plane and transverse displacement components, and
includes possible jump discontinuities at delaminated layer interfaces. Piece-wise linear
variation of in-plane displacements and constant transverse displacement are imposed.
1
Miroslav Marjanović, MSc Civil Eng., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 581, e – mail: mmarjanovic@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Djordje Vuksanović, PhD Civil Eng., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 550, e – mail: george@grf.bg.ac.rs
We will analyze the laminated plate composed from n orthotropic material layers. N is
the number of mathematical layers, while ND denotes the number of delaminated
interfaces. GLPT is based on these assumptions: (1) all layers are perfectly bonded
together, except in the delaminated area, (2) material is orthotropic, linearly elastic and
follows Hooke’s law, (3) von Karman kinematic relations are imposed, and (4)
inextensibility of transverse normal is assumed. Detailed explanation of the theory is
given in Refs. [2, 4]. Displacement field of the GLPT can be written as follows:
N ND
u1 ( x, y, z ) u ( x, y ) u I ( x, y ) I ( z ) U I ( x, y ) H I ( z )
I 1 I 1
N ND
u2 ( x, y , z ) v ( x, y ) v I ( x, y ) I ( z ) V I ( x, y ) H I ( z ) (1)
I 1 I 1
ND
u3 ( x, y, z ) w( x, y ) W I ( x, y ) H I ( z )
I 1
In Eq. (1), (u,v,w) are mid-plane displacement components, (uI,vI) are undetermined
coefficients which describe the layerwise expansion of the displacements, while
(UI,VI,WI) are displacement jumps of the Ith delamination. The delamination front is
defined by enforcing the essential boundary condition UI=VI=WI=0 on the crack
boundary. ФI(z) are layerwise continuous functions of z-coordinate, while HI(z) are
Heaviside step functions (see Ref. [1]). In this paper, linear layerwise variation of in-
plane displacements is assumed, so in-plane displacements are piece-wise continuous
through the plate thickness in the intact region. On the other hand, all displacement
components are discontinuous at delaminated interfaces in delaminated area.
Geometrically nonlinear strain field is derived using von Karman kinematic relations and
it is given in Eqs. (2). z=0 because of the inextensibility of transverse normal.
Constitutive equations for the kth orthotropic lamina, for linearly elastic material are
firstly derived in material coordinate system. We derive the constitutive relations for kth
lamina in the global coordinate system (see Ref. [4]) by using the transformation
matrices for each layer. When deriving the dynamic equilibrium of the virtual strain
energy (U), virtual work of external forces (V) and virtual kinetic energy (K), it is
assumed that transverse loading q acts in the middle plane of the plate [5]. Dynamic
relations for U, V and K are given in Eqs. (3). Dynamic version of virtual work statement
2
1 w w ND W I I 1 ND ND W I W J I J
2 y y I 1 y
H
2 I 1 J 1 y y
H H
(2)
I I
u2 u3 w d N
W ND
yz vI HI
z y y I 1 dz I 1 y
u1 u3 w N I d I ND W I I
xz u H
z x x I 1 dz I 1 x
u1 u2 u3 u3 u v N u I v I I ND U I V I I
xy H
y x x y y x I 1 y x I 1 y x
ND ND I J
w w W W
HIHJ
x y I 1 J 1 x y
t
V q( x, y, t ) w dV dt (3)
0 V
t
3. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
FE model based consists of the middle plane, N mathematical layers through the plate
thickness (excepting the middle plane) and finally ND numerical layers in which
debonding can occur. Isoparametric quadrilateral FE with 9 nodes is used. Proposed FE
require only C0 continuity of generalized displacements on element boundaries, and it is
in detail explained in [1]. Using of different combinations of in-plane interpolations i
and ФI(z) for through the thickness interpolation allows us to derive the variety of LW
FE. All generalized displacements are interpolated using the same functions i:
By substitution of assumed displacement field into virtual work principle, we obtain:
Md Cd K L + K NL d F (5)
where KL, KNL, C and M are element stiffness, nonlinear stiffness, damping and
consistent mass matrices, respectively; F is the element force vector, while d is the
displacement vector. Note that nonlinear element stiffness matrix KNL is unsymmetrical
in this formulation. Dots above the vector d denote the differentiation in time. Linear and
nonlinear element stiffness matrices are given in Ref. [3]. In further calculations we will
assume only undamped structural response, so Eq. (5) will be used in reduced form.
Element mass matrix is given in Ref. [1]. Integration over element domain is performed
numerically using Gauss-Legendre quadrature. For elimination of shear locking,
selective integration should be used for thin plate situations.
The governing partial differential equations of the problem are solved numerically using
Newmark’s integration [6]. Accelerations and velocities are approximated using
truncated Taylor’s series. Constant average acceleration method is chosen because of its
numerical stability. We obtain the solution by solving the algebraic system (6), where t
is time increment. Once dn+1 is derived, velocities and accelerations in tn+1 are obtained.
4 4 4
ˆ
Kd ˆ Kˆ K L + K NL M
n1 F , , Fˆ Fn1 M dn dn
2 2
d n (6)
t t t
Because [KNL] depends on the unknown solution {d}n+1, the assembled equation must be
solved iteratively until the convergence criterion is satisfied. Picard’s direct integration
procedure is employed until the error is less than or equal to some value (say 1%).
Figure 1. Different forcing functions, sizes and positions of delamination
An 8-layer simply supported composite plate with (0/90/45/90)s stacking sequence is
considered. Side length of the plate is a=b=250mm, while overall plate height is
h=8hk=2.12mm. Each layer is made of orthotropic material with following properties:
E1 = 132 GPa 12 = 13 = 0.291 G12 = G13 = 2.79 GPa
E2 = 5.35 GPa 23 = 0.30 = 1446.2 kg/m3
1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of instability of frames in elasto-plastic domain is analyzed in this
paper. The problems of instability of reinforced concrete structures and, even more, of
steel structures, are very contemporary, particularly having in mind desires of engineers
to build attractive tall structures with high slenderness. Design of these structures,
especially from the viewpoint of their stability, requires an application of complex
numerical models. Although there are a significant number of books and papers in the
literature devoted to the various problems of structural stability, for example [1-3], there
are still a lot of unsolved or inadequately solved problems, especially in the case of the
real behavior of structures in elasto-plastic domain.
One of the main goals of this analysis is to develop the corresponding C++ computer
program that can be used for the nonlinear, i.e. elasto-plastic stability analysis of frame
structures. Because of its complexity, this kind of nonlinear analysis is not present in the
standard engineering procedures for design of structures, and therefore it is not present in
the standard commercial software for the calculation of the frame structures.
By this procedure it is possible to follow the behavior of the plane frames in plastic
domain and to calculate the real critical load in that domain. For the purposes of
numerical investigation in this analysis, part of the computer program ALIN was
expanded in such a way that this program can be used for the geometric and material
nonlinear analysis.
1
dr Stanko Ćorić, dipl.civ.eng., Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, e – mail: cstanko@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
dr Stanko Brčić, dipl.civ.eng., Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, e – mail: stanko@grf.bg.ac.rs
The finite element method, as the most effective method for numerical analysis of
stability of frame structures is applied in this analysis. As it is well known, using the
finite element method, the critical load can be obtained from the homogeneous matrix
equation:
K q 0 (1)
In Eq. (1) K is the global stiffness matrix for the whole frame, including the
corresponding boundary conditions, while q represents the vector of generalized
coordinates. This matrix equation can be solved by an incremental process, by increasing
the load at specified increments until it reaches the critical value, i.e. until detK = 0. In
the case of elastic stability problem, the modulus of elasticity E has a constant value.
But, elasto-plastic analysis is more complicated. For the structural member where the
proportionality limit is exceeded, for each new load increment the member stiffness has
to be changed and the corresponding tangent modulus Et should be used for that
member.
The paper is analyzing frames that are made of steel. So, it is necessary to know the
physical and mechanical properties of such material. Effective stress-strain diagram of
structural steel is given in Figure 1.
v
Et
1
p
E
1
1 1 (5)
t A v l
2 EI A v Pcr ,i
This code is developed using C++ programming language. The program is named ALIN
and it enables the complex plane and space analysis of linear frames. The basic
possibilities of this program are analysis according to the first and the second order
theory, dynamic analysis and stability analysis, i.e. calculation of the critical load in the
elastic and inelastic domains. In this paper only the algorithm for the calculation of the
critical load in the elastic and inelastic domain is presented. The detailed description of
the program can be found in [4], [5].
In the program ALIN, loads may be defined as fixed value or as the variable loads.
Variable loads are defined by the value and the load factor. So, the load factors ax, ay
and az (depending on the direction of the load) and loading values Px, Py or Pz should
P P P P 5m
P P P P 5m
P P P P 5m
P P P P 5m
P P P P 5m
5m
10 m 10 m 10 m
Figure 2. Six-story three-bay sway frame
Considered six-story three-bay sway frame is given in Figure 2.
The frame is clamped at the base, with the load on each column at each story. The
numerical analysis is performed for five different cross-sections.
So, it is assumed that all columns and girders in the frame have cross-sections 2 12,
2 16, 2 20, 2 26 and 2 30. First, applying the elastic analysis, the critical load is
obtained. In that case the modulus of elasticity has a constant value E = 210,000,000
kN/m2.
But, when the stresses in the columns are higher than the proportionality limit, the code
ALIN performs inelastic stability analysis. Then the modulus of elasticity (that is now
tangent modulus) becomes stress dependent. The yield stress of the steel is σv = 240,000
kN/m2.
Тhe obtained results of the critical load for all five considered cross sections are
presented in Table 1.
3
ГРАЂЕВИНСКИ МАТЕРИЈАЛИ
40th ANNIVERSARY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING SUBOTICA
International conference
Contemporary achievements in civil engineering 24. – 25. April 2014. Subotica, SERBIA
1. INTRODUCTION
The majority of the cementitious binders used in concrete are based on Portland cement
clinker which manufacture is an energy-intensive process and produces a large amount
of greenhouse gas emissions, mostly CO2. To overcome harmful ecological impact of
cement production, probably the most effective way is: (a) the replacement of Portland
cement clinker by other suitable materials, (b) the addition of mineral materials to the
cement in the production process, and (c) reduction of cement content in cement-based
materials (mortar or concrete).
Pozzolans are widely used as substitutes for, or additives to, Portland cement because of
their advantageous properties which include cost reduction, reduction in heat evolution,
decreased permeability, alkali-aggregate expansion control, increased chemical
resistance, reduced concrete drying shrinkage, and the improvement of the properties of
fresh concrete; however, the use of pozzolans also causes longer setting times and lower
early strengths compared with pure Portland cement.
In recent times, the term pozzolan has been extended to cover all siliceous/aluminous
materials, which in finely divided form and in the presence of water, will react
chemically with calcium hydroxide (CH) to form compounds with cementitious
properties. This generalized definition covers: (a) natural pozzolans, (b) waste products
1
Aleksandra Mitrović, Ph.D., Istitute for testings of materias, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43, Belgrade, Serbia,
tel: ++381 11 2653 235, e – mail: aleksandra.mitrovic@institutims.rs
2
Ljiljana Miličić, Dipl.chem., Istitute for testings of materias, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43, Belgrade, Serbia,
e – mail: ljiljana.milicic@institutims.rs
3
Miodrag Zdujić, Ph.D., Institute of Technical Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Knez
Mihailova 35, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, miodrag.zdujic@itn.sanu.ac.rs
such as fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), rice husk ash
(RHA), silica fume (SF), and (c) processed calcined clay/shale and metakaolin (MK).
Metakaolin is a recently man-made pozzolanic material formed by the controlled
calcination of kaolin clay [1]. Its usage in concrete have many technical and
environmental advantages. The most imporatant are improvement of mechanical and
durability properties and contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gases emission.
Despite its sustainability and environmental significance, the use of calcined kaolin or
metakaolin as pozzolanic admixtures for modern cement-based composites is not very
popular yet. This could be due to relatively higher cost of calcined kaolin or metakaolin
compared to other pozzolanic materials such as fly ash or blast furnace slag.
Nevertheless, the utilization of metakaolin as a mineral admixture for mortar and
concrete production is a well-documented practice.
Amorphous kaolin (AK) is manufactured, such as metakaolin, from kaolin clay.
Mechanochemical treatment, used for obtaining AK, have many advantages, such as
simplicity of the process and possibility of use kaolin clays with higher amount of
impurities. Also, mechanochemical treatment of kaolin clay instead calcination has
lower influence on the environment.
Technology for obtaining amorphous kaolin was developed in IMS Instititute. AK made
from domestic kaolin clay, have high pozzolanic activity, high specific surface area, low
mean particle size, and appropriate chemical composition, so it can be use as pozzolan
for replacement of cement in cement-based systems. First results[2] of its application
showed that cement replacement of 10% and 20% with AK has a positive influence on
properties of fresh mortar, mostly in terms of placeability and workability of mortar. In
comparison to control mortar compressive strength of series with AK were decreased.
This work aims to evaluate behaviour of the mortars in which cement was replaced with
higher amount of AK. The mortars were prepared with a different ratios of pozzolan to
Portland cement, and cured under different conditions (ordinary curing, autoclaving or
steam curing). Compressive strengths were used for assesing mortars, as nowdays, for
evaluation of potential use of pozzolan many standards recomends use of the
compressive or tensile strength of mortars.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
gravity 3.11 and Blaine (cm2/g) 3940. Mineralogical composition of the cement is: C3S
54.6%, C2S 20%, C3A 5.1%, C4AF 9.06%.
Chemical and physical characteristics of the amorphous kaolin are: SiO2 64.57%, Al2O3
18.36%, Fe2O3 1.11%, CaO 0.65%, MgO 0.74%, Na2O 0.50%, K2O 5.76%, LOI 6.82%,
Specific gravity 2.40, Specific surface-BET method (m2/g) 21.75, and Pozzolanic
activity[3] 14.0 MPa. According to ASTM Standard[4] AK satisfied requirements that
total sum of oxides SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 must exceed 70%, the content of SO2 less then
4% , and loss on ignition less then 10%.
Mortars were prepared according proportions given in the Table 1. The reference mix
containing no AK .
1.3 Testings
Mechanical tests, flexural and compressive strengts, were determined according to
standard [5].
Some properties of the mortars, such as flow, density in the fresh and hardened state, are
given in Table 2.
For all mortars visual observations are that they were easy build in, well compacted,
without segregation and imperceptible air.
The compressive strength of mortars cured in different conditions and for the different
times are presented on Figure 1.
Table 2. Flow (F), density in the fresh (Df) and hardened (Dh) state
Mix F(mm) Df (kg/m3) Dh (kg/m3)
PK4 › 250 2230 2340
M4-1 195 2240 2355
PK5 › 250 2245 2330
PK6 184 2230 2270
PK7 245 2245 2350
M5-1 160 2310 2345
100
M5-1
PK5
PK6
PK7
80 M4-1
Compressive strength, MPa
PK4
60
40
20
0
Ordinary 28 days Autoclaved Steam 1 day Steam 5 days Steam 1 day + Steam 5 days +
Curing conditions water 27 days water 23 days
Ordinary cuired mortars after 28. Mortars in which cement was replaced with AK
have significantlly lower compressive strength than control mortars. For the w/c=0.33
and cement replacement of ~50% mortars gains strength which is about 60% of the
control mortar strength, independently on Ca(OH)2 content or use of WG. For the
w/c=0.39 and cement replacement of ~60% mortar gain strength which is about 50% of
the control mortar strength.
Autoclaving curing. Autoclaving curing was applied as this method of manufacture
provides several advantages over the air-curing method[7]. Autoclaving considerably
increases the rate of cement hydration under hight pressure and the product reaches hight
strength in a matter of a few hours in comparation with 28-day strengtgh of air cured
products. Autoclaved mortars with AK and Ca(OH)2, for w/c=0.33, in comparation to
other curing regimes and same mix proportions reaches highest strength. The Ca(OH)2
addition of 10% of AK produces mortars compressive strength high as those attained in
control mortar. Increase of Ca(OH)2 content leads to strength decrease. This strength
decrease can be attributed to the Ca(OH)2 dilution effect as added quantity is over that
required to react with AK and poduce additional CSH. Addition of water glass is not
efficency as Ca(OH)2.
Autoclaved mortars with higher w/c ratio have signifficant lower strength of both,
control mortar and mortar with AK.
Steam curing. In comparation to the ordinary or autoclaved mortars, steam curied
mortars after 1 day have significantlly lower strengths of both, control mortars and those
with AK.
Prolonged stem curing for 5 days have a possitive effect on strength of mortars with AK,
as the strengths of the mortars, w/c=0.33 with addition of Ca(OH)2, attains strength of
about 90 % of control mortar strength.
Soaking in the water for 27 or 23days after steam curing for 1 or 5 days have negliable
effect on compressive strength.
As in autoclaced mortars addition of water glass is not effective as Ca(OH)2.
CONCLUSION
strengths, comparable to control mortars, autoclaving od prolonged stem curing gives the
best results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Grants Nos. TR 36017 and
45001).
REFERENCES
1. УВОД
1
Доцент Др Драган Костић, дипл.инж.грађ, Универзитет у Нишу, Грађевинско-архитектонски
факултет, А. Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија, тел: 018 588 202, e – mail: dragan.kostic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
Доцент, Др Миомир Васов, дипл.инж.арх, Универзитет у Нишу, Грађевинско-архитектонски
факултет, А.Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија, тел: 018 588 202, e – mail: vasov@medianis.net
3
Љиљана Костић-Деспотовић, дипл.хем, Jugo-Impex, Ниш
7. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete as a composite material by nature is a porous material. Pores that are present in
the concrete can be divided into four groups.
The first group consists of the smallest pores called by gel. Hydration of cement
hydration products are formed which create quasi-layered structure [1]. Between the
layers, there are areas which represent the pores of the gel. These pores have a size of 1
to 5 nm and quantity and quality of these pores can not be affected.
The second group consists of capillary pores that are in places where they were not
formed hydration products. The amount of these pores depends on the applied water
making concrete mixture. These pores are connected and the characteristic size of the
pores is in the range of 5 to 1000 nm [2].
1
Mr Dragan Bojović, BSCE, Institute IMS, Bulevar vojvode Mišića 43, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 2650
322, e–mail: dragan.bojovic@institutims.rs
2
PhD Ksenija Janković, BSCE, Institute IMS, e-mail: ksenija.jankovic@institutims.rs
3
MSc Marko Stojanović, BSCE, Institute IMS, e-mail: marko.stojanovic@institutims.rs
4
Ljiljana Lončar, BSCE, Institute IMS, e-mail: ljiljana.loncar@institutims.rs
The third type of pore in practice usually referred to as the entrapped air. This air occurs
during mixing and placing concrete or due to subsequent allocations of water. What
distinguishes this type of pore of other is their size. They are usually larger than 1mm
and an irregular in shape – not spherical.
The fourth group of pores is intentionally entrained air in the concrete. The most
common are obtained using air-entraining agent during the mixing of concrete and the
required spherical shape with a typical size of 5 to 1250 µm.
Common to all types of the pores which occur in the concrete are formed in the cement
stone and at function of the hardened cement paste and aggregate [3].
At the destruction of concrete exposed to cyclic freezing and thawing caused internal
damage caused by freezing water in the concrete. This damage is always more limited at
areas where concrete is greater water saturation. This damage causes a reduction of
compressive and tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and adhesion of concrete for
reinforcement [4,5].
Research in this area started a long time ago but with the advent of new non-destructive
testing has become actual again. In addition to destructive testing in practice through a
number of standards can be found and nondestructive testing by measuring the dynamic
modulus of elasticity. Both approaches destructive and non-destructive tests are based on
a comparison of test results at a standard sample and the samples were exposed to frost.
The behavior of concrete exposed to frost action depends on the pore structure the
amount of water in the pores and temperature regime where the concrete is exposed.
Pore structure is discussed in terms of quantity, type, distribution and connectivity. In
current practice the resistance of concrete to freezing effects is usually evaluated by
amount and distribution of pore of air entrained. The distribution of pores is evaluated
through the pore spacing factor and some researchers believe that the value of spacing
factor from 0.23 necessary to concrete was resistant to frost action. The method by
which the resistance of concrete is determined through the characteristics of the pore is
very fast and will greatly enhance the resistance of concrete to frost action. This method
can be used in early ages but after 7 to 10 days after casting the concrete.
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Through this experimental work are compared to the received classical destructive
testing and non-destructive test to determine the amount and quality of the pores in the
concrete. Destructive testing was conducted in accordance with SRPS U.M1.016 under
which the test results are compared to a standard and samples exposed to frost action.
Non-destructive testing is conducted so as concrete samples were recorded using the unit
RapidAir 457 shown in figure 1 at 2, 4 and 6 cm from the sample surface. All tests were
conducted on cube 15 cm while the non-destructive testing undertaken by the cubes cut
to specified depths in all according to figure 2. After preparation of samples were made
necessary recording and analysis. For each series which was treated for the purposes of
this study we examined the three standard samples to destructive and non-destructive
testing. With device RapidAir 457 obtained results of non-destructive testing. On the
basis of this study aim was to determine the resistance of concrete to frost action and to
find out what is going on in the depth of the sample with the quantity and quality of the
pores in the samples that were tested. This examination provided data on the spacing
factor and the amount of pores in the concrete. The amount of the pores is determined by
the size of the pores. Based on the amount of pore size were made clear diagrams of the
distribution of pores in the samples that were exposed to freezing and thawing and of
standard samples.
For making samples used the cement CEM II and river aggregate separated into four
fractions with a maximum grain size of aggregate of 32 mm. In order to improve the
properties of concrete are used as superplasticizers and air entraining agent. In all the
concrete was adopted the amount of entrained air at a level of 4±0.5%. With this
prescribed requirements for the amount of entrained air in fresh concrete met the
requirements of as the Building code BAB87 as and European standards EN206-1.
3. ANALISYS RESULTS
On examination there were three series of samples. First was done destructive testing on
each series. The destructive strength testing drop is varied in the range of 10 to 15%
depending on the series. The largest drop of the strength of concrete had samples with
the least amount of cement in mix design.
Test was carried out on three types of concrete were very close to the results. Table 1
gives the results obtained in one of the three types of concrete.
The diagram shows the curve for a standard samples and samples exposed to freezing
and thawing.
Analysis of pore is made as to basis of the data obtained was not entirely clear what
happens to the sample depth. As the device can determine the amount of pore size of the
smallest from 1nm to very large pores sized over 3 mm is it for this test was very useful.
The results were compared to the corresponding table but only after their picturesque
views in the form of a diagram could be properly viewed.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Consideration of the results showed that the new method allows a rapid and accurate
determination of the resistance of concrete to frost action. The results obtained by a
spacing factor of pores and conducted destructive tests in accordance with the results of
international research. On the tested concretes average value of spacing factor of pores
match was obtained under 0.25 as recommendations to most relevant researchers.
Based on the obtained results it can be determined that the amount of entrained air per
depth is constant. Specific surface area, pore frequency of occurrence and average chord
size decreases by the depth of samples as a spacing factor of pores increasing.
In addition to these conclusions was noted that all parameters except the amount of air in
the concrete changes in samples that were exposed to freezing and thawing. Since these
are small number of concrete on which the examination was conducted further tests are
ongoing at the Institute IMS will give a better picture of the changes occurring in the
structure of concrete exposed to frost action.
REFERENCES
[1] Giergiczny Z, Glinicki M, Sokołowski M, Zielinski M., Air void system and frost-
salt scaling of concrete containing slag-blended cement, Construction and Building
Materials, 2009, vol.23, 2451–2456
[2] Marchand J., Sellevold E.J., Pigeon M., The deicer salt scaling deterioration of
concrete — an overview, Durability of Concrete, 1994, SP-145, American Concrete
Institute, 1–46
[3] Pigeon M, Marchand J, Pleau R., Frost resistant concrete, Constr Build Mater, 1996,
vol.10(5), 339–348
[4] Pigeon M., Pleau R., Durability of Concrete in Cold Climates, Chapman & Hall,
London, 1995.
[5] Mikulic D., Gabrijel I., Hranilovic A.T., Uzelac S., Analiza pora u betonu -
međulaboratorijska ispitivanja, Građevinar, 2007., vol.59(5), 387-393.
1. INTRODUCTION
Definition of Self – Compacting Concrete is: concrete that is able to flow and compact
under its own weight, fill the formwork with its reinforcement, ducts, boxouts etc.,
whilst maintaining homogeneity. The development of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)
has recently been one of the most important developments in the building industry. The
purpose of this concrete concept is to decrease the risk due to the human factor, to enable
the economic efficiency, more freedom to designers and constructors and more human
work. Although SCC can have even better properties in hardened state than vibrated
concrete, the differency in technology is exactly in the fresh state. The main four
characteristics which concrete must have to become self- compacting are: flowability -
the ease of flow of fresh SCC when unconfined by formwork and/or reinforcement,
viscosity - the resistance to flow of fresh SCC once flow has started, passing ability -
the ability of fresh SCC to flow through tight openings such as spaces between steel
reinforcing bars without segregation or blocking, segregation resistance - the ability of
fresh SCC to remain homogeneous in composition while in its fresh state [1].
Testing and proofing of these properties is a novelty than vibrated concrete testing. It
took about 20 years of intensive investigations for recomendations to become the official
Europian Standard. Because of it’s extraordinary properties SCC spread away from
Japan onto the whole world. A lot of different investigation resulted with about 15
1
Iva Despotović, MScCe, Belgrade University College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and Geodesy,
Hajduk Stankova 2, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 64 1918539, e – mail: ivickad@gmail.com
2
Zoran Grdić, Ph.D, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis
methods of testing [2] with the test interpretation which could vary from country to
country. Whole teams were formed in Europe whose work was united in the form of
recomendations first, and the part of EN much later.
European Standard EN 206-1:2000 specifies requirements for: the constituent materials
of SCC, the properties of fresh and hardened SCC and their verification, the limitations
for SCC composition, the specification of SCC, the factory production control
procedure, the conformity criteria [3].
The testing of SCC in the fresh state became a part of EN 12350, which defines the
testing methods (fresh concrete) in these chapters [4]:
EN 12350-8, Testing fresh concrete - Part 8: Self-compacting concrete – Slump-flow test
EN 12350-9, Testing fresh concrete - Part 9: Self-compacting concrete – V-funnel test
EN 12350-10, Testing fresh concrete - Part 10: Self-compacting concrete – L box test
EN 12350-11, Testing fresh concrete - Part 11: Self-compacting concrete – Sieve
segregation test
EN 12350-12, Testing fresh concrete - Part 12: Self-compacting concrete – J-ring test
The final criteria for SCC evaluation is assimilated in 2010. in Europian standard
EN206-9:2010 Concrete - Part 9: Additional Rules for Self-compacting Concrete (SCC).
This European Standard was approved by CEN (EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR
STANDARDIZATION/ COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION) on 27
February 2010. CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal
Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard the status
of a national standard without any alteration. CEN members are the national standards
bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.
Testing methods and result interpretation according to Europian Standards EN12350 and
EN 206-9:2010 are shown in this paper.
It should be noticed that the flowability, viscosity, passing ability and resistance to
segregation may also be determined by alternative test methods valid in the place of use
if there is an established relationship with EN 206-1:2000.
This test needs mould in the shape of a truncated cone with the internal dimensions 200
mm diameter at the base, 100 mm diameter at the top and a height of 300 mm,
conforming to EN 12350-2 (Fig.1). About 6 litre of concrete is needed to perform the
test, sampled normally.
The base plate and inside of slump cone are moistened, the cone is filled and raised
vertically, so the concrete can flow out freely. Simultaneously, the stopwatch is strated
and the time taken for the concrete to reach the 500mm spread circle is recorded. This is
the T50 time. Viscosity classes – t500 (s) [5]: VS1 < 2,0 VS2 ≥ 2,0
The average of the two measured diameters in two perpendicular directions is the
slumpflow in mm.
Slump-flow classes [5]: SF1 550 to 650 mm; SF2 660 to 750 mm; SF3 760 to 850 mm
4. V FUNNEL TEST
The test was developed in Japan (Ozawa) . The equipment consists of a V-shaped funnel,
shown in Fig.2. An alternative type of V-funnel, the O funnel, with a circular section is
also used in Japan. The described V-funnel test is used to determine the filling ability
(flowability) of the concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 20mm. The funnel is
filled with about 12 litre of concrete and the time taken for it to flow through the
apparatus measured.
After this the funnel can be refilled concrete and left for 5 minutes to settle. If the
concrete shows segregation then the flow time will increase significantly.
V-funnel flow time (s) [5]: VF1: < 9,0 VF2 9,0 to 25,0
Figure2: V-funnel
5. L BOX TEST
This test, based on a Japanese design for underwater concrete, has been described by
Petersson.The apparatus consists of a rectangular-section box in the shape of an ‘L’, with
a vertical and horizontal section, separated by a moveable gate, in front of which vertical
lengths of reinforcement bar are fitted (Fig.3). The vertical section is filled with
concrete, then the gate lifted to let the concrete flow into the horizontal section. When
the flow has stopped, the height of the concrete at the end of the horizontal section is
expressed as a proportion of that remaining in the vertical section. This is an indication
passing ability, or the degree to which the passage of concrete through the bars is
restricted.
The horizontal section of the box can be marked at 200mm and 400mm from the gate
and the times taken to reach these points measured. These are known as the T20 and T40
times and are an indication for the filling ability.
L-box ratio [5]: PL1 ≥ 0,80 with 2 rebars PL2 ≥ 0,80 with 3 rebars
This is very simple test. About 5kg of concrete is poured onto the sieve (d=5mm). After
2 minutes the passed quantity is measured. The result is ratio between passed and poured
concrete (Fig.4).
7. J RING TEST
The principle of the J Ring test may be Japanese, but no references are known. The J
Ring test itself has been developed at the University of Paisley. The test is used to
determine the passing ability of the concrete. The equipment consists of a rectangular
section (30mm x 25mm) open steel ring, drilled vertically with holes to accept threaded
sections of reinforcement bar. These sections of bar can be of different diameters and
spaced at different intervals: in accordance with normal reinforcement considerations, 3x
the maximum aggregate size might be appropriate. The diameter of the ring of vertical
bars is 300mm, and the height 100 mm. The J Ring is used with the slump flow cone.
The Self – Compacting Concrete should pass through the bars without stucking and
segregation (Fig.5). The average of the difference in height at four locations (in mm) of
the concrete just inside the bars and that just outside the bars is the measure of the test.
J-ring step (mm) [5]: PJ1 ≤ 10 with 12 rebars; PJ2 ≤ 10 with 16 rebars
After 25 years from the inception and after a huge number of different investigations, the
testing procedure for Self - Compacting Concrete is finally defined in Europian
Standards: EN 206-1:2000 (materials, composition, properties), EN 12350 (testing
methods) and EN 206-9:2010 (result interpretation). In Serbia, the latest version of EN
12350 (2009) is assimilated in 2010 (vibrated concrete – 7 chapters) and in 2012 (Self –
Compacting Concrete – 5 chapters), and EN 206-9:2010 is not assimilated yet.
REFERENCES
[1] EFNARC, ERMCO, EFCA, bibm: The Europian Guidelines for Self – Compacting
Concrete, Specification, Production and Use, 2005, p.68
[2] EFNARC: Specification and Guidelines for Self – Compacting Concrete, 2002,
p.32
[3] Europian Standard EN 206 – 1:2000 (serbian translation)
[4] Europian Standard EN 12350
[5] Europian Standard EN 206-9:2010
1. INTRODUCTION
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is defined as the concrete that is able to flow under its
own weight and completely fill the framework without the need of any vibration, whilst
maintaining homogenity (sustaining no segregation)[1]. The use of SCC instead of the
regular concrete has many advantages, such as faster construction, reduced needed
workforce, improved durability and reduced noise levels. Therefore, characteristics of
SCC are being investigated worldwide and SCC will most likely soon become "regular
concrete".
Concrete is probably the most widely used material on Earth, second only to water[2].
However, although it is very practical construction material, there are many serious
problems regarding it's production, the main being CO2 emission during cement
manufacture (by 2025 the cement industry will be emitting CO2 at a rate of 3.5 billion
tons per year[3]) and enviromental damage through the extraction of raw materials
(about 6 billion tons of concrete are produced every year, and every ton of cement,
1
Jelena Bijeljić, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,University of Niš, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, jelena.bijeljic@hotmail.com +381 638352784
2
Stepa Paunović, PhD student , Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,University of Niš, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, stepa.paunovic@gmail.com
3
Ivan Nešović, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,University of Niš, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, ivan.m.nesovic@gmail.com
4
Mr Bojan Milošević, dipl. inž. građ, Lecturer, College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and Geodesy,
University of Belgrade, Hajduk Stankova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, prodic_80@yahoo.com
In this paper, the state of the art of the use of calcined calys as partial cement substitute
in SCC is reviewed, followed by a brief description of an experient undertaken by
authors, as an example of this use.
The most available partial cement substitutes are clays. However, the chemical
compounds of different clays vary greatly depending on with respect to their location.
For clay to have a puzzolanic effect, it should consist largely of kaolinit, a clay mineral
that is transformed to metakaolin (MK) through a thermal treatment and can then be used
in production of high performance concrete, but most of the clays do not have this
mineral in sufficient quantity.
From construction's point of view, it would be best to use kaolin (Chinese clay), i.e "pure
clay", which consists almost solely of kaolinit and thus has the potential to provide
concrete with great improvements in performance. More about it's use and influences
will be said later. Here it is noted that, although it has many positive effects and is the
most commonly used clay SCM, it is also an expensive one, due to the limited resources.
Other, "impure clays", some of which are diatomite rock [3] and different types of shale,
contain other clay minerals such as illite, montmorillonit, magnesium, quartz, etc.[5][6]
to some extent. With their widespread availability and lower cost compared to pure
kaolinite, these clays may become a competitive, more sustainable building material
option. However, in spite of their availability, these non-kaolinite clay minerals are not
used in concrete primarily due to their poor puzzolanic reactivity and a subsequent
reduction in concrete mechanical performance [7].
In addressing this problem, many researchers are trying to improve the puzzolanic
activity of these minerals. Thermal treatment in kiln at moderate temperatures, usually in
range of 500oC-1000oC, a process called calcination, is the most common method in
acheaving this. It collapses the crystalline structure of the mineral by evaporating the
lattice hydroxyl groups, creating a highly reactive amorphous aluminosilicate that has
high affinity for reaction with cement hydration products [7]. Non-kaolinit calcined clays
(CC) have some, but often not strong enough puzzolanic effect. Therefore, additional
ways of clay mineral activation are sought (the use of zincite, for example [7]), but so far
none has given the satisfying results, leaving MK as the most suitable clay SCM. A
review of the influence of MK on fresh properties of concrete follows.
As we've already said earlier, MK is the most commonly used partial PC replacement in
SCC production at the moment.
The fresh as well as the hardened properties of SCC can vary greatly due to the influence
of MK. However, reference data regarding the precise percentage of MK usage differ
and very few authors are willing to vouch for it. The reason for this lies in the fact that
the same amount of MK causes notably different results with different water to binder
(W/B) ratios. The key to the solution lies in more experiments of the fresh properties of
concrete.
The tests preformed on such a concrete in its fresh state would show the optimal level of
MK replacement in SCC that would also satisfy the workability and required rheological
properties. The most important workability tests are: Slump flow; T500; V funnel and L-
box test.
Slump flow and T500 are tests of mobility of the fresh concrete, and they have many
similarities and differences also. Slump flow test is in fact the radius of the total fresh
SCC casting, while T500 determines the time needed for SCC to spread to the diameter of
500 mm. V funnel test is specialized for determining the viscosity of the fresh mixture,
while L-box test is used to estimate the casting and affinity of concrete for getting stuck
between the rebars of the reinforcement.
The reference values that should be expected during the testing are given in Table 1.
The majority of researchers investigated the SCC using these tests, with MK
involvement to a maximum of 25%. They have all come to a similar conclusion. In fact,
with W/B factor ranging from 0.35 to 0.4, the optimum MK participation in PC is
between 10% and 15%. Greater MK content causes the gradual "increase in density" of
the fresh concrete and it's poorer workability, which can be demonstrated through the
tests mentioned.
As a general example, the results achieved by R. Madandoust and S.Y. Mousavi [9]
follow. They have tested three series of five samples using the described methods.
Samples had been made with the MK content of 0; 5; 10; 15; 20%. The series have
differed from oneanother in W/B factor, which was/has been 0.32; 0.38; 0.45%,
respectively. The results are shown in the Table 2 [9].
3. EXPERIMENT
During the fall of 2013 at the University of the German Federal Armed Forces, Munich,
Germany, the influence of calcined clays on fresh properties of SCC was investigated.
The project was supported by Univ Prof Dr Ing K.-Ch. Thienel, and one of the authors of
this paper took part in it.The calcined clay used, was calcined at the temperature of 750
°C, which contained several clay minerals (kaolinit, illit, montmorillonit, etc.). The
Particle size was between 0.000 and 0.030 mm. The cement used in mixture was CEM I
42.5 R with high clinker content, produced by HeidelbergCement plant in
Burglengenfeld. Mixture included the additive Sika ViskoFlow 20 (polycarboxylate
organic additive) and river agregate/sand.
Table 3. Results of fresh SCC prepared with 20% calcined clay and 80% cement
Air temperature 20 C
Water temperature 23 C
Fresh concrete temperature 23 C
Concrete spread SF2(h1=700 and h2=720 mm)
Slump VS 2, (5 s)
Air void content 5,2 %
The SCC mixture was made with calcined clay as a partial filler substitute and normal
river agregate/sand. The density ranges between 2000 kg/m3 and 2800 kg/m3 classifying
it as a concrete of normal density. The consistency class was determined in accordence
to EN 206-9:2010.
Fresh concrete tests:
Using the same equipment as for the conventional concrete, the slump flow test was
conducted. The concrete in the cone was neither compacted, nor shaked or vibrated in
any way. After the lifting of the conus, the housed concrete collapsed and spreaded
under it's own weight and the two perpendicular diameters of the casting were measured.
The obtained results were 700 mm in one, and 720 mm in the other direction. According
to EN 206-9:2010 this SCC classifies as SF2 (concretes of plastic consistency, with
spread diameter within limits of 660 mm and 750 mm). Hence, the first condition was
satisfied. Fresh concrete mass is show in Figure 1.
A test method for evaluating the material segregation resistance of SCC, where the
500mm flow reach time is measured in the slump flow test above, that is, the time for
the flow to reach 500 mm is measured in the slump flow test. SCC should give T500 = 2
- 5 seconds. [10]
The amount of air sucked in the fresh concrete mixture was also tested (Figure 2), and
the measured value was 5.2% (recommended values are 4-6%).
4. CONCLUSION
It has been demonstrated by many researchers that kaolinit in form of metakaolin can be
used as an excellent cement substitute. However, it is still too expensive for a wider use,
and therefore it's application is limited only to high performance concretes. If other clay
minerals' puzzolanic reactivity was improved, the use of calcined clays would present a
good choice in adressing the cement production reduction problem. At the moment, we
have at our disposal no method for achiving this improvement, and are subsiquently
directed to further investigate the potential of calcined clays activation and aplication
and seek other means of replacing cement in concrete.
REFERENCES
[4] Ternary Cement Composites with Metakaolin Sand and Calcined Clayey
diatomite, L'udovit Krajči, Marta Kuliffayova, Ivan Janotka; Elsevier Ltd. 2013
[5] Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, EB001, Chapter 3: Fly Ash, Slag,
Silica Fume and Natural Puzzolans
[6] Xiaojian Gao, Shiho Kawashima, Xiaoyan Liu, Surendra P. Shah, Influence of clays
on the shrinkage and cracking tendency of SCC, Cement & Concrete Composites,
Elsevier 2012.
[7] Nathan A. Tregger, Margaret E. Pakula, Serendra P. Shah, Influence of clays on the
rheology of cement pastes, Cemen and Concrete Research, Elsevier 2009.
[8] Sarah Clare Tayore Lange, Advancements in concrete material sustainability:
Supplementary cementitious material development and pollutant interaction, The
University of Texas at Austin, May 2013.
[9] The European guidelines for self-compacting concrete; specification production and
use. EFNARC, May 2005.
[10] Fresh and hardened properties of self – compacting concrete containing metakaolin,
Rahmat Madandoust, S. Yasin Mousavi, 2012
[11] Applications of self-compacting concrete in japan, europe and the united states,
Masahiro Ouchi, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan Sada-aki
Nakamura, PC Bridge Company, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan Thomas Osterberg and Sven-
Erik Hallberg, Swedish National Road Administration, Borlange, Sweden Myint
Lwin, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
1. УВОД
1
проф. др Мирјана Малешев, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука,
Департман за грађевинарство и геодезију, Трг Доситеја Обрадовића бр. 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 00381
21 459 798, e – mail: miram@uns.ac.rs
2
проф. др Властимир Радоњанин, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких
наука, Департман за грађевинарство и геодезију, Трг Доситеја Обрадовића бр. 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел:
00381 21 459 798, e – mail: radonv@uns.ac.rs
3
мр Гордана Броћета, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско-грађевински факултет,
Булевар војводе Степе Степановића бр. 77/3, Бањалука, Република Српска, БиХ, тел: 00387 51 462 616,
e – mail: gbroceta@agfbl.org
[1, 2, 3, 4]. Поред тога, у случајевима када рециклирани агрегат потиче из више
различитих извора, односно ако је произведен од више различитих отпадних
бетона, неуједначеност квалитета у смислу варијација у својствима биће знатно
израженија него код природног агрегата, те стога треба бити уобичајена пракса да
произвођачи бетона прије употребе рециклираног агрегата детаљно провјере
његова својства.
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Маринковић, С., Радоњанин, В., Малешев, М., Игњатовић, И.: Рециклирани
агрегат у конструкцијским бетонима - технологија, својства, примена.
Научно-стручни часопис за градитељство Републике српске - Савремено
градитељство, 2009, бр. 02, стр. 58-72.
[2] Јевтић, Д., Закић, Д., Савић, А: Специфичности технологије справљања бетона
на бази рециклираног агрегата. Материјали и конструкције, 2009, вол. 52, бр.
1, стр. 52-62.
[3] Маринковић, С., Радоњанин, В., Малешев, М., Игњатовић, И.: Properties and
Environmental Impact of Recycled Aggregate Concrete for Structural Use.
Proceedings of Seminar of COST action C25 "Sustainability of Constructions-
1. УВОД
1
проф. др Властимир Радоњанин, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких
наука, Департман за грађевинарство и геодезију, Трг Доситеја Обрадовића бр. 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел:
00381 21 459 798, e – mail: radonv@uns.ac.rs
2
проф. др Мирјана Малешев, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука,
Департман за грађевинарство и геодезију, Трг Доситеја Обрадовића бр. 6, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 00381
21 459 798, e – mail: miram@uns.ac.rs
3
мр Гордана Броћета, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско-грађевински факултет,
Булевар војводе Степе Степановића бр. 77/3, Бањалука, Република Српска, БиХ, тел: 00387 51 462 616,
e – mail: gbroceta@agfbl.org
Дакле, порозност зрна рециклираног агрегата може у извјесној мјери бити његова
предност у односу на природни агрегат, јер присутне поре могу упити воду из
цементне пасте, тако да се формира транзитна зона веће густине, а такође може
представљати и значајан недостатак, јер упијање воде из цементне пасте може да
узрокује проблем недостатка воде потребне за одвијање процеса хидратације
цемента у оквиру новосправљеног бетона. Са тим у вези намеће се закључак да је
за моделирање микроструктуре бетона на бази рециклираног агрегата неопходно
познавање прецизних стварних вриједности карактеристика рециклираног агрегата
и то првенствено његовог капацитета у погледу упијања.
Добар примјер транзитне зоне код зрна рециклираног агрегата је приказан на
слици 3., гдје је, како се види, путања лома (узорка бетона справљеног са великом
количином рециклираног агрегата, а испитивог на чврстоћу при затезању) прошла
кроз зрно "RA", јер се оно показало најслабијом компонентом предметног
композита. Наиме, интересантно је да лом није настао кроз контактну зону између
зрна рециклираног агрегата и новоформиране цементне пасте, што значи да је
чврстоћа везе у овој зони већа од чврстоће зрна рециклираног агрегата [10].
Слика 3. Снимак лома "RAC" кроз зрно "RA", помоћу флуоресцентног микроскопа
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. INTRODUCTION
The research concept is based upon the fact that outdoor/indoor heat exchanges (which
play a significant part of lightweight buildings cooling and heating loads) can be
potentially controlled by a new fiber insulation that possesses a thermally active heat
storage capacity. During the day, when temperature rises, the peak loads can be largely
absorbed by a PCM (Phase Change Material) - enhanced fiber insulation layer, only to
be slowly discharged back to the environment later (during the night time, when outside
temperature drops), without affecting the interior building energy balance, as it is aided
by the presence of an standard low heat transfer fiber insulation layer. This approach will
provide a much slower response of the building envelope to daily temperature
fluctuations, helping maintaining inside temperature in a comfortable range and thus
avoiding the need for extra energy consumptions to accomplish it. Effective levels of
indoor comfort will be also guaranteed by the well known fiber materials excellence,
1
Đorđe Đorđević, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, A. Medvedeva 14, Niš,
tel: ++381 64 156 36 76, e – mail: djoka@ni.ac.rs
2
Biljana Avramović, Construction Cluster Dundjer, Niš, Rajićeva 30a, tel. ++381 18 522 812, e-mail:
KlasterDundjer@yahoo.com
when it comes to reduce airborne noise transmission and its superior performance upon
controlling the sound resonance in construction cavities.
Based upon the excellent thermal and noise insulation properties and market acceptance
for commonly glass and mineral wool materials, it was reasonable to think upon using
those types of fibers to integrate the StorePET approach, instead of the polyester.
However, their manufacturing process, dealing with high temperatures and other
technical issues, makes it almost impossible to incorporate the PCMs within its fiber
structures. Other possible option was to choose cellulose fibers as the core material for
this new product. The reason to withdraw this pathway was that cellulose insulation
production is still too much based on low-tech machinery and methods, making it
unfeasible to re-process the shredded recycled cellulose fibers for PCM incorporation
sake, and still be competitive under the same basis. Thus, polyester fiber was chosen for
this approach for being currently the most promising material to be able to incorporate
this novel thermal enhancement.
Thanks to the peculiarities of the polyester fiber, this type of insulation differs from
other similar products, for being breathable and because it‘s physical and chemical
features remains unvaried over time, maintaining their excellent thermal and acoustic
insulation and mechanical properties. Generally able to satisfy the different needs of
application and/or of technical performances by meeting the standard regulations in
terms of thermal and acoustical insulation, moisture resistance and reaction to fire. In
addition, it contains no harmful substances for human beings, it is completely
recyclable, and by being manufactured with materials obtained from post consumer PET
bottles recycling, it also allows consequently savings of CO2 emissions.
The best production process shall be carefully evaluated during the research part of the
project, deciding which PCMs will be selected for the new concept and how they will
integrate the nonwoven polymer fibers. The challenging proposal that shall be primarily
developed is to incorporate micro size encapsulated PCMs inside the hollow or no-
hollow recycled staple polyester fibers, during its early production stage. This is
probably the most challenging and revolutionary attempt made over the last decades on
the fiber insulation sector and should be regarded as a huge breakthrough that will vastly
contribute for its market competitiveness.
Up until now this PCM fiber integration has only be successfully made in the textile
industry by a limited number of companies, mostly using wet spun acrylic viscose
techniques and modified cellulose fibers using Lyocell technology. Complementary,
recent research has proved that it is possible to impregnate non encapsulated PCMs (i.e.
Ecosine) into polyester fibers, with the aid of supercritical CO2 fluid suspensions.
Although this can be much more expensive solution, leading to the need of extra
industrial-size pressure chambers to perform the impregnation, supercritical carbon
dioxide is seen as an alternative promising technique.
If proved technical possible and commercially feasible, for instance by advanced
manufacturing with fiber electrospinning techniques, the PCM-fiber incorporation will
have major advantages over other technological integration solutions, mainly because
the PCMs content will be protected by a dual wall - the first being the wall of the PCM
microcapsule and the second being the surrounding fiber itself. This way, the PCM is
less likely to leak from the fiber during its liquid phase and it will not settle or be lost
from the fiber matrix during handling, storing, application and end-using of the product,
enhancing its own life and the repeatability of its thermal response.
StorePET product shall be engineered according to the specific end-use goals and the
best nonwoven technology available for its production. The PCM type that will be
chosen will take in consideration aspects like its nature and cost, physical and chemical
properties, considering the application market climates, its ease of being supplied and its
technological ability for being integrated with the polyester fibers at an industrial level,
with minimum economical and environmental costs associated.
One of the most important issues to accomplish will be the need to achieve the new heat
storage ability for the StorePET product, without compromise and preferably enhance,
all other thermal, acoustic, mechanical and fire resistance properties of the standard
polyester insulation. This means that it is important to maintain, at least, the same
standard polyester fiber properties, like its density, size, thermal conductivity, etc.
The PCM inclusion shall be preferably made during the extrusion or the melt spinning
process stage of the recycled polymer PET chips, when pluralities of individual synthetic
fibers are formed to be collected into a strand or made into a cut staple type. Afterwards,
the standard Dry-Laid process normally used to produce polyester insulation batts and
boards seems to be the best option to choose, as it is the easiest to perform the fibres
opening mixing and carding. The carding step will provide the thin web layers, which
will be subsequently conveyed to a crosslapper unit to produce a multilayered
overlapping product on a synchronized process before the final thermobonding process.
If the regular carding Dry-Laid process should find unfeasible to reach the PCM
incorporation goal, other techniques should be evaluated like Spun-Laid, Spun-Bond,
Melt-Blown or even Wet-Laid processes to perform the job. On the other hand, if the
thermobonding process should proved derlictic for the PCM content, other fiber bonding
ways should be searched, minding not to compromise the final properties aimed for the
product. Old and environmental unfriendly bonding techniques like the latex ones should
be avoided and, alternatively, consider other techniques like the mechanical bonding
ones (needle punching, stitchbonding or spunlacing –hydroentangling).
The guaranty of indoor warmth in winter and coolness in summer offered by StorePET
insulation products will be conjugated with a superior performance upon on reducing
airborne noise transmission by controlling resonating noise inside construction cavities.
The excellent acoustical insulation and absorption properties of polyester nonwoven
fabrics mainly depend on fiber geometry and fiber arrangement within the fabric
structure. Usually, vertically lapped fabrics are ideal materials for use as acoustical
insulation products, because they have high total surface area. This surface area is
directly related to the denier and cross-sectional shape of the fibers, where smaller
deniers yields more fibers per unit weight of the material, thus greater possibilities for a
sound wave to interact with the fibers in the fabric structure. The PCMs incorporation
technique will try to provide that the sound wave interaction with the insulation matrix
remains unaffected.
Regarding the PCMs to be used upon StorePET, nowadays the chemical industry has a
large set of different PCM types to offer to all different sorts of markets, based on their
phase change process (solid-liquid, liquid-gas and solid-solid) and on their composition
(organic, inorganic, or eutectic).
While the list of technical features is long, for building application proposes, one can
point out the following as the most important ones: proper phase changes at daily regular
climate temperature fluctuations with high latent heat storage capacity and small volume
change during their phase shifts, desirable heat transfer characteristics (e.g. good thermal
conductivity), low vapour pressure, no or limited supercooling, sufficient crystallization
rate, long term chemical stability, compatible with different container materials, no
toxicity and no or acceptable fire risk. Other crucial issues are the economics requisites
for PCM usage: plenty of resources, available for application and, most important, to be
cost effective for large production.
While metallic inorganic PCMs generally show high latent heat of fusion but are seldom
used due to their scarce availability and high cost, the hydrated salts of the same group
(considered as alloys of inorganic salt and water), lay their merits on a large amount of
cost effectiveness candidates at proper temperatures, and on their high latent heat of
fusion and thermal conductivities during their phase shift process. However, their
biggest disadvantage is related to their incongruent melting during phase change
processes, which leads to the separation of the hydrated salt from water, preventing their
smooth recombination during the re-hydration phase (freezing process).
Organic PCM and especially the paraffin subgroup („waxes” like alkane hydrocarbons)
have been the most used for building purposes, due to: large availability for a wide range
of temperatures, chemical stability at multiple change cycles, no phase segregation,
sufficient crystallization rate and very limited supercooling, as well as they are not
normally corrosive.
Over the last years, technical grade paraffins with some impurities levels are being
available at very reasonable prices, showing high levels of reliability concerning their
thermo physical properties. Their major drawbacks are normally the low thermal
conductivity (solve when possible by their coating with metallic fins or heat exchangers)
and their moderate flammability, possible to overcome by incorporating flame
retardants. On the other hand, the large variety and versatile grades of non-paraffin
PCMs (made from fatty acids or esters and glycols), although with very promising
technical properties, are still very expensive and thus not very cost effective for usage.
Extensive research developments on PCM science, led to the possibility of nutshell the
thermal material inside thin polymer capsules, preventing it from leak during its phase
change and providing higher flame resistance. These progresses gave birth to a new
thrust on PCM production for building materials. For example, chemical giant BASF
currently uses a paraffin-based PCM in its Micronal® system, which completes a phase
change from solid to liquid within the indoor temperature and human comfort range (i.e.
at 21°C, 23°C or 26°C) and by doing so it can store a large quantity of heat (heat storage
capacities from 51 to 145 KJ/kg). With microcapsules as small as 5μm and supplied
different forms (dry powder or liquid powder blends), this microencapsulation technique
is consider today the best way to incorporate PCM technology into all sort of building
materials, thus also to expected to be within non-woven technical products like the
proposed StorePET one.
The PCM type to be used on the project will be carefully chosen, not only for its
technical capabilities, price, and manufacturability as impregnated or co-extruded with
the fiber, but also for its merits when it comes to provide an indoor comfortable and
healthy temperature zone, which is between 21°C and 26°C.
Without discarding other climates, StorePET research program shall be largely focused
upon hot summer weather climate conditions. Thus it should spotlight primarily on high
melting point and high overall storage and latent heat capacity materials to absorb the
excess of heat, preventing the surroundings from heating up any further. Values around
26°C, 145kJ/kg and 110kJ/kg respectively, like the microencapsulated paraffinic ones
provided by BASF Micronal DS 5001 (with 5 to 20 μm), should be a good work starting
point, as it provides also a huge number of possible and complete phase change cycles
(averages of 300 phase changes per year, 10,000 cycles correspond to a minimum life
expectancy of more than 30 years).
Although the research program should not be tight only on organic paraffin waxes (other
PCMs must be considered), it should be present that the PCMs ability to store heat over
a period of several hot summer days will depend always on the amount present. When
storage capacity reaches saturation no more heat can be absolved and its performance is
diminished. Thus, the overall PCM content to be included on StorePET must be
carefully identified towards maximum performance, aiming at least 20% wt content as a
start working value.
The selection of PCM type and its overall content, the fibers characteristics and the best
and most suitable technology process to accomplish their combination, will be subject of
an extensive materials research, backed up by thermal and acoustic modelling and
analytical simulation, towards the making of a prototype product that will be largely
tested. The thickness of the PCM integration zone-layer shall be evaluated on the same
bases, in order to achieve all the anticipated technical properties, and the fulfilment of
the mandatory building codes, before it can be delivered to the market. Other important
characteristics like moisture and particularly the fire resistance will also play an
important role of the project towards the compliance of the specific market regulations,
especially considering the PCM content. Nevertheless, when installed, StorePET will be
contained within the cavity sheathing and internal lining board until these layers are
destroyed. Therefore, it will not contribute to the development stages of a fire or present
a smoke or toxic hazard until the lining is compromised.
The research program will also be committed to the need to combine, the least embodied
energy and energy footprint possible for StorePET production, with the lowest
manufacture expenses, towards a cost-effective solution with a good market acceptance
and a minimum time energy-saving payback for householders.
REFERENCES
[1] Tae Won Kim et al.: Impregnation of Eicosane into Polyester Fiber Using
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Solid State Phenomena Journal, 2007, (Volumes 124
- 126), pp 1095-1098.
[2] Kośny J. et al.: (2007) Thermal Performance of PCM-Enhanced Building Envelope
Systems - in Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings X,
Proceedings of ASHRAE THERM X, Clearwater, FL, Dec. 2007.
[3] Kośny, J. : Field Testing of Cellulose Fiber Insulation Enhanced with Phase Change
Material. Oak Ridge, TN, USA: Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report—
ORNL/TM-2007/186, 2007.
[4] Kośny, J et al.: Development of new generation of thermally- enhanced fiber glass
insulation. Oak Ridge, TN, USA: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, March 2010.
[5] Kelheim Fibres GmbH. [Online] http://www.kelheim-
fibres.com/home/index_de.php.
[6] Advanced Phase Change Materials (PCM) Market: Global Forecast (2010-2015)
Report -MarketsandMarkets, June 28, 2010 - Pub ID: MKMK2717813
[7] Nordic Analysis of Climate Friendly Buildings Summary Report - Nordic
Innovation Centre, September 1, 2010.
[8] Eurostat, Statistics in focus, 7/2010. The EU-27 Construction sector: from boom to
gloom.
[9] Green Outlook 2011: Green Trends Driving Growth, McGrow-Hill November 2010.
[10] World Insulation Report - Freedonia Group Inc, February 1, 2009 - Pub ID:
FG2703472
[11] Frost&Sullivan: Strategic Developments in Construction Materials Industry-
Technical Insights, Materials and Coatings, June 2010.
1. UVOD
Zgrada, odnosno zgrade Generalštaba „A“ i „B“, postavljene sa leve i desne strane
Nemanjine ulice u Beogradu, građene su od 1956. do 1965. godine. Bruto površina
zgrade "A" je 12.654 m2, a zgrade "B" 36.581 m3. Projektovao ih je arhitekta Nikola
Dobrović, koji je za ovo ostvarenje dobio Oktobarsku nagradu grada. Ove građevine su
prepoznatljive po kaskadnoj formi, za koju neki autori tvrde da simbolizuje kanjon
Sutjeske, i upečatljivoj fasadi od prirodnog kamena mrkocrvene (komercijalnog naziva
Koral) i bele boje (komercijalnog naziva Veselje Unito). Na žalost, ovo zdanje je
pretrpelo velika fizička oštećenja 1999. godine prilikom NATO bombardovanja. U
svetlu razmatranja mogućnosti obnove, u radu je analizirano stanje kamena na fasadi,
kao i podobnost izabranih varijeteta.
1
Оливера Вушовић, дипл.инж.геол., Институт за испитивање материјала а.д., Булевар војводе Мишића
43, Београд, Србија, e-mail: olivera.vusovic@institutims.rs
2
Ивана Делић-Николић Институт за испитивање материјала а.д., Булевар војводе Мишића 43, Београд,
Србија, e-mail: ivana.delic@institutims.rs
3
др Лидја Курешевић, дипл.инж.геол., Институт за испитивање материјала а.д., Булевар војводе
Мишића 43, Београд, Србија, e-mail: lidja.kuresevic@institutims.rs
parapeti, ali i celi zidovi ulaznih paviljona. Eksploatisan je na ostrvu Braču, u zalivu i
mestu Pučišća, Hrvatska. Ime je dobio po antičkom kamenolomu koji se nalazio iznad
istoimene uvale na Braču. Poznat je kao brački mermer, mada nije mermer. Danas se na
Braču i dalje vadi kamen sličnih karakteristika. Petrološka odredba Veselje determiniše
kao organogeni krečnjak, odnosno rudistni krečnjak sa bioklastičnim matriksom.
Teksture je masivne, preloma plitkoškoljkastog. Dimenzije fosilnih ostataka su od
mikroskopskih ljušturica do oko 4 mm. U zavisnosti od količine i veličine fosilnih
ostataka, njihovoj strukturi i boji definisana su dva varijeteta „Veselje Unito“ (Unito) i
„Veselje fjorito“ (Fiorito). Na zgradi Generalštaba korišćena su dva varijeteta Veselje
kamena i to Unito i Unito A. Oba su bele do boje slonove kosti, sa žućkastom nijansom.
Starosti su gornjokredne (senon). Ovim krečnjakom su obložene Dioklecijanova palata u
Splitu, Zgrada Saveznog izvršnog veća (SIV) u Beogradu, kao i veliki broj drugih
građevina u nekadašnjoj SFRJ. U svetu je ugrađen u Parlament i Novi Dvor u Beču,
Parlament u Budimpešti, Namesničku palatu u Trstu. Navodno je i predvorje zgrade
Ujedinjenih Nacija izrađeno od Bračkog kamena. Crveni kamen, komercijalnog naziva
Koral, obrađen je bunjasto. Na zgradi Generalštaba upotrebljen je na više načina.
Oblikovan kao kocka ivice 25 cm, debljine od 8 do 10 cm korišćen je za oblaganje
velikih zidnih platana, mnogougaoni oblici prosečnih dimenzije od 30 do 35 cm su
upotrebljeni u kiklopskom načinu zidanja obloge prizemlja. Kao nešto tanja obloga
korišćen je u obliku traka na fasadi, za oblaganje linijskih elemenata. I poslednje, u
drobljenom obliku upotrebljen je za izradu „veštačkog kamena“ za dvorišne fasade ovog
zdanja. Eksploatisan je u okolini Kosjerića, na 2 km zapadno od samog grada. Ime je
dobio nakon izbora za oblaganje fasade Generalštaba, 1957. godine. Prerada ovog
kamena u blokove bila je finansijski neodrživa, te je njegova eksploatacija u
arhitektonske svrhe obustavljena 1971. godine. Nastavljena je 1975. nakon izgradnje
cementare Kosjerić, odnosno Titan. Otada se ovaj kamen koristi kao jedna od osnovnih
sirovina za proizvodnju cementa. Petrološki, Koral je organogeni krečnjak, sa obiljem
fosilnih ostataka rudista-hipurita i korala. Boje je crvene do crvenomrke. Strukture je
kriptokristalaste do mikrokristalaste, teksture heterogene. Karakteriše ga prisustvo
stilolitskih šavova, zapunjenih mrkim kalcitsko-gvožđevitim skramama i povremeno
pojavom pukotina različitih oblika i veličina, koje su uglavnom zapunjene belim ili
mrkim materijalom. Starosti je gornjekredne (senon).
Osim Generalštaba, nema poznatih objekata u koje je ugrađen Koral.
Iz svega iznetog može se zaključiti da je Koral pretrpeo znatno manje promena tokom
svoje eksploatacije na fasadi Generalštaba.
LITERATURA
1. УВОД
1
Биљана Антуновић, дипл.физ., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско-грађевински факулет, Степе
Степановића 77/3, Бањалука, Босна и Херцеговина, тел: 0038751 462 543, e – mail: bantunovic@agfbl.org
2
Александар Јанковић, дипл.физ., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско-грађевински факулет,
Степе Степановића 77/3, Бањалука, Босна и Херцеговина, тел: 0038751 462 543, e – mail:
ajankovic@agfbl.org
3
Љубиша Прерадовић, дипл. инг.ел., Универзитет у Бањалуци, Архитектонско-грађевински факулет,
Степе Степановића 77/3, Бањалука, Босна и Херцеговина, тел: 0038751 462 543, e – mail:
ljpreradovic@agfbl.org
4
Захваљујемо се члановима НИП-а Проф.др Властимиру Радоњанину, Проф.др Мирјани Малешев, Мр.
Гордани Броћети, Сузани Кљецанин, Тодору Гелићу, Горану Видовићу на корисним информацијама и
свесрдној помоћи.
5
Закон о енергетској ефикасности Републике Српске је ступио на снагу у јуну 2013. год., али
одговарајући Правилници још нису прописани те се за потребе НИП-а користи Правилник о
енерегетској ефикасности зграда Републике Србије.
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Анализа омотача зграде разматраног вртића у Бањалуци заснована на прорачуну
топлотних губитака трансмисијом (Ht’=1.25 W/m2K) као и на прелиминарним
експерименталним мјерењима указује на лоше топлотне перформансе омотача.
Међутим, имајући у виду чињеницу да је зграда грађена 70их година, те да су
пројектована својства омотача упитна неопходно је извршити детаљнија
истраживања као и мјерења на различитим позицијама и током дужег временског
периода на бази којих би биле дате смјернице у циљу повећања укупне енергетске
ефикасности објекта и постизања потребног квалитета, водећи рачуна о томе да су
у питању установе за дјецу предшколског узраста те да комфорно и здраво
окружење доприноси свеобухватном и здравом развоју дјеце најосјетљивије
старосне доби.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Антуновић Б, Станковић М, Јанковић А, Гајић Д, Тодоровић Д, ''Мјерење
коефицијента пролаза топлоте зида у згради Ректората универзитета у Бањој
Луци'', Међународни научно-стручни скуп ''Савремена теорија и пракса у
градитељству'', Завод за изградњу а.д., стр. 37-46, (Бања Лука, 2012.)
[2] Adhikari S. R, Lucchi E, Pracchi V, ''Experimental Measurements on Thermal
Transmittance of the Opaque Vertical Walls in the Historical Buildings'',
PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an
environmentally responsible architecture Lima, 2012
[3] Каи Шилд, Волфганг М. Вилемс, Грађевинска физика - приручник - Део 1,
(Грађевинска књига, 2008)
[4] Baker Paul, U‐values and traditional buildings, Historic Scotland Technical Paper
10, (Glasgow, 2011)
1. УВОД
1
Драгица Јевтић, дипл.инж.тех., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у
Београду, Бул. краља Александра 73, тел:011 3370 097, е-mail: dragica@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Димитрије Закић, дипл.грађ.инж., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у
Београду, Бул. краља Александра 73, тел:011 3370 097, е-mail: dimmy@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Александар Савић, дипл.грађ.инж., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у
Београду, Бул. краља Александра 73, тел:011 3370 097, е-mail: sasha@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
4
Александар Радевић, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Бул.
краља Александра 73, тел:011 3370 097, е-mail: aradevic@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
2. ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛНО ИСТРАЖИВАЊЕ
g d (1)
E
e eg ed
Укупно је испитано по три узорка од сваке серије, тј. 37=21 узорак.
Serija 6 35.42
35
Serija 5 34.85
30.65
30
29.75
25
20
15
10
0
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000
Dilatacija ε (mm/m)
60
Napon (MPa)
55
Mikroarmirani beton
50
45 Etalon
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Dilatacija - e (%)
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Београду (од којих су у овом раду приказана само три карактеристична случаја),
може се закључити следеће:
- додатак влакана (било синтетичких или челичних) цементној матрици у
принципу "продужава" дијаграм напон-деформација, односно побољшава
жилавост (дуктилност) композита типа малтера и бетона,
- ефекат микроармирања (у смислу повећања жилавости) израженији је у случају
употребе челичних влакана и генерално се побољшава са повећањем количине
употребљене микроарматуре,
- додатак синтетичких влакана нема велики утицај на промену како статичког,
тако ни динамичког модула еластичности (процентуалне разлике између
регистрованих вредности Е за различите серије бетона, кретале су се између 2-
10%); ово се може објаснити пре свега релативно ниским процентуалним
учешћем микроарматуре у оквиру цементне матрице, као и чињеницом да је
модул еластичности синтетичких влакана знатно нижи од модула бетона
(односно цементне матрице),
- с друге стране, забележено је извесно повећање динамичког Поасоновог
коефицијента код микроармираних композита (између 8 и 13%), што значи да
микроармирање у извесној мери доприноси повећању попречних деформација
композита у односу на подужне деформације,
- што се тиче σ-ε дијаграма код композита са ниским садржајем синтетичких
влакана (испод 1%), истраживања су показала да се ови дијаграми углавном
незнатно разликују од дијаграма добијених испитивањем еталонских узорака,
- с друге стране, у случају испитивања композита са додатком челичних влакана,
дуктилност микроармираног бетона (која се може дефинисати као површина
ограничена -e линијом и e-осом), била је вишеструко већа (cca 12 пута) од
дуктилности еталона.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Balaguru P.N., Shah S.P.: Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites, Mc Graw-Hill,
New York, 1992.
[2] Šušteršič J.: Vlaknasti betoni visokih uporabnih svojstava, Doktorska disertacija,
Građevinski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, 1998.
[3] Закић Д.: Физичко-механичка својства малтера са додатком
полипропиленских влакана, Магистарска теза, Грађевински факултет, Београд,
2001.
[4] Bentur A., Mindess S.: Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites, Elsevier
Applied Science, London, UK, 1993.
[5] Hannant D.S.: Fiber Cements and Fiber Concretes, John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1987.
[6] Јевтић Д., Закић Д.: Анализа резултата испитивања бетона микроармираног
челичним влакнима "Спајић", Симпозијум ЈДГК, Врњачка Бања, 2004, стр.
321-326.
1
Асистент Арпад Чех,дипл.инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, тел:024/554-300,
е-маил: ceh@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Проф.др Карољ Касаш,дипл.инж.техн.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел: 024/554-300, е-маил: kkasas@gf.uns.ac.rs
3
Проф.др Милан Кекановић,дипл.инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел:024/554-300, е-маил: kekec@gf.uns.ac.rs
4
Rita Nemes, PhD, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Department of Construction Materials and Engineering Geology, Műegyetemrkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest,
Hungary, tel: 00-36-1-463-3454, e-mail: nemes.rita@gmail.com
5
Виши лаборант Голуб Караман,инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел:024/554-300, е-маил: golub@gf.uns.ac.rs
Састојци аерогела се помешају и ливењем наносе на траку или панел, што може
бити на бази полиестра, стакла, угљеника, керамике, после чега следи технолошки
процес добијања аерогела у структури траке или панела, суперкритичном
екстракцијом и сушењем. Након тога следи формирање ролни или пакета, већ
готових термоизолационих материјала, на бази аерогела, као што је приказано на
Слици 2.
Confidential & Proprietary
Aspen’s Aerogel Manufacturing Process
Casting
Dopants
Catalyst
Silica
Gelation
Sol
Dry fiber
blanket
Supercritical
Rolls packed extraction
for shipment
Drying
-4-
њихова густина од 1,9 kg/m3 при атмосферсом притиску (ради упоређења густина
ваздуха је 1,2 kg/m3), запреминска порозност од 99,8 % или специфична површина
од 400–1,000 m2/g (што је око 1000 пута веће од специфичне површине цемента)
веома брзо су постали познати као најбољи термоизолациони материјали (λ=0,004-
0,03W/mK – где је доња граница постигнута при полувакумским условима од 50
mbara), најбољи звучни абсорбери, изузетно порозни са порама величине неколико
1-100 nm, имају одличну моћ акумулације енергије, упијања, итд.
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[5] Baetens, R., J. V., Thue, Tenpierik, M. J., Grynning, S., Uvsløkk, S., Gustavsen, A.:
Vacuum insulation panels for building applications: A review and beyond, Energy
and Buildings, 2010, vol. 42., стр. 147-172
[6] http://www.aerogel.com/ , преузето 05.02.2014.
[7] Test report No. F.2-192a/09, FIW-München, 2009
[8] http://www.fixit.ch/aerogel/ , преузето 05.02.2014.
[9] Hanus, M.J., Harris, A.T.: Nanotechnology innovations for the construction
industry, Progress in Materials Science, 2013, Vol. 58, стр. 1056–1102
Порекло печеног глиненог црепа се може независно пратити на два различита дела
света: у Кини, почевши око 10.000 година пре нове ере, и на Блиском Истоку мало
касније. Из ових региона ,употреба глинених плочица се шири ван Азије и
Европе. Не само древни египćани и вавилонци , али и грци и римљани су често
1
Дарко Мијатовић, дипл.инж.грађ.,“Потисје Кањижа“ а.д. Кањижа, Суботички пут 57 , Кањижа,
Србија, тел:024/873-303, е – маил: dmijatovic@tondach.rs
2
Проф.др Карољ Касаш, дипл.инж.техн., Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел:024/554-300, е-маил: kkasas@gf.uns.ac.rs
3
Проф.др Милан Кекановић,дипл.инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел:024/554-300, е-маил: kekec@gf.uns.ac.rs
4
Асистент Арпад Чех,дипл.инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а, тел:024/554-300,
е-маил: ceh@gf.uns.ac.rs
5
Виши лаборант Голуб Караман,инж.грађ.,Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
тел:024/554-300, е-маил: golub@gf.uns.ac.rs
Снегобрани и решетке
Снегобрани спречавају неконтролисано клизање снега са крова, а уједно и
равномерним отопљавањем снега продужују трајност кровног покривача.
Слика 5. Постављање паропропусне кровне фолије [4] (лево) и завејан таван код
крова без заштитне кровне фолије (десно)
У случају када се појави вода у ВТМ, коефицијент пролаза топлоте крова се може
повећати неколико пута, што значи велике губитке топлоте, а поред тога и
пропадање кровне конструкције.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. CONCRETE IN FIRE
Concrete has excellent properties in regards of fire resistance compared with other
materials and can be used to shield other structural materials such as steel [1].
During fire the mechanical characteristics of the concrete are changing. During the
cooling process concrete is not able to recover its original characteristics. Deterioration
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Construction Materials and Engineering Geology, Building K. I.
85., Műegyetemrkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary, tel: ++36-1-463-2226, e-mail: balazs@vbt.bme.hu
2
Éva Lublóy, PhD, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Department of Construction Materials and Engineering Geology, Building K. I. 85., Műegyetemrkp. 3, H-1111
Budapest, Hungary, tel: 00-36-1-463-1843; 00-36-20-319-3876, e-mail: lubeva@web.de
3
Oliver A. Czoboly, PhD student, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Department of Construction Materials and Engineering Geology, Building K. I. 85.,
Műegyetemrkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary, tel: 00-36-70-947-5616, e-mail: czoboly.oliver@epito.bme.hu
of concrete at high temperatures has two forms: (1) local damage in the material itself
(Fig. 1) and (2) global damage resulting the failure of the elements (Fig. 2).
Spalling of concrete cover may have two reasons: (1) internal vapour pressure (mainly
for conventional concretes) and (2) overloading of compressed zones (mainly for high
strength concretes). Previous experimental observations has been already indicated that
the application of synthetic fibres considerably may reduce the probability of spalling of
concrete cover. Experiments [9] with tunnel segments (length 11 m, height 2 m)
indicated, that the cover of the polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete sections did not
spall (Figs. 4. a and b). Utilisation of synthetic fibres do not only reduce the probability
of spalling of concrete cover layer, but also reduces the residual compressive strength
[10].
3. LABORATORY TEST
During the laboratory tests the specimens were tempereture loaded in 5 heat steps (20
°C, 50 °C, 150 °C, 300 °C, 500 °C). After heating up to given temperatures the
specimens were kept at these maximum temperatures for two hours. Specimens were
then cooled down in laboratory conditions. After cooling down the specimens the
compressive strength were measured on cylinders (Ø50 mm, h=100 mm) and the
flexural strength on beams (70x70x250 mm). The amounts of constituents, cement,
water, aggregate and plasticizer are given in Table 1.
4. X-RAY TESTING
20 °C 500 °C
5. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
[1] Khoury, G. A., Grainger, B. N., Sullivan, P. J. E., “Transient thermal strain of
concrete: literature review, conditions within specimen and behaviour of individual
constituents”, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 37, No. 132, 1985, pp. 37-48.
[2] Schneider, U., “Concrete at high temperatures − a general review”, Fire Safety
Journal, Vol 13, 1988, pp. 55-68.
[3] Kordina, K., „Fire resistance of reinforced concrete beams“ (Über das
Brandverhalten punktgeschützter Stahbetonbalken), Deutscher Ausschuss für
Stahlbeton, Heft 479, ISSN 0171-7197, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1997.
[4] Waubke, N. V., „Physical analysis of strength reduction of concrete up to 1000 °C“
(Über einen physikalischen Gesichtspunkt der Festigkeitsverluste von
Portlandzement−betonen bei Temperaturen bis 1000 °C − Brandverhalten von
Bauteilen), PhD Thesis, TU Braunschweig, 1973.
[5] http://www.polizia.ti.ch. download 31.01.2014.
[6] Thielen, K. Ch., „Strength and Deformation of Concrete Subjected to high
Temperature and Biaxial Stress-Test and Modelling“ (Festigkeit und Verformung
von Beton bei hoher Temperatur und biaxialer Beanspruchung - Versuche und
Modellbildung), Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton, Heft 437 Beuth Verlag
GmbH, Berlin.
[7] CEB Bulletin D’Information Number 208, „Fire design of concrete structures”
Lausanne
[8] Schneider, U., Lebeda, C., „Fire safety engineering“, Stuttgart; Berlin; Köln:
Kohlhammer, 2000.
[9] Mörth, W., Haberland Ch., Horvath J., Mayer A., „Behaviour of Optimized Tunnel
Concrete with Special Aggregates at High Temperature”, Proceedings of Central
European Congress on Concrete Engineering (Ed. Michael Pauser) 8.-9. Sept. 2005
Graz pp. 41-50.
[10] Horiguchi, T., „Combination of Synthetic and Steel Fibres Reinforcement for Fire
Resistance of High Strength Concrete”, Proceedings of Central Europan Congress
on Concrete Engineering 8.-9. Sept. 2005 Graz pp. 59-64.
[11] Bogner, P., Földes, T., Závoda, F., Repa, I., (2003), “Application of CT and MR in
the carbon hidrogen research”, Hungroise Radyology 2003. pp. 231-237.
[12] Földes, T., Kiss, B., Árgyelán, G., Bogner, P., Repa, I., Hips, K. (2004),
“Application of medical computer tomograph measurements in 3D reservoir
characterization”, Acta Geologica Hungarica, Vol.47/1, pp-63-73
1.
1
Даница Старинац, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: danica.starinac@jcerni.co.rs
2
Предраг Војт, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: predrag.vojt@jcerni.co.rs
3
Маријана Дамњановић, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава
Черног 80, Пиносава - Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: marijana.damnjanovic@jcerni.co.rs
4
Драгиша Жугић, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 06 475, e – mail: dragisa.zugic@jcerni.co.rs
5
Проф. др Љубодраг Савић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: ljdsavic@grf.bg.ac.rs
6
Проф. др Радомир Капор, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 33 70 206, e – mail: rkapor@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
7
Будо Зиндовић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља
Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 33 70 206, e – mail: bzindovic@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
2. УВОД
3. ФИЗИЧКИ МОДЕЛ
Физички модел бране Бузинa, у размери за дужине 1:40 (Слика 1), изгрaђeн je у
хали Хидрауличке лабораторије Института за водопривреду „Јарослав Черни“, у
Београду, током jaнуaрa и фeбруaрa 2013.године.
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
При струjaњу вoдe прeкo нeрaвнe пoвршинe стпенастог брзотока знaчajaн дeo
мeхaничкe eнeргиje прeтвaрa сe у тoплoтну, пa сe димeнзиje умируjућeг бaзeнa, у
пoднoжjу брaнe, мoгу смaњити, или сe бaзeн мoжe изoстaвити. Збoг вeликих уштe-
дa, кoje сe тaкo oствaруjу, нajвeћи брoj брaнa oд вaљaнoг бeтoнa грaди сe упрaвo нa
oвaj нaчин.
Струjaњe нa стeпeнaстoм брзoтoку je врлo слoжeнo и зaвиси oд врeднoсти мнoгих
пaрaмeтaрa. Постоје двa типa струjaњa, кoja сe мoгу oствaрити: скoкoвити и клизe-
ћи тoк. Кoд скoкoвитoг тoкa, вoдa у млaзу пaдa прeкo ивицe стeпeникa нa днo
низвoднoг стeпeникa, нa кoмe сe ствaрa пoтпуни или нeпoтпуни хидрaулички скoк.
Кoд клизeћeг тoкa млaз oстaje jeдинствeн, a прeтвaрaњe мeхaничкe eнeргиje у
тoплoтну сe oствaруje вртлoжним тoкoм вoдe, у прoстoру oгрaничeнoм кoнтурoм
стeпeникa и дoњoм пoвршинoм млaзa. Сa глeдиштa умирeњa, скoкoвит тoк je
eфикaсниjи oд клизeћeг, aли сe избeгaвa при вeћим прoтицajимa и пaдoвимa збoг
1
Даница Старинац, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: danica.starinac@jcerni.co.rs
2
Будо Зиндовић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља
Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 33 70 206, e – mail: bzindovic@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Предраг Војт, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: predrag.vojt@jcerni.co.rs
4
Проф. др Љубодраг Савић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: ljdsavic@grf.bg.ac.rs
5
В.проф. др Радомир Капор, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет,
Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: rkapor@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
динaмичких oптерећења, кao и збoг вeликe дужинe брзoтoкa кojи сe зaхтeвa. У oвoj
aнaлизи рaзмaтрaћe сe искључивo клизeћи тoк.
Пoчeв oд крунe прeливa, дуж тoкa, гранични слoj пoвeћaвa дeбљину, дa би нa
нeкoм рaстojaњу, Li, дoстигao слoбoдну пoвршину вoдe (Слика 1). Низвoднo oд тoг
мeстa, услeд изрaжeнe турбулeнциje дoлaзи дo интeнзивнoг увлaчeњa вaздухa, тaкo
дa нaстaje мeшaвинa вoдe и вaздухa (двoфaзни флуид).
Y90
d 1 C dy
0
(1)
где је: Y90 – карактеристична дубина воде на којој је концентрација ваздуха једнака
0,9, а y – растојање мерено нoрмaлнo нa струjницe, oд фиктивнoг днa, кoje je
oдрeђeнo "врхoвимa" стeпeникa.
Уз наведене претпоставке, распоред концентрације ваздуха по дубини се може
аналитички проценити. За једнолико течење, једначина контунуитета за ваздух у
мешавини воде и ваздуха може се написати као:
C
Dt cos ur C (2)
y y y
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Емпиријски изрази, анализирани у овом раду, могу пружити релативно добру про-
цену распореда концентрације ваздуха по дубини степенастог брзотока, посебно за
веће концентрације ваздуха, али се морају врло пажљиво примењивати. Сложени
услови течења који настају на оваквим објектима и чињеница да је скоро сваки
степенасти брзоток јединствен, захтевају детаљније дефинисање вредности пара-
метара који фигуришу у поменутим изразима. Испитивања осетљивости емпи-
ријских формула на геометријске и хидрауличке карактеристике, свакако би
допринела новим сазнањима и унапређењу постојећих формула.
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. INTRODUCTION
Standardization of methods and procedures for the analysis of floods is essential for
consistent and reliable assessment of design floods for sizing the hydraulic structures.
Statistical analysis of the observed flow data is the basis for determining flood estimates
for design projects, which in turn are the basis to estimation of design floods and the
regional flood frequency analysis. Development of the “Guidelines for flood frequency
analysis at hydrologic stations (in gauged basins)” for Serbia is in the final stage [1].
These guidelines propose the way to treat exceptional values (outliers) in the observed
flood series of annual maximum flows, which makes the sample for frequency analysis.
The proposed approach is new to the existing engineering practice in Serbia. The
presence of outliers in the sample can lead to problems in formulating a statistical model
and fitting an appropriate theoretical distribution from the observations. Given that
finding a correct model that will allow extrapolation of the flow outside the range of
1
Dr Borislava Blagojević, Assist. Prof., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, Tel: 018 588 200, e – mail: borislava.blagojevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs;
b.blagojevic@eunet.rs
2
Dr Vladislava Mihailović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Kneza Višeslava 1, Belgrade, Serbia,
Tel: 011 30 59 945, e – mail: vladislava.mihailovic@sfb.bg.ac.rs
3
Dr Jasna Plavšić, Assist. Prof., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 42, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia, Tel: 011 337 0206, e – mail: jplavsic@grf.bg.ac.rs
observed values is very important for estimation of design floods, the effect of the high
outliers on the choice of the theoretical distribution is usually considered to be crucial.
However, low outliers can significantly affect not only the choice of the best
distribution, but also the distribution parameter estimates.
The goal of the study presented in this paper is to determine the differences that arise
from different approaches to outlier detection and to identify the problems that may arise
in application of the proposed procedures.
2. METHODOLOGY
Outlier detection in the annual maximum flood series in this paper is based on the
Grubbs and Beck test [2]. This test examines the presence of high and low outliers in the
series. It is used under the assumption that the logarithms (or some other transformation)
of the original series are normally distributed. When natural logarithm of the variable is
used, the upper and lower limits for outliers are given with:
X D exp(m y K n s y ) i X G exp(m y K n s y ) . (1)
where my and sy are the mean and standard deviation of the natural logarithms of the
original variable, and Kn is the frequency factor representing the test statistic that
depends on the significance level α and the sample size n. For the 10% significance level
and sample size n, approximate expression for Kn is given with [3]:
K n 0.9043 3.345 log n 0.4046 log n , (2)
The above equation gives approximately the same results as the expression [4]:
K n 3.6220 6.2844n 0.25 2.49835n 0.5 0.491436n 0.75 0.037911n . (3)
For the 5% significance level, the following formula has been obtained from information
in [5]:
K n 0.5148 3.19 log n 0.3837 log n . (4)
For flood flow series and their logarithms for which distributions other than normal are
assumed, the limits that define outliers are estimated from the given distribution for
normal probability of Kn:
X D FX1 (1 p), X G FX1 ( p), p ( K n ) . (5)
where Φ(.) is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution,
and FX(.) is the assumed parent distribution for the sample data.
The sample data is tested for normality by testing the hypothesis that the skew
coefficient is equal to zero. The critical region for this test is defined using the Fisher’s
asymptotic variance of the sample skewness [6]:
6n(n 1)
var[c s ] . (6)
(n 2)(n 1)(n 3)
The annual maxima series for which the skewness of the logarithmic flows was not in
the critical test region (|cs| < Zαvar[cs]0.5, where Zα is the standard normal variate for the
given significance level α) were considered to be log-normally distributed (and denoted
LN2). The series for which the normality hypothesis was rejected were fitted with other
skewed distributions including Pearson type III (PT3), log-Pearson type III (LPT3) and
the general extreme value distribution (GEV). The best distribution was selected on the
basis of the goodness-of-fit tests and visual checks. Where it was possible, the same
distribution type was adopted for the sites from the same large basin.
An iterative procedure for outlier detection was applied. For positively skewed samples
the largest observation Xn is first compared to the upper limit XG, and for the negatively
skewed samples the smallest observation X1 is compared to the lower limit XD. If Xn or
X1 turns out to be an outlier, it is removed from the sample. The sample statistics are
then recalculated, and the detection procedure starts from the beginning. Such an
approach is especially important for samples with two similar extreme values that are not
readily detected as outliers. According to [5], in the samples in which the second
extreme value was also an outlier, both values were treated as outliers; in the opposite
case neither value was treated as an outlier.
The most common recommendation for further frequency analysis of the samples
featuring low outliers is to remove them from the sample (the censoring approach) [4]. A
quantile xp is estimated from a censored sample by correcting the new distribution
function F1(x) because of removing nd values. This is done by conditioning F1(x) with
the reduced sample size:
F ( x) P{ X x} P{ X x | X X D }P{ X X D }
n nd n . (7)
P{ X x | X X D }P{ X X D } F1 ( x) 1 d
n n
A high outlier can be treated using different approaches according to [7]: a) the outlier is
removed from the sample, b) the outlier is replaced with the second largest flow in the
same year in which the outlier has occurred, c) the outlier is replaced with the second
largest value in the sample, and d) the outlier remains in the sample. Another possible
approach is to replace the outlier with the flood of the 50 or 100 year return period from
a neighbouring station or region. As a rough estimate, an outlier can be assigned an
apparent return period T* > n, estimated as the return period of the same flood event at
neighbouring stations or by using information on historical floods [8]. Such approaches
are currently not applicable for Serbia, because the results of a regional flood frequency
analysis for the considered period are not available.
In this paper, the presence of outliers in the annual maximum flow series at 68
hydrological stations on the territory of Serbia is investigated. The observation record at
these stations spans from the establishment of the stations until the year 2012 (sample
size ranges from 39 to 85 years). Testing for normality of the log-transformed series
showed that the LN2 distribution can be applied to 44 out of 68 stations. The PT3
distribution is applied to two stations, the LPT3 distribution to six stations and the GEV
distribution to 16 stations. It should be noted that stations on the Drina River are not
considered since the well-known historical maximum in 1896 requires special attention
and application of the methods for frequency estimation of historical extremes from pre-
systematic observations. At the 10% significance level, low outliers were identified at 8
stations and high outliers at 3 stations, while one station (the Studenica River at Ušće)
had both a high and a low outlier. At the 5% significance level, almost all of the outliers
detected at the 10% significance level were detected again, except for one low outlier
(the Ibar River at Lopatnica Lakat) and one high outlier (the Studenica River at Ušće).
The results of testing for presence of outliers (equations 2 and 4) are shown symbolically
in Figures 1 and 2 along with the results published in [9], where the annual maxima
series with data until 2006 were tested at the 10% significance level. It should be noted
that the approach used in [9] is somewhat different from this study in that only the series
with | cs | > 0.4 were tested for presence of outliers, that only the LPT3 distribution was
considered, and that the limits for outlier detection were not determined from equation
(5) but rather with an assumption of a normal parent distribution (eq. 1). In addition, the
results of an evaluation of the detected outliers’ return period that was carried out in [9]
is also shown symbolically in Figures 1 and 2 with circles of different sizes.
Figure 1. Low outliers detected in the series of annual maxima flows: triangles – the
results from this study, circles – the results from [9].
Figure 2. High outliers detected in the series of annual maxima flows: triangles – the
results from this study, circles – the results from [9].
In comparison to the results from [9], new outliers are detected in data after 2006 (low
outliers in the Toplica River basin), while the high outliers in the Vlasina River basin in
1988 and the low outliers in the Kolubara River catchment that have exceptionally small
probability of occurrence are detected again. The differences in detected outliers
between the results from this study and the results from [9] can be attributed to different
samples and to the fact that the study [9] did not consider possible limitations for the
application of the Grubbs-Beck test in regard to the assumption on the log-normal parent
distribution.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusion drawn in this study is that the assumption about the type of the
annual maximum flows’ parent distribution is extremely important for outlier detection,
because transformation (5) yields different limits for the outlier detection. The study has
shown that the outliers detected under assumption of the log-normal distribution in cases
when this assumption was not supported by the sample properties (because the skew
coefficient of the log-transformed data was significantly different from zero) were
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
“The research on development and improvement of the protection from floods in Serbia:
Development of the methodology for standardization of flood assessment procedures in
Serbia – Phase One: Guidelines for frequency analysis of floods at hydrologic stations
(gauged basins)” has been funded by the Public Water Management Company
“Srbijavode”. We are grateful to the Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia
for providing the data for this study.
REFERENCES
[1] Blagojević, B., Mihailović, V., Plavšić, J.: New Guidelines for Flood Flow
Assessment at Hydrologic Stations in Serbia. Electronic Proceedings of the
International Conference on Flood Resilience: Experiences in Asia and Europe, 5-7
September 2013, Exeter, United Kingdom. Djordjević, S., Butler, D., Chen, A.
(Eds.). 2013.
[2] Bobée, B., Ashkar, F.: The Gamma Family and Derived Distributions Applied in
Hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado, U.S.A., 1991.
[3] Stedinger, J.R., Vogel, R.M., Foufoula-Georgiou, E.: Chapter 18: Frequency
Analysis of Extreme Events. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. Mc-Graw Hill Book
Co., New York, 1993.
[4] ICWD: Guidelines for determining flood flow frequency: Bulletin 17B (revised and
corrected), Interagency Committee on Water Data, Hydrol. Subcomm., Washington,
D.C., 1982.
[5] NRCS: National Engineering Handbook, Part 630: Hydrology, Chapter 18: Selected
Statistical Methods, National Resources Conservation Service, USDA, 2012.
[6] Kottegoda, N., Rosso R.: Applied Statistics for Civil and Environmental Engineers,
Blackwell, 2008.
[7] Vukmirović, V., Pavlović, D.: Utvrđivanje kriterijuma za izbor merodavnih velikih
voda. Tema 2 u okviru naučno-istraživačkog projekta TSI 114 „Savremene metode
u hidrotehnici“, (in Serbian), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Iniversity of Belgrade,
2000.
1. INTRODUCTION
1
Dr. Borislava Blagojević, Assist.Prof., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet, ul. Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, Niš, Srbija, tel: 018 588 200, e – mail: borislava.blagojevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs;
b.blagojevic@eunet.rs
2
Dr. Ljiljana Vasilevska, Assoc.Prof., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet, ul.Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, Niš, Srbija, tel: 018 588 200, e – mail: ljiljana.vasilevska@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2. METHODOLOGY
Table 1 lists nine WSUD elements and the constraints that we use to assess their
feasilibility for implementation .
Table 1. Site constraints for the WSUD elements [4].
Constraint label
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
Element label
High permeability
Low permeability
Land availability
Shallow bedrock
Hydraulic head
High sediment
loss limitation
WSUD element
limitation
Steep site
input
soils
soils
E1 Vegetated Swales c m m m c
E2 Vegetated Filter Stripes c m m m c
E3 Sand filters m m m c c m c
E4 Bioretention Systems c m m c c c c
Permeable Pavements
E5 c c c c c c c
(infiltration)
Permeable Pavements
E5 c m m c c c c
(detention)
E6 Infiltration trenches c c c c c m c
E7 Infiltration basins c c c c c c
E8 Rainwater Tanks c
E9 Landscape Developments m m m c
Key: c- constraint may preclude the use of this WSUD; m- constraint may be overcome with
appropriate modification to design; - generally not a constraint.
We use a flexible spatial unit in evaluation of the studied area and perform an analysis at
the subdivision and allotment scales grouped across the land use categories of the
Medijana General Regulation Plan (GRP) [5], because this level offers an appropriate
background for our study. The grey cells in Table 1 are filled in after the initial
assessment of natural conditions in the area. These cells represent constraints
that we do not take into consideration for further evaluation due to: 1) constraint
absence in the studied area (C-1), 2) the detail site investigation required for the
assessment (C-6), and 3) impossibility to deal with the constraint prior to the
technical design phase (C-8). We examine the constraints C-2 to C-5 based on
data from the Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia (RHSS)
groundwater station network [6], and a selection of the geotechnical sampling
results. For the definition of the shallow bedrock depth we use 1.8 m, as
recommended in [7].
Figure 1 shows the GRP Medijana border, the studied part of the GRP, and the main
traffic infrastructure. The locations of the soil boreholes (B) and groundwater stations
(GWS) are also shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. GRP Medijana border [5] (dashed line), the studied part (the inner dashed
line), groundwater stations (filled circles) and soil borehole locations (empty circles).
According to the vertical soil profiles found in data for the GWS and soil boreholes, the
shallow bedrock is not present in the studied area. Consequently, we exclude constraint
(C-2) for the WSUD elements. The typical vertical soil profile in the East and Northeast
section of the GRP has low permeable soils approximately 1.5 m in depth, while in the
West and Southwest, the upper soil layer of 0.5-1 m is moderately permeable. The
applicability of the WSUD elements E5, E6 and E7 is limited in the East and Northeast
section of the GRP, according to the constraint C-3. The groundwater table ranges from
2.0 m-2.5 m below terrain at all soil borehole locations. The shallowest level (-1.6 m) is
recorded at the GWS7. Therefore, if the other design conditions require the element
depth to be greater than 1.6 m, the infiltration trenches and basins (E6 and E7), are not
suitable for the sites by the Nišava River. With these remarks on applicability of the
WSUD elements (E5, E6 and E7) in regard to the constraints C-3 and C5, we use the
land availability (C-7) as the leading factor for selection of the WSUD elements in the
studied area. The range of the WSUD elements available may be applied in the
following sub areas, as shown in Figure 2: 1) the streets that have a single or double
greenery belts (including Boulevard Nemanjica, Vizantijski Boulevard, Boulevard
Mediana, and Sremska Street), and roundabouts; 2) publicly owned land (riverfront of
the Nišava River, the Cair park, the Sveti Sava park, Healthcare Facilities, Schoolyards
etc.); 3) residential developments (Krive Livade and Duvanište multi-storey housing
areas, Duvanište private housing area, and private housing as a part of the Krive livade
area); 4) commercial and service developments (Mercator shopping mall, Zona 1, 2 and
3 shopping centers, and Niš-ekspres); 5) driveways / access ways on public or private
property (throughout the whole area).
Figure 2. Zoning of the studied area in respect to the land use and potential WSUD
element application as labelled in the Table 1.
We studied the application of the individual WSUD elements, according to the WSUD
planning and selection guide in [4]. The zones with prevailing land use are shown in
Figure 2, as well as potential the WSUD elements:
E1) Vegetated Swales. The most applicable in the existing parks, and along
median stripes, E1 can also substitute kerb and gutters along the Mediana
Boulevard.
E2) Vegetated Filter Stripes. We use E2 in conjuction with E1, E4, E6 and E7.
E3) Sand filters. Aimed for high density housing areas (in Krive livade and Duvanište),
service stations (along Vizantijski Boulevard, Niš-ekspres), and healthcare facility.
E4) Bioretention Systems. The larger scale devices are appropriate for streetscapes with
side planter boxes (including Boulevard Zorana Djindjica, Branka Krsmanovica Street,
Sremska Street, Blagoja Parovića Street, including roundabouts), large open spaces
(Parks: Čair and Sveti Sava, Nišava riverfront, and open spaces in multi-storey housing
blocks). On the small scale, systems are appropriate at the level of individual lots (`rain
gardens`). E5) Permeable Pavements. Due to suitability on small scale, E5 is identified
as suitable for small car parks, paving within individual housing areas and low traffic
streets. E6) Infiltration Trenches. E6 may be combined with E5 in the small scale car
parks, in the areas where C-3 and C-5 do not apply. E7) Infiltration Basins. We cannot
recommend the element without detailed site evaluation due to C-3 and C-5.
E8) Rainwater tanks. E8 is appropriate for all residential and commercial areas with
appropriate roofing materials (excluding asbestos, copper, lead, or tar based painted
roofs). E9) Landscape Developments. E9 is appropriate for retrofitting existing
landscape areas within existing residential, commercial areas, parks and open spaces. It
should be limited to small scale features, due to local climate conditions.
The suggested elements would lead to more attractive streetscapes, open spaces and
sustainable urban landscapes.
4. CONCLUSION
The evaluation of the WSUD approach in the case of the Medijana municipality in the
city of Niš is undertaken to promote new urban planning and design approach which
would integrate best practice of stormwater management in the early phase of planning
process. The study has revealed that the WSUD approach implementation requires a
deeper analysis of the specific natural conditions (climate, geology and soil,
groundwater) on one side, and social, economic and urban conditions on the other. The
former requires engagement of the engineers and an investigation program, while the
latter needs less resources, since majority is analysed and already present in the GRP.
Consequently, further action towards the implementation of WSUD approach would
require two parallel activities: 1) Hydrologic, hydraulic, and pollutant study of the local
conditions, and 2) Study of the legal framework and institutional capacity requirements
for the key stakeholders included in the process, including an opinion survey of the
private property owners.
Our local government declare the commitment to sustainable water management, water
conservation, surface water quality improvement, ground water protection, etc. This
requires a range of new solutions at both the institutional and planning level in Serbia.
As a principle, all urban plans and documents at the local level should include the water
saving projects with stormwater treatment measures and vice versa. Since the WSUD
approach is a novelty for the urban planning practice in Serbia, the first step might be a
preparation of the WSUD Guidelines with defined legislation and policy framework for
a pilot city, which would provide the WSUD approach the tools and resources necessary
to deliver the sustainability goals to the ground.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
[1] Dietz, M.E.: Low Impact Development Practices, A Review of Current Research
and Recommendations for Future Directions. Water Air Soil Pollut 186:351–363.
DOI 10.1007/s11270-007-9484-z. 2007.
[2] http://www.lga.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/LGA-
65156_Stormwater_in_Adelaide_-_from_SWS_to_WSUD.pdf downloaded
15.02.2014.
[3] Vasilevska, LJ., Blagojević, B.: Integrisano upravljanje atmosferskim vodama u
okviru stambenih područja: Studija slučaja, QUARTIERS VERTS, Beč, (Integrated
stormwater management in dwelling areas: Case study, QUARTIERS VERTS,
Vienna), Zbornik radova Građevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta u Nišu, br. 28, str. 1-
14. 2013.
[4] http://www.richmondvalley.nsw.gov.au/icms_docs/138067_Development_Control_
Plan_No_9_-_Water_Sensitive_Urban_Design.pdf downloaded 11.02.2014.
[5] http://www.zurbnis.rs/pl/15-PGR-10.zip downloaded 11.02.2014.
[6] http://www.hidmet.gov.rs/eng/hidrologija/podzemne/tabela.php?pd_pod_br=3NP
downloaded 10.02.2014.
[7] http://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/Shallow_soils_and_shallow_depth_to_
bedrock downloaded 10.02.2014.
1. INTRODUCTION
The anti-hail nets are built from materials (high-density polyethylene) with highly
valued physicochemical, thermal and electrical properties. Therefore, in addition to the
fundamental role of protecting the orchard from hail, the networks also have the role of
protection against insects, birds, wind and strong sun radiation. The net also has an
impact on the change in microclimatic conditions inside the orchard itself. Namely,
under the effect of the net, inside the orchard, there are changes in the insolation, air
temperature of the plant and soil, air and soil humidity, as well as wind speed [3-7].
Changes in these parameters lead to changes in the fertility, productivity and fruit
quality, the reduction of scorching, and even a better fruit color.
This paper contains solely the analyses of the elements, which have a direct impact on
the change of evapotranspiration, which the orchard irrigation system design is
dependent on, i.e. air temperature, humidity, vapor pressure, sunshine hours and wind.
The impact of anti-hail nets on the climatic parameters used for the calculation of
evapotranspiration and its impact on the system of irrigation were also considered, in
order to be able to consider the changes in designing the size of the system of the
experimental field near Hum village, close to Nis. The evapotranspiration calculation
was performed using the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method.
For the calculation requirements of the reference evapotranspiration outside the area
covered by anti-hail nets, the information used in this paper was taken from the
Meteorological Annual for the city of Nis (longitude 21°53’46”, latitude 43°19’09”,
elevation 195 m) for the period from 2001 to 2010, for the months of June, July and
August. Due to the lack of the measured values, the value of the reference
evapotranspiration under the anti-hail nets was determined by reducing the values of
meteorological parameters corrected according to the measurement results published in
papers (Table 1.) [3-5, 7]. Figure 1 shows the corrected values of the maximum and
minimum air temperature, wind speed at 2 m height, vapor pressure and sunshine hours
for Nis in June.
According to [3, 5], there was an increase in the minimum air temperature in the orchard
of 1 °C and the decline of the maximum air temperature of 1 to 3 °C during warm and
hot days. The increase in the pressure of water vapor below the anti-hail nets, compared
to the area outside the nets, ranged from 2 to 5 % [7]. It is stated in [3] that the wind
speed below the nets dropped by approximately 50 %. The decrease in the level of
lighting depends on the characteristics of the network, especially the color of the
network. In case of the black nets, it can be from 18 to 25 %. For the white ones, it can
range from 8 to 12%, for the gray ones from 15 to 17 %, while the values for the green-
black ones, it can be 15 to 16 % [3, 4].
Table 1. Illustration of the change in climatic parameter values
Parameter name Parameter designation Change
Minimum air temperature Tmin + 1 °C
Maximum air temperature Tmax - 3 °C
Vapor pressure VP +5%
Wind speed at 2 m height U2 - 50 %
Sunshine hours n - 15 %
(MJ m-2 day-1); – psychometric constant (kPa °C-1); – mean air temperature (°C);
– average 24 h wind speed at 2 m height (m s-1) and – vapor pressure deficit (kPa).
Figure 2. shows the monthly values of the reference evapotranspiration for June, July
and August in the period from 2001 to 2010 for the city of Nis, below and outside the
anti-hail nets. The selected months are considered as these are the months in which the
irrigation system sustained the greatest load.
When the values evapotranspiration are considered for June, the highest value was
calculated in 2003. It was 155 mm/month outside the area coverd by the net and 133
mm/month inside the area covered by the net. The reference evapotranspiration below
the net decreased by 16.6 % in comparison to with the evapotranspiration outside the net
in June 2003, and this was also the greatest decrease in the evapotranspiration in the
reviewed period.
The maximum evapotranspiration for July, outside the anti-hail net, equaled 160
mm/month, while it is was 132 mm/month inside the net, and these values were
determined in 2007. Furthermore, the greatest decline in the reference evapotranspiration
was also recorded in 2007, equaling 21.3 % between the evapotranspiration outside and
inside the area covered by the anti-hail net.
The values obtained in August show that the greatest value of the reference
evapotranspiration outside the net was obtained in 2003, amounting to 151 mm/month.
The greatest evapotranspiration value inside the anti-hail net amounted to 121
mm/month, and it also occurred in 2003. Year 2003 also saw the greatest percentage in
the reference evapotranspiration value decrease, both outside and inside the areas
covered by the net, equaling 24.2 %. By comparing the reference evapotranspiration,
there was a decline in the evapotranspiration inside the anti-hail net, when compared to
the values of evapotranspiration outside the network, i.e. it was 15.7 % for the total
reviewed period. The average reference evapotranspiration decline for the total reviewed
period was 13.2 % for June, 16.8 % for July, and 17.1 % for August.
4. CONCLUSION
Apart from the primary function of the anti-hail net to protect the crops from the harmful
effects of the hail, it also has a significant impact on the microclimate of the orchard,
which, among other things, causes the decrease of the reference evapotranspiration, as
was shown in this paper. The reduction of evapotranspiration of the crops is proportional
to the reduction of reference evapotranspiration and has an impact on the decrease of the
necessary irrigation water quantities. Delivery of lower quantities of water, governed by
the microclimate of the land, has a considerable impact on the crop and the soil, as there
will be no water logging, creation of crust on the surface and plant rotting due to the
surplus water. The new microclimate will bring about savings of the irrigation system,
such as the reduction of the necessary pump power, which leads to direct energy savings,
and the reduction in the water supply pipe diameter.
Based on the results of the research, it can be concluded that the average decrease in
reference evapotranspiration was 13.2 % for June, 16.8 % for July and 17.1 % for
August. Future work will be aimed at the research of the influence of anti-hail nets of
various colors and types of texture on the evapotranspiration of orchards, which will be
calculated with the modified Hargreaves method.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research presented in the paper is funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Republic of Serbia (Grant No. TR 37003). The authors would like to
thank the reviewer who provided very productive suggestions.
REFERENCES
[4] Blanke, M.: Farbige Hagelnetze: Ihre Netzstruktur sowie Licht- und UV-
Durchlässigkeit bestimmen die Ausfärbung der Apfelfrüchte. Erwerbs-Obstbau,
2007, vol 49, pp. 127–139.
[5] Iglesias, I., Alegre, S.: The effect of anti-hail nets on fruit protection, radiation,
temperature, quality and profitability of ’Mondial Gala’ apples. Journal of Applied
Horticulture, 2006, vol 8, pp. 91-100.
[6] Kührt, U., Samietz, J., Dorn, S.: Effect of plant architecture and hail nets on
temperature of codling month habitats in apple orchards. Entomologia
Experimentalis et Applicata, 2006, vol 118, pp. 245 – 259.
[7] Solomakhin, A., Blanke, M.: Mechanical flower thinning improves the fruit quality
of apples. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2010, vol 90, pp. 735–
743.
[8] Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., Smith, M.: Crop Evapotranspiration, Guidelines
for Computing Crop Water Requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56,
1998, Roma, Italy.
[9] Gocic, M., Trajkovic, S.: Software for estimating reference evapotranspiration using
limited weather data. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 2010, vol 71, № 2,
pp. 158-162.
[10] Gocic, M., Trajkovic, S.,: Service-Oriented Approach for Modeling and Estimating
Reference Evapotranspiration, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture,2011, vol
79, № 2, pp. 153-158.
1 УВОД
1
Андријана Тодоровић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду – Грађевински факултет, Институт за
хидротехнику и водно-еколошко инжењерство, Бул. краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија,
тел: 011 3218 530, e – mail: andrijana@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Dr Jasna Plavšić, Assist. Prof., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 42, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia, Tel: 011 337 0206, e – mail: jplavsic@grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Др Јован Деспотовић, дипл. инж. грађ., в.проф., (УБ-ГФ), e-mail: jdespotovic@ grf.bg.ac.rs
4
Др Драгутин Павловић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3370 206 (УБ-ГФ), e-mail: epavlovd@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
Постоје два приступа у оцени утицаја климатских промена на водне ресурсе. Први
подразумева коришћење резултата глобалних климатских модела као улаза у
хидролошке моделе, док се трендови промена у различитим компонентама
хидролошког циклуса оцењују на основу резултата хидролошких модела. Други
приступ се заснива на примени статистичких тестова за детекцију трендова у
временским серијама метеоролошких и хидролошких величина, а који могу бити
последица климатских промена. У овом раду усвојен је други приступ.
Анализирана је промена режима падавина на станици „Врачар“ у Београду у
периоду 1923-2012 применом статистичких тестова за детекцију трендова у
великом броју показатеља дневних киша осмотреним на овој станици.
r n2
t (1)
1 r2
Ова контролна статистика прати Студентову расподелу са N-2 степени слободе [6].
Регион прихватања нулте хипотезе одређују Студентове променљиве за
вероватноће α/2 и (1- α/2).
S 1 / S , S 0
ZS (3)
S 1 / S , S 0
За обим узорка N ≥ 8 статистика ZS прати нормалну расподелу N(0,σS), где је σS [7]:
1 n
S n (n 1) ( 2n 5) t k k ( k 1) ( 2k 5) (4)
18 k 1
где је tk број група од k истих вредности у низу xi [6, 7, 8, 9]. Регион прихватања
нулте хипотезе о одсуству монотоног тренда одређује се на основу вредности
стандардизоване нормалне променљиве за вероватноће α/2 и (1- α/2) [6, 8].
Фишеров F тест. Нулта хипотеза овог теста је да су варијансе два подниза (прве и
друге половине низа) једнаке [11]. Контролна статистика F је однос веће и мање
варијансе и има вредности веће од 1 (једнострани тест). Регион прихватања нулте
хипотезе добија се из Фишерове расподеле са ν1= N1-1 и ν2=N2-1 степени слободе и
4 РЕЗУЛТАТИ И ДИСКУСИЈА
NLR
MK
CS
F
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
POKAZATELJI PADAVINA
Слика 3. Резултати статистичких тестова: бела поља – позитиван тренд, црна
поља – негативан тренд, сива поља – нема статистички значајног тренда
5 ЗАКЉУЧЦИ
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
Истраживање приказано у раду урађено је у оквиру научних пројеката Министарства
просвете и науке Републике Србије ТР37005 „Утицај климатских промена на водне ресурсе
у Србији“ и ТР37010 „Системи за одвођење кишних вода као део урбане и саобраћајне
инфраструктуре“. Подаци о падавинама добијени су од РХМЗ-а.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] IPCC, Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis, Working Group I
contribution to the fifth assessment report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press,
2013.
[2] Kundzewicz, Z.W., Schellnhuber, H.J., Floods in the IPCC TAR perspective,
Natural Hazards 31: 111-128, 2004.
[3] http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/
[4] http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/qthinice.asp
[5] Maksimović Č., Tejada-Guibert J. A., Frontiers in Urban Water Management.
Deadlock or Hope, IWA Publishing, 2001
[6] Plavšić J., Obušković Z., Problemi u analizi trenda u hidrometeorološkim serijama
pri ispitivanju uticaja klimatskih promena, Zbornik radova sa 16. Naučnog
savetovanja Srpskog društva za hidraulička istraživanja (SDHI) i Srpskog društva za
hidrologiju (SDH), 512-526, Univerzitet u Beogradu – Građevinski fakultet, 2012.
[7] Yue S., Pilon P., Cavadias G., Power of the Mann-Kendall and Spearman’s rho
tests for detecting monotonic trends in hydrological series, Journal of Hydrology
259, p. 254-271, 2002.
[8] Collins M.J., Evidence for changing flood risk in New England since the late 20th
century, Journal of the American Water Resources Association, pp. 279, 2009.
[9] Fatichi S., Caporali E., Review: a comprehensive analysis of changes in
precipitation regimes in Tuscany, Int. J. Climatol. 29: 1883-1893, 2009.
[10] Evans W.L.,Using Test Data to Detect Machinery Alignment, Portland State
University, ECE 457 Learning From Data, 2001.
[11] Kottegoda N., Rosso R., Applied Statistics for Civil and Environmental Engineers,
2nd Edition, Blackwell Publishing, 2008.
[12] .Michiels P., Gabriels D., Hartmann R., Using the Seasonal and Temporal
Precipitation Concentration Index for Characterizing the Monthly Rainfall
Distribution in Spain, CATENA, vol. 19, p. 43-58, 1992.
1. УВОД
Постоји велики избор метода и техника које се могу употребити у сврху контроле
урбаног отицаја и побољшања његовог квалитета. У складу са савременим
стандардима, осим захтева за смањeњем количине отицаја и побољшања квалитета
потребно је и да утицај ових система на животну средину буде што мањи
(Kellagher, и други 2007).
На експерименталном сливу формираном у дворишту Грађевинског факултета у
Београду изабран је метод инфилтрације (Василић, 2013а). Уједно, ово је метод
који треба применити када год је то могуће јер он најбоље опонаша природне
хидролошке процесе у сливу. Такође, отицај који прихрањује подземну воду се
природним путем пречишћава процесом филтрације кроз земљиште.
1
Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Институт за хидротехнику и водно-еколошко
инжењерств
2
2. ПРОРАЧУН ИНФИЛТРАЦИЈЕ
hk h
C hk k hk k 1 . (2)
t z z
H max R K f 1 e R
F
H KfR (9)
t p R ln max
Kf R
А) Б)
Када се добије положај влажног фронта y(t) може се одредити снижење нивоа у
временском интервалу s(t) тј. и ниво воде у базену H(t) према једначини (10).
3. РЕЗУЛТАТИ И ДИСКУСИЈА
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Василић Ж., Ђукић А., Габрић О., Продановић Д.: Експериментални сливови
за изучавање инфилтрације кишних вода у урбаним подручјима. 13-та
међународна конференција Водоводни и канализациони системи, Удружење
за технологију воде и санитарно инжењерство, Јахорина, 2013.
[2] Василић Ж. Одрживи системи за контролу урбаног отицаја; димензионисање
и анализа функционисања инфилтрационог система на експерименталном
сливу. Семинарски рад, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, 2013.
[3] Станић М. Наводњавање. Белешке са предавања, Грађевински факултет
Универзитета у Београду, 2008.
[4] Јовановић С., Радић З., Параметарска хидрологија. Књига, Грађевински
факултет Универзитета у Београду, 1990.
[5] Kellagher R., Martin P., Jefferies C., Bray B., Shaffer P., Woods Ballard B. The
SUDS manual. Knjiga, CIRIA, London, 2007.
СЕГМЕНТИЗАЦИЈА ВОДОВОДНЕ
ДИСТРИБУТИВНЕ МРЕЖЕ
Дамјан Иветић1
Милош Станић2
Жељко Василић3
Душан Продановић4 УДК: 628.144
DOI: 10.14415/konferencijaGFS2014.086
Резиме: Водоводне дистрибутивне мреже су сложени системи чији је задатак да
допреме до потрошача довољне количине воде, задовољавајућег квалитета.
Анализа поузданости у функционисању је битна ставка у планирању даљег
развоја као и у одржавању постојећег система. Поузданост се разматра са више
становишта будући да сем снабдевања потрошача, у овај домен спада и
заштита потрошача од потенцијалних опасности.У том контексту неопходно је
размотрити систем изолационих затварача постављених у дистрибутивној
мрежи чији је задатак да искључе поједине делове мреже. Дефинишу се сегменти
дистрибутивне мреже који представљају делове мреже који се могу изоловати од
остатка система затварањем одређених изолационих затварача. Како су
водоводне мреже сложене структуре, потребно је применити алгоритам за
дефинисање сегмената. Представљени алгоритам има за задатак да на основу
хидрауличких модела водоводних мрежа унетих преко стандардних софтвера
(EPANET, 3Dnet) дефинише сегменте мреже, ненамерна искључења у мрежи као
последицу изоловања одређеног сегмента, као и дефицит у водоснабдевању који
ће се изоловањем одређеног сегмента јавити. Користи се тополошке матрице
повезаности које се користе у хидрауличким моделима водоводних мрежа.
Примењена методологија за сегментизацију је описана кроз једноставан пример.
Кључне речи: Сегменти, водоводне мреже, тополошке матрице повезаности
1. УВОД
За проучавање, пројектовање и управљање водоводним дистрибутивним
1
Дамјан Иветић, дипл.инж. грађ., асистент, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3370 206, e – mail: divetic@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
2
др, Милош Станић, дипл. инж. грађ., доцент, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3370 206, e – mail: mstanic@grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Жељко Василић, дипл. инж. грађ., асистент, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3370 206, e – mail: vasiliczeljko@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
4
др, Душан Продановић, дипл. инж. грађ., редовни професор, Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински
факултет, Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3370 206, e – mail:
eprodano@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
2. МЕТОДОЛОГИЈА СЕГМЕНТИЗАЦИЈЕ
Аутор је користио мреже које се унете или преко бесплатног софтвера за анализу
водоводних система, EPANET-а, или преко програма који је развијен у MatLAB
окружењу за потребе одржавања наставе на курсу Хидроинформатика на мастер
студијама, gui_hydroinf. Софтверски пакет EPANET је у широкој употреби, управо
због слободне лиценце, па је било циљано омогућити примену алгоритма за мреже
формиране у овом програмском окружењу. На овај начин и сам алгоритам добија
на општости у примени.
Идентификација и описивање сегмената формираних као последица затварања
изолационих затварача у презентованом алгоритму се састоји од четири корака,
која ће бити детаљније описана у наставку.
(1)
14(17)
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Кроз рад је описан алгоритам кроз четири корака који га чине, користећи
једноставан пример за сликовит приказ. Мењајући почетну диспозицију мреже,
алгоритам користи различите облике тополошке матрице повезаности како би
одредио податке који су потребни. Систем једначина који се решава базира се на
једначини континуитета и енергетској једначини, и карактеристично је што је у
већини случајева неодређен. Због тога се за његово решавање користи псеудо-
инверзна матрица која представља једно од безброј решења система,
карактеристично по томе што има минималну нормализовану вредност.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Giustolisi, O., Savić, D.: Identification of Segments and Optimal Isolation Valve
System Design in Water Distribution Networks, Urban Water Journal, 2010.,7:1,
стр. 1-15.
[2] Ostfeld, A.,Salomon, E.: Optimal layout of early warning detection stations for
water distribution systems security. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, 2004., 130 (5), 377-385.
[3] Jun, H., Loganathan, G.V.:Valve-Controlled Segments in Water Distribution
Systems, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 2007., vol. 133,
No. 2.
[4] Kao, J.J., Li, P.H.: A Segment-based Optimization model for water pipeline
replacement, American Water Works Association Journal, 2007., vol. 99, No. 7,
стр. 83-95.
[5] Giustolisi, O., Kapelan, Z., Savić, D.: An algorithm for automatic detection of
topological changes in water distribution networks. Journal of Hydraulic Eng 134
(4), 2008., стр. 435-446.
[6] Craeco, E., Franchini, M., Alvisi, S.: Optimal Placement of Isolation Valves in
Water Distribution Systems Based on Valve Cost and Weighted Average Demand
Shortfall, Water Resource Management, 2010., стр. 4317-4338.
[7] Todini, E., Pilati, S.: A gradient algorithm for the analysis of pipe networks. In:
Coulbeck B, Choun-Hou (eds) Computer application in water supply, vol I-system
analysis and simulation. Wiley, London, 1988., стр. 1-20.
network that can be isolated from the rest by closure of certain isolation valves. As
water distribution systems have complex structures, it is necessary to apply the
algorithm for defining segments. Presented algorithm has the task to, using the
hydraulic models of water networks entered via standard software (EPANET, 3Dnet ),
define the network segments, accidental disconnection of the network as a result of the
isolation of a segment, as well as a shortfall in water supply. Topological incidence
matrices are utilized, which are used also in hydraulic models of water supply networks.
Methodology used for segmentation is described through a simple example.
Keywords: Segments, water networks, topological incidence matrix
1. INTRODUCTION
Within the Stormwater Drainage Systems as Part of Urban and Traffic Infrastructure
Project, a structure was procured for flow measuring from the experimental catchment
area on the territory of the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Subotica - a Parshall flume
manufactured by INDAS from Novi Sad.
1
Dr Lajos Hovány, civil engineer, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka
2a, Subotica, Serbia, e-mail: hovanyl@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Mr Ognjen Gabrić, civil engineer, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka
2a, Subotica, Serbia, e-mail: ogabric@gf.uns.ac.rs
Q Chan (1)
where C and n are coefficients given for the contraction of width b. For this dependence,
ha is measured in measuring point 1. In relation to original measurements, equation (1)
can provide differences up to 5% [2], and up to ±3% [3] respectively.
Analysing the accuracy of equation (1), it has been established that around Qmin flowrate
decrease weakens the defined relationship between Q and ha [4]. Measurements were
made for throat width of b=0.076, 0.152, 0.305 and 0.610 m. The authors assume that
changes in relations were resulted by the influence of the viscosity of water.
The standards of this country: Water flow measurement in open channels, weirs and
measuring facilities comprise also the Rectangular broad crested weirs (SRP U.C5.090
from 1994.) [5] and the Water flow rate calculation methods by defining depth at the
outlet section of rectangular channels with free cascade (SRP U.C5.092 from 1994.) [6]
– and these are in accordance with the ISO 3846: 1989 and ISO 3847:1977 standards.
Parshall flumes are not covered by any of these standards. The SRP U.C5.092 Standard
provides the approximate domain of 2 to 5% for water flow measurement accuracy for
rectangular throats.
The international standard, ISO 9826:1992, gives instructions on defining the inaccuracy
of flow measurements in Parshall flumes without indicating the value limits of permitted
errors [1]. Of the indicated throats with b=0.0254-15.24 m width, standard throats are
b=0.152-2.4 m wide.
Recommendations for the calibration of flow measuring devices in open channels are
given in Flow Measurement Methods in Open Channels issued in Quebec in 2007 [3].
The minimum time of water intake is 90 s for volumetric calibration. The
recommendation is applicable to b=0.0254-15.24 m wide Parshall flumes as well.
Within the above mentioned project, a b=0.0254 m wide Parshall flume was procured.
At measuring depths of ha=0.019-0.184 m, at measuring point no. 1 (Figure 1), and at
water flows of 0.00013-0.00438 m3/s, equation (1) becomes [3]:
1.55
m3
Q 0.0604ha (2)
s
The aim of this paper is to present the calibration of equation (2) at flowrates of 0.00013-
0.003 m3/s, by extending the range to 0-0.00013 m3/s, expected at the Faculty of Civil
Engineering catchment point.
In the Hydraulic Lab of the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Subotica, a b=0.0254 wide
Parshall flume was built at the downstream end of a 20 cm wide channel (Figure 2).
From the reservoir of 10 m3 in volume, built in the backyard of the Faculty of Civil
Engineering, the water was pumped to a 20 cm wide channel. The stilled water from this
channel was led via a free flow Parshall flume to a collector tank, then further
transported to a catch tank.
The measurement results for steady flowrate Q were:
water depth ha at measuring point and
water volume at the downstream end of the Parshall flume, caught within 90
seconds.
Water depth was measured by point gauge of 0.1 mm accuracy. Water volume was
defined by measuring the weight and temperature of the water. Water weights of 2.4-
11.2 kg were measured by weighing scale of 5 g accuracy, water weights of 26.2-102.6
kg by scales of 10 g accuracy, and weights of 138.8-261.3 kg by scale of 100 g accuracy.
Flowrate measurement errors were calculated by using the following equation [7]:
Qi Qm
G % 100 (3)
Qm
3. RESULTS
For measuring points 1 and 2, shown in Figure 1, all flowrates were measured five times
each. During measurements, water temperatures varied between 16 and 17 oC.
Figure 3: Equation (2), measured results and their errors for measuring points 1 and 2
The errors for each measurement were determined by using equation (3).
4. DISCUSSION
For measuring point 1 (Figure 1) measurements were made for flowrate exceeding
Qmin=0.13*10-3 m3/s. Measured flowrates were compared with flowrates calculated by
using equation (2). Flowrate errors (from 4 to 7.2%) do not meet either the values
Figure 4: Equation (4), measured results and their errors for measuring point 2 at
flowrates below Qmin
Measured flowrates were compared with flowrates calculated by using equation (4).
Flowrate errors were between -3.1 and +3.7%.
Dependence depicted by equation (4) relates to flowrates below Qmin, at water
temperature of 16-17 oC.
At a depth of ha, for Qmin, equation (4) provides 6% less flowrate than equation (2).
5. CONCLUSION
For a b=0.0254 m wide Parshall flume, the discharge curve given by equation (2)
provides less errors than recommended by the standard of this country and by the
scientific literature for the following conditions:
measuring point 1 should be transposed to measuring point 2, and
flowrates should exceed Qmin=0.13*10-3 m3/s.
The discharge curve given by equation (4) provides less errors than recommended by the
standard of this country and recommended by the scientific literature for the following
conditions:
the measuring point is point number 2,
the temperature of the water is between 16 to 17 oC,
flowrate is below Qmin.
With regard to the temperature of the water during summer periods, further testings of
the indicated catchment point within the Faculty of Civil Engineering are recommended
at water temperatures exceeding 17 oC. Having regard to the compliance of equation (2)
and (4) at Qmin, the number discharges around Qmin should be increased when calibrating
the throat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was funded by the Serbian Ministry for Science; project TR37010
“Stormwater Drainage Systems as Part of Urban and Traffic Infrastructure”.
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
u 1 ( xi xavg / xi ) (1)
1
Ognjen Gabrić, dipl. ing. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
Subotica, Serbia, e-mail:ogabric@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Dušan Prodanović, dipl. ing. građ. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar Kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, e-mail:eprodano@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Jasna Plavšić, dipl. ing. građ. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar Kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, e-mail:jplavsic@grf.bg.ac.rs
2. METHODS
2.1. Rainfall simulator
The simulator uses six VeeJet 80100 nozzles placed on a horizontal pipe with the 50 mm
diameter and the 6 m length. Due to the slow water velocities, the specified pipe
diameter allows constant water pressure of 40 kPa in all nozzles. Water supply
connection is located at the middle of the pipe, between nozzles 3 and 4 (Fig. 1). The
nozzles are located at equal spacing of 100 cm and 4.5 m above the surface in its
horizontal position. Maximum surface covered by the simulator is 6 m2.
servo motor
and controller
box
A box for rainfall intensity reduction is placed under each nozzle (Fig. 2). The box
dimensions are 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.2 m. Its upper side is fully open, while the lower side has
three holes. Water coming out from the nozzles falls down through the central square
hole 0.16 x 0.16 m. The other two smaller circular holes are used to drain excess water
from the box back into the tank.
A-A
A A
0,2
0,4
0,16
0,4
Figure 2. The box for reducing the rainfall intensity
Capacity of the water supply tank is 500 liters. Using the centrifugal pump, water is
conveyed from the tank to the pipe with nozzles. The system pressure is controlled by
the valves placed downstream from the pump.
The system for controlling the rainfall simulator includes servo motor, controller and
two sprocket wheels with the chain. This system enables oscillatory movement of
nozzles for ± 45° (Fig. 3), thus enabling adjustment of rainfall intensity by changing
time during which the nozzle is not covering central hole.
Before the beginning of each experiment, until the system pressure is stabilized, the
nozzles are placed in the farthest position in which water cannot fall on the surface (Fig.
3a). With nozzles in this position water spray does not go through the central hole, but
goes through the gutter that conveys water back to the tank. When the system pressure is
stabilized at 40 kPa, the engine that rotates the pipe is started by the controller. Rotation
of the pipe moves the nozzle, which travels above the central hole (Fig. 3b) and stops at
the other end position. The time nozzle spends in the farthest positions determines the
intensity of rain falling on the experimental surface.
a. nozzle b.
box
gutter
Figure 3. a. the farthest position of a nozzle,
b. working position of a nozzle
By oscillating the nozzle above the box, this simulator can produce maximum rainfall
intensity of 186 mm/h (3.1 mm/min), which generally covers the highest rainfall
intensities occurring locally (according to Zelenhasic [8], intensities of 10-minute storms
of 100 years return period in Serbia range up to 3.5 mm/min).
To determine Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient, area size of 6x1 m is divided into six
parts – sized 1x1 m, on which are evenly distributed 288 containers with a diameter of 5
cm (48 containers per m2) (Fig. 4). After stabilizing the pressure, at a rainfall intensity of
3.1 mm/min, the water has been accumulated in containers for 5 minutes. The water
distribution over the surface, separately for each area size of 1x1 and a total surface size
of 6x1 m, was determined by measuring the mass of water in each container on a scale of
1 g precision. On the basis of the equation (1) the uniformity coefficient is calculated.
For each surface size of 1x1 m, using measured weight of the water in the containers and
the equation (1), uniformity coefficient is determined in accordance with the type A
evaluation method [9]. Measurement uncertainty expressed as coefficient u, is presented
as standard deviation from the mean, and is calculated on basis of the expression:
6
2
ui us
i 1
uu (2)
n n 1
where ui is the uniformity coefficient for area size of 1x1 m, us average value of
uniformity coefficients from the areas of 1x1 m and n is the number of data.
Given that standard deviation is determined with only six calculated coefficients of
uniformity and assuming that the mean follows the Student distribution, expanded
uncertainty U is also determined:
U k uu (3)
where k is a coverage factor and for a particular case, for the confidence interval of 95%,
it has a value of 2.78.
3. RESULTS
Area 1 2 3 4 5 6
u 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.83 0.79 0.84
Average value of uniformity coefficient is 0.82. Using equation (2), estimated coefficient
has uncertainty of 0.011 and the expanded measuring uncertainty, according to equation
(3), is 0.031.
Distribution of water over the surface dimensions of 6x1 meters is shown in Figure 4,
and is presented as percentage of the maximum amount of the collected water in a
container.
For the rainfall intensity of 3.1 mm/min, the value of the uniformity coefficient is 0.80.
Since the rainfall intensity is regulated by the time the nozzle is kept in the side position,
it is reasonable to assume that the water distribution over the surface would follow the
same pattern for other intensities as well.
To achieve the intensity of a natural rainfall, it was necessary to block the nozzle spray
with the box and to oscillate the nozzle above it. Maximum rainfall intensity achieved by
this simulator is 3.1 mm/min.
The footprint of the same type of nozzle, from the same manufacturer and at the same
operating pressure is not constant. By dividing the area into six equal parts, each of 1 m2,
value of Christiansen’s uniformity achieved coefficient is 0.82 ± 0.031.
For the area size of 6x1 m, Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient has a value of 0.80,
which is in the range of measuring uncertainty.
Further research should focus on testing a larger number of nozzles with similar spraying
effects to find the optimal one with best value of the uniformity coefficient.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was funded by the Serbian Ministry for Science; project TR37010
“Stormwater Drainage Systems as Part of Urban and Traffic Infrastructure”.
REFERENCES
[1] Keller, J., Bliesner R. D.: Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation, Caldwell, N.J. Blackburn
Press, 2000.
[2] Maroufpoor, E., Faryabi, A., Ghamarnia, H., Moshrefi, G. Y.: Evaluation of
uniformity coefficients for sprinkler irrigation systems under different field
conditions in Kurdistan Province (northwest of Iran), Soil and Water Research,
2010, vol. 5, p.p. 4, p.p. 139–145.
[3] Christiansen, Jerald Emmet.: Irrigation by Sprinkling, Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1942.
[4] Williams, J. D., Wilkins, D. E., McCool, D. K., Baarstad, L. L., Klepper, B. L.,
Papendick, R. I.: A new rainfall simulator for use in low-energy rainfall areas,
Applied Engineering in Agriculture (USA), 1998, vol. 14, No. 3, p.p. 243-247.
[5] Paige G. B., Stone J. J., Smith J. R., Kennedy J. R., The Walnut Gulch Rainfall
Simulator: A Computer-Controlled Variable Intensity Rainfall Simulator, Applied
Engineering in Agriculture, 2004, vol. 20, no. 1, p.p. 25–31.
[6] Fister, W., T. Iserloh, J.B. Ries, and R.-G. Schmidt.: A Portable Wind and Rainfall
Simulator for in Situ Soil Erosion Measurements, CATENA, 2012, vol. 91, p.p. 72–
84.
[7] Sobrinho, A. T., Gómez-Macpherson H., Gómez J.A., A Portable Integrated
Rainfall and Overland Flow Simulator, Soil Use and Management, 2008, vol 24,
No. 2, p.p. 163–170.
[8] Zelenhasić, E., Ruski, M., Inženjerska hidrologija. Naučna knjiga, Beograd, 1991.
[9] GUM (Guide to the Expression of the Uncertainty in Measurement), International
Organization for Standardization, First Edition 1995
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of a stable and accurate numerical model for water flow in alluvial
watercourses is essential when computing transport processes in rivers, thus making it
one of the most significant fields in hydraulic engineering. Two dimensional depth-
averaged hydraulic models are widely used [1,2,3], since they can produce more detailed
results than 1-D models, and much faster than 3-D models.
The split-operator approach, when applied to river modeling, typically results in a three-
step solution, with separate advection, diffusion and propagation step [4]. Using this
method in water flow simulations provides the possibility to treat each of the obtained
steps with the most appropriate numerical method. The objective of this paper is to
present a developed two dimensional depth averaged model and its implementation and
assessment using field measurements.
2. MODEL FORMULATION
After deriving the full set of the two dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
equations in orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, the obtained equations were depth
1
Zoltan Horvat, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e-mail: horvatz@gf.uns.ac.rs
averaged [1,5]. Applying the split-operator approach [6], the water flow equations were
divided in three subsequent steps, the advection step presented with Eq. (1),
a n
u u u u v u 1 h 1 h 2
uv v ,
t h h h h h h
(1)
a n
v v u v v v 1 h 1 h 2
uv u ,
t h h h h h h
d
u u
a
1 2 h t T d 1 h t T d h
1 h
2 t T t T ,
t h h d d
(2)
1 1 2 h t T d 1 h t T d h
d a
v v h
2 t T t T ,
t h h d d
and the propagation step that also consists the continuity equation, given by Eq. (3)
n 1 d 2 2
u u g Cf u u v
zb d ,
t h d cos
n 1 d 2 2
v v g Cf v u v (3)
z b
d ,
t h d cos
d
h h h
ud h
v d 0.
t
These three steps are respectively marked with upper indexes a, d and p. In Eqs. (1), (2)
and (3) u and v denote the depth-averaged velocity components in and coordinate
direction, t represents the time, h and h are the geometric coefficients, d is the water
depth, zb denotes the bed elevation, Cf is the friction factor, and present the angle
of the bed slope in both coordinate directions, g is the gravitational acceleration, t is the
turbulent viscosity, while t denotes the computational time step.
The advection step equations can be solved with the characteristics method using the
principles given by Ref. [7]. This method transforms Eqs. (1) into
along the characteristic curves (5) that also represent the trajectory of the water particle
d u d v
, . (5)
dt h dt h
Integration of Eqs. (4) requires known trajectory coordinates that can be retrieved by
integrating Eqs. (5) from the departure D to the arrival point A. In order to shorten the
computation time, Eqs. (5) are solved in a way that allows the characteristic curve to
stretch through multiple computational cells. This is achieved by developing an
algorithm that divides the considered trajectory into an arbitrary number of straight
segments, l=1, 2,..., L, each bounded on both ends by neighboring computational cells.
Finally, integration of Eqs. (4) along the trajectory yields the velocity equations, which
are solved using the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm [8].
The diffusion step is not numerically challenging, therefore it is not given in much detail.
Equations (2) are discretized with the Crank-Nicolson scheme. Implementing the
alternating direction implicit (ADI) method [5] the equations are divided, each in two
orthogonal directions, and solved using the double-sweep algorithm [9].
Using the time weighting coefficient in propagation step Eqs. (3) one can extract
explicit expressions for velocity components from the discretized continuity equation,
and obtain a single propagation step equation in terms of unknown depth increment d
d
d n
h h
h 1 1 d 1 d
t
(6)
d n
h u n d n h v n d n
h 2 2 d 2 d 1 0,
3. FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Field measurements were conducted on the reach of the Danube River located in the
border area between Hungary and Serbia. The selected sight was bounded by Bezdan
(rkm 1425.5) in Serbia and Mohacs (rkm 1446.9) in Hungary. Within this reach seven
data ranges were selected for detailed flow field and sediment data measurements
(Figure 1). These ranges were placed between rkm 1438 and rkm 1432, at 1 km apart,
while bathymetry data was collected at 100m intervals. The data collection campaign
took place during five days (23-27 May 2011). Each range had seven verticals, where
velocity distribution profiles were collected with the use of ADCP. The velocity
distribution measurements were carried out in accordance with Ref.[10].
V1
66000
V2
R1
V3
V4
V6
V5
65000 V7
R2
Zbed (m)
80
79
78
64000 R3 77
76
Y (m)
75
74
R4 73
72
71
63000 70
69
R5
V1
V7 V4 V3 V2 R6
62000 V5
V6
R7
61000
628000 629000 630000 631000 632000 633000
X (m)
4. RESULTS
The simulation time was five days, with two additional days that were allocated as the
stabilization period. The initial conditions were horizontal free-surface elevation and
zero-velocity field. The upstream and downstream boundary conditions are respectively
known discharge and free-surface elevation. The implemented algorithm in the water
advection computation enabled using larger time steps, thus finally selecting 30sec.
0.5 0.5
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
u - comp u - comp
u - meas u - meas
0 v - comp 0 v - comp
v - meas v - meas
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 400
L (m) L (m)
Figure 2. Velocity components at data ranges 2 and 3
The calibration of the hydraulic model was done by changing the value of the Manning’s
coefficient, until attaining reasonable accordance between measured and computed free-
surface elevations. Following this process, the disagreement of measured and computed
values decreased to +0.7cm, -1.7cm. Since free-surface elevation was the calibration
criteria, comparison of computed and measured velocity components is a suitable
indicator of the calibration quality. As an internal consistency indicator, the continuity
equation error was monitored. The largest relative error for a single computational point
throughout the simulation stayed under 0.03%, while the cumulative value of the relative
error for the whole computational domain did not surpass 410-8 %. The analysis of the
measured and computed velocities (Figs. 2 and 3) leads to the conclusion that the
developed numerical model is trustworthy.
0.5 0.5
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
u - comp u - comp
u - meas u - meas
0 v - comp 0 v - comp
v - meas v - meas
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300
L (m) L (m)
Figure 3. Velocity components at data ranges 4 and 6
5. CONCLUSION
A 2-D (depth-averaged) numerical model simulating water flow was developed. The
model implements the split-operator approach, allowing separate treatment of the
troublesome advection terms. The advection step was solved using the improved
algorithm for the characteristic method allowing trajectories to extend through multiple
computational cells. Since the simulation results show good agreement with the
measurements, and the continuity equation error was negligible, the presented model is
suitable for application in natural watercourses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia, project number TR 37009.
REFERENCES
[1] Wang, G., Xia, J., Wu, B.: Numerical Simulation of Longitudinal and Lateral
Channel Deformations in Braided Reach of the Lower Yellow River. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, 2008., vol. 134, № 8, p.p. 1064-1078.
[2] Hung, M.C., Hsieh, T.Y., Wu, C.H., Yang, J.C.: Two-Dimensional Nonequlibrium
Noncohesive and Cohesive Sediment Transport Model. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, 2009., vol. 135, № 5, p.p. 339-382.
[3] Zhou, G., Wang, H., Shao, X., Jia, D.: Numerical Model for Sediment Transport and
Bed Degradation in the Yangtze Channel Downstream of Three Gorges Reservoir.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2009., vol. 135, № 9, p.p. 729-740.
[4] Isic, M., Horvat, Z., Spasojevic, M.: Advection step in the split-operator approach
applied to river modeling. Applied Numerical Mathematics, 2013., vol. 72, p.p.1-18.
[5] Hsieh, T.Y., Yang, J.C.: Implicit Two-Step Split-Operator Approach for Modelling
Two-Dimensional Open Channel Flow. Journal of Hydroscience and Hydraulic
Engineering, 2004., vol. 22, № 2, p.p. 113-139.
[6] Yanenko, N.N.: The Method of Fractional Steps, Translated by Holt, M., Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1971.
[7] Benqué, J.P., Cunge, J.A., Feuillet, J., Hauguel, A., Holly, F.M.Jr.: New Method for
Tidal Current Computation. Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
Division, 1982., vol. 108, № WW3, p.p. 396-417.
[8] Biringen, S., Chow, C.-Y.: An Introduction to Computational Fluid Mechanics by
Example, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2011.
[9] Hirsch, C.: Numerical Computation of Internal and External Flows – Volume 1 –
Second edition, Elsevier, Oxford, 2007.
[10] Muste, M., Yu, K., Pratt, T., Abraham, D.: Practical aspects of ADCP data use for
quantification of mean river flow characteristics; Part II: fixed-vessel measurements.
Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, 2004., vol. 15, p.p. 17-28.
1. INTRODUCTION
The sediment transport in alluvial rivers has direct influences on the evolution of rivers,
banks and associated aquatic habitat. Two dimensional depth averaged sediment models
are widely used [1,2] since they are more detailed than 1-D models, and much faster than
3-D models. Since natural watercourses contain non-uniform sediment mixtures, using
the active-layer and multiple size-class approach would be reasonable [3].
The split-operator approach, when applied to sediment transport, typically results in a
two step solution, with separate advection and diffusion step [4]. Using this method
provides the possibility to treat each of the obtained steps with the most appropriate
numerical method. The objective of this paper is to present a developed 2-D depth
averaged model and its implementation and assessment using field measurements.
2. MODEL FORMULATION
that divides the sediment mixture into a suitable number of sediment size-classes,
k=1,2,…,K. The split-operator approach breaks up the suspended sediment mass
conservation equation in two successive steps, the advection and diffusion step. The
advection step equation (1), marked with upper index a, is coupled with the mass
conservation equation for k-th size class of active-layer sediment, equation (2), and the
global mass conservation equation for bed sediment, equation (3),
a
Ck u Ck v Ck S k
(1)
t h h d
k Em 1 1
s 1 p h q k h q k S k S f k (2)
t h h h h
zb K
1 1 K
s 1 p h q k h q k S k (3)
t k 1 h h h h k 1
In equations (1), (2) and (3) Ck denotes the dimensionless suspended sediment
concentration, s is the sediment density, the water-sediment mixture density, p the
bed material porosity, qk the bed-load flux, Sk is the source term, while k, Em and (Sf)k
respectively denote the active-layer size fraction, active-layer thickness and floor source
term. After acquiring the simultaneous solution for equations (1), (2) and (3), the
diffusion equation (4), marked with upper index d, is to be solved,
d a
Ck Ck 1 h Ck 1 h Ck
sed d sed d (4)
t t h h d h h h d h
DCk Sk
(5)
Dt d
d u d v
, . (6)
dt h dt h
In order to shorten the computation time, Eqs. (6) are solved in a way that allows the
characteristic curve to stretch through multiple computational cells. This is achieved by
developing an algorithm that divides the considered trajectory into an arbitrary number
of straight segments, l=1, 2,..., L, each bounded on both ends by neighboring
computational cells. Finally, integration of Eq. (5) along the trajectory yields the
suspended sediment concentration equation. The size-class specific Eqs. (2) and the
global mass conservation Eq. (3) are discretized by integrating them over the time step
and the control volume built around a main computational point. The flow computations
furnish the necessary velocity at control volume faces, while the numerical treatment of
bed-load flux is equivalent to an upwind scheme with explicitly expressed sediment
variables. The discretized Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) are coupled and they need to be solved
simultaneously. The total number of equations is 1+2K, while there are 2+6K unknowns,
hence the need for a system closure that is provided by empirical equations.
The active layer thickness is related to the erosion intensity [1]. The bed-load flux is
computed using the empirical equation proposed by van Rijn [5], supplemented with the
allocation parameter , hiding factor and size-class distribution in the active layer
The source term through the active layer floor is given by Refs.[1,3]. Finally, the
source term is defined as the difference between entrainment and deposition. The
entrainment term is modeled employing the same principles as for the diffusion flux [6],
C
k ak a
Ck a
E k k a k a
sed k
, (7)
a
Dk wk Ck a a ,
sed
k
(8)
3. FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Field measurements were conducted on a site sight bounded by Bezdan (rkm 1425.5) in
Serbia and Mohacs (rkm 1446.9) in Hungary. Within this reach seven data ranges were
selected for detailed flow field and sediment data measurements (Fig. 1). These ranges
were placed between rkm 1438 and rkm 1432, at 1 km apart. The data collection
campaign took place during five days (23-27 May 2011). Each range had seven verticals,
where velocity distribution profiles were collected with the use of ADCP. Out of these
seven verticals, five were chosen for detailed sediment data collection that consisted of
suspended and bed sediment sampling. Suspended sediment data was collected at five
points on any given vertical. Sample processing provided sediment size-class
distributions needed for the developed numerical model.
V1
66000
V2
R1
V3
V4
V6
V5
65000 V7
R2
Zbed (m)
80
79
78
64000 R3 77
76
Y (m)
75
74
R4 73
72
71
63000 70
69
R5
V1
V7 V4 V3 V2 R6
62000 V5
V6
R7
61000
628000 629000 630000 631000 632000 633000
X (m)
4. RESULTS
Dk
0.00224 0.00707 0.0141 0.0316 0.0707 0.112 0.177 0.354 0.707 4.0
(mm)
k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Table 1. Characteristic diameters and sediment size-classes
The simulation time was five days, with two additional days that were allocated as the
stabilization period. Initial conditions for suspended and bed sediment were obtained by
averaging the appropriate measured values. The upstream boundary condition for the
suspended sediment is the averaged value of the measured concentrations in the first data
range. Bed material boundary conditions were treated the same way. The improved
sediment advection algorithm enabled the selection of a 90sec time step that produced
the longest trajectory consisting of six segments. Calibration of the sediment model was
done by altering a and a in Eq. (7-8). In the sediment computation, the continuity
equation error was monitored separately for each size-class. The largest relative error for
a single size-class stayed under 0.2% (8th size-class), while the cumulative value of the
relative error for all size-classes did not exceed 0.3%. Figure 2 depicts the concentrations
for each size-class, while the results on Fig. 3 present overall concentrations for ranges 4
and 6 computed with the model using multiple sediment size-classes approach.
C1 - comp C5 - comp
50 C1 - meas 50 C5 - meas
C2 - comp C6 - comp
C2 - meas C6 - meas
C3 - comp C7 - comp
C3 - meas C7 - meas
40 C4 - comp 40 C8 - comp
C4 - meas C8 - meas
C9 - comp
C9 - meas
30 30 C10 - comp
C (ppm)
C (ppm)
C10 - meas
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
L (m) L (m)
Figure 2. Suspended sediment concentration for k= 1-4 and k= 5-10 at data range 4
120 120
100 100
C (ppm)
C (ppm)
80 80
60 60
C - comp C - comp
40 C - meas 40 C - meas
20 20
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
L (m) L (m)
Figure 3. Total suspended sediment concentration at data ranges 4 and 6
5. CONCLUSION
A 2-D (depth-averaged) numerical model, simulating water flow, sediment transport and
bed evolution was developed. The model implements the split-operator approach,
allowing separate treatment of the troublesome advection terms. The advection step was
solved using the improved algorithm for the characteristic method allowing trajectories
to extend through multiple computational cells. The incorporated sediment model
employs the active-layer concept. The sediment mixture was divided into size-classes.
Since the simulation results show good agreement with the measurements, and the
continuity equation error was negligible, the presented model is suitable for application
in natural watercourses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia, project number TR 37009.
REFERENCES
[1] Hung, M.C., Hsieh, T.Y., Wu, C.H., Yang, J.C.: Two-Dimensional Nonequlibrium
Noncohesive and Cohesive Sediment Transport Model. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, 2009., vol. 135, № 5, p.p. 339-382.
[2] Zhou, G., Wang, H., Shao, X., Jia, D.: Numerical Model for Sediment Transport and
Bed Degradation in the Yangtze Channel Downstream of Three Gorges Reservoir.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2009., vol. 135, № 9, p.p. 729-740.
[3] Spasojevic, M., Holly, F.M.Jr.: 2-D bed evolution in natural watercourses - New
simulation approach. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering,
1990., vol. 116, № 4, p.p. 425-443.
[4] Isic, M., Horvat, Z., Spasojevic, M.: Advection step in the split-operator approach
applied to river modeling. Applied Numerical Mathematics, 2013., vol. 72, p.p.1-18.
[5] Van Rijn, L.C.: Sediment Transport, Part I: Bed Load Transport. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, 1984., vol. 110, № 10, p.p. 1431-1456.
[6] Wu, W.: Computational River Dynamics, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2008.
[7] Hsieh, T.Y., Yang, J.C.: Implicit Two-Step Split-Operator Approach for Modelling
Two-Dimensional Open Channel Flow. Journal of Hydroscience and Hydraulic
Engineering, 2004., vol. 22, № 2, p.p. 113-139.
[8] Hirsch, C.: Numerical Computation of Internal and External Flows – Volume 1 –
Second edition, Elsevier, Oxford, 2007.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The one-dimensional de Saint-Venant equations, used in modeling open channel flow [3,
4, 5], consist of the continuity and momentum equation, Eqs.(1),
1
Mirjana Isić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: isicm@gf.uns.ac.rs
Q Q Q2
Z
0, g g S f 0, (1)
t x t x x
where ω denotes the flow cross-section area, t is the time parameter, Q marks the flow
discharge, x is the spatial coordinate consistent with the flow direction (Fig. 1), α is the
velocity distribution coefficient, g the gravitational acceleration, Z the water free-surface
elevation and Sf the friction slope.
The 1-D space is defined by a number of computational points (Fig. 1) along x. The
position of these points is determined by the index i, that takes values form i=1 at the
upstream to i=I at the downstream end. The governing Eqs. (1) can be discretized with
various schemes. Here the Preissmann's scheme is applied. The obtained Eqs. (2)
expressed as functions of the unknowns and respectively present the continuity and
momentum equation,
n 1 n 1
F i , i 1 , Qi , Qi 1
n 1 n 1
0,
(2)
F Q 0,
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
i 1
, Qi , i , i 1 , i , i 1 , Z i , Z i 1 , K i 1 , K i , i 1 , i
where index i marks the computational point along x, while K denotes hydraulic
conveyance defined through the Strickler's coefficient φ as
2/3
K R , (3)
where R is the hydraulic radius. The appearance of φ in Eqs. (2) insinuates the possibility
to include it in the computation process as a variable, enabling different options for the
calibration process. Since Eqs. (2) are nonlinear, they are linearized and solved with the
Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm. The linearized equations are
C Z i D Qi A Z i 1 B Qi 1 G ,
(4)
C Z i D Qi A Z i 1 B Qi 1 G ,
that can be written for each computational point. Coefficients E and F in Eq. (6),
determine the influence of the computational point on the solution, while coefficients L,
M and N, given by Eq. (11), present the influence of the computational reach between
two subsequent computational points on the solution.
Li Ci Di Ei Ai N i Ci Di Ei Di Fi Gi
Ei 1 , Fi 1 ,
Bi M i Ci Di Ei Bi M i Ci Di Ei
(6)
Ai Di Ai Di Bi Di Bi Di Di Gi Di Gi
Li , Mi , Ni .
Ci Di Ci Di Ci Di Ci Di Ci Di Ci Di
Z Q (7)
to form a system of equations. Since this work considers only subcritical flow, boundary
conditions are needed on both ends of the computational domain. Using the universal
form of the boundary condition Eq. (7), both upstream and downstream boundary
condition equations can be obtained. Coefficients ξ, η and ζ are known coefficients that
depend on the selected boundary condition. The upstream boundary condition is known
discharge through time for which the coefficients in Eqs. (7) and (6) are given as
us us
us 0, us 1, us Qus t
n 1 m n 1
Q1 , E1
us
, F1
us
, (8)
where upper index m marks the value in previous iteration in the Newton-Raphson
algorithm. The downstream boundary condition is known water level through time, and
the corresponding coefficients are not required since ΔZI can be computed
straightforward from equation
Z I Z ds t n 1 m n 1
ZI . (9)
Equations (5) and (7) form a system that is solved with the Thomas algorithm. The
computation now boils down to computing the unknown values of discharge and water
level increments using Eqs. (5). The developed model also incorporates the possibility of
in the aforementioned system of equations. Equations (10) are the continuity equation,
suggesting the equality of discharges upstream and downstream of the dam, and the
known water level upstream of the dam. The matching coefficients are
m n 1 m n 1
A 0, B 1, C 0, D 0, G Qi 1 Qi ,
(11)
A 1, B 0, C 0, D 0, G Z t
n 1 m n 1
Zi .
Since the developed model is capable of modeling a looped river network, instead of
Eqs. (5), Eqs. (12) need to be used.
Equations (12) give the ΔQ at any computational point as a function of ΔZ in that point
and the first point of the considered reach (Fig. 2), and the ΔQ in the first computational
point of the considered reach as a function of the ΔZ in the i-th and the first
computational point. Coefficients E and F, for all the sequential computational points are
determined using Eqs. (6), while the remaining coefficients are
Di H i
H i 1 , Ei1 Ei M i Ei 1 Li ,
Bi M i Di Ei Ci (13)
Fi 1 Ei N i M i Fi 1 Fi , H i1 H i Ei M i H i 1 .
Due to their recursive character, coefficients E and F and H must be initialized. These
expressions can be obtained from Eqs. (4), when applied to the computational reach
between points i=1 and i=2 to give
A looped river network consists of multiple links connected to computational nodes nj,
j=1,...,J (Fig. 2), hence two additional equations are needed. The equation used at node
nj, where multiple links marked λ=1,2,... Λj are connected, is the continuity equation
j
m 1
Q
n 1
0, (15)
1
where Λj is the total number of links connected to the node. Equation (16) equalizes the
free surface ΔZ for the first or last points of all links connected to the same node.
Z 1 Z 2 ... Z Z n j j
(16)
The continuity Eq. (15) is linearized and implemented on all nodes. As a consequence of
the linearization, ΔQ appear in these continuity equations, and they are substituted with
(12). Finally employing the principle given by (16) gives a system of linear equations,
with unknown ΔZ in all nodes, that are computed by inverting the matrix
a11 a12 a1 j Z n
a1 J 1
b1
a
a22 a2 j a 2 J Z n b2
21 2
, (17)
a j J Z n
a j1 aj2 ajj
j
bj
aJ 1 aJ 2 aJ j a J J Z bJ
n J
where a and b are known coefficients, index nj is the node for which the equation is
written, and j=1,...,J shows the node corresponding to the considered ΔZnj, where nJ
denotes the total number of nodes. After acquiring the ΔZ in all nodes, using Eqs. (12)
gives the ΔQ, while Eq. (5) gives the ΔZ in all computational points.
4. CONCLUSION
A 1-D numerical model for simulating flow in a looped river network implementing the
de Saint-Venant equations was developed. The governing equations, along with the
modeling concept and a solution acquiring procedure for an arbitrary looped river
network, are given in Sections 2 and 3. Equations (2) suggest the ability of the developed
model to allow the change of the Strickler’s coefficient through the computation. For
future references, the developed model should undergo a series of schematic and real life
situation simulations in order to determine its accuracy and validity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia, project number TR 37009.
REFERENCES
[1] Ward, N. D., Gebert, J. A., Weggel, R. W., Hydraulic Study of the Chesapeake and
Delaware Canal. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering,
2009., vol. 135, № 1, p.p. 24-30.
[2] Islam, A., Raghuwanshi, N. S., Singh, R. Development and Application of
Hydraulic Simulation Model for Irrigation Canal Network. Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, 2008., vol. 134, № 1, p.p. 49-59.
[3] Aral, M. M., Zhang, Y., Jin, S. Application of Relaxation Scheme to Wave-
Propagation Simulation in Open-Channel Networks. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, 1998., vol. 124, № 11, p.p. 1125-1133.
[4] Sart, C., Baume, J-P., Malaterre, P-O., Guinot, V. Adaptation of Preissmann's
scheme for transcritical open channel flows. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 2010.,
vol. 48, № 4, p.p. 428-440.
[5] Horvat, Z., Spasojević, M., Isić, M. Matematičko modeliranje mreže otvorenih
tokova. Zbornik radova Građevinskog fakulteta 19, 2010., p.p. 21-34.
1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to advance the calibration of a one-dimensional flow model for a
looped river network, paying special attention to the selection and implementation of the
most suitable calibration approach. Despite the fact that 1-D models are widespread
(modeling flood prone river systems, channel network modeling, laboratory experiments,
etc.) Ref. [1, 2, 3], their proper calibration still presents a major challenge. Castellarin et
al. discussed useful guidelines for identification of the geometric description of natural
rivers [4]. K. W. Chau wrote a paper proposing a system that would help researchers in
the calibration process, and Vidal et al. provided the bases of a framework for the
calibration practice in 1-D river hydraulics [5].
The applied numerical model supports water flow modeling in looped river network [6]
with a dam as an internal boundary condition. The calibration is done by varying the
Strickler's coefficient along the domain using three approaches, finally evaluated through
the verification process.
2. MODEL APPLICATION
The 1-D open channel flow model is tested on a river network that consists of the
Danube (from the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station at rkm 943 to Novi Sad at
1
Mirjana Isić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e – mail: isicm@gf.uns.ac.rs
rkm 1254.15 with 292 computational points), Tisa (Titel at rkm 0 to Senta at rkm 123
with 40 computational points, including the dam in Novi Becej at rkm 62.35) and Sava
(from Belgrade at rkm 0 to Sabac at rkm 102.85 with 35 computational points). The
downstream boundary condition is the known water-level on the Iron Gate I. Upstream
boundary conditions are needed at all tributaries, hence the known discharge through
time was used at each one. The analyzed area on the Tisa river includes the dam at Novi
Becej. The simulation time is one year and 15 days, using the first 15 days as the
stabilization period. The computational time step was 15 minutes, while the distance
between computational points was approximately 1km on the Danube and 3km on the
Sava and Tisa rivers. These distances generally satisfy the optimal cross-sectional
spacing requirement in one-dimensional models [4].
Figure 1. The modeled river network (river names marked with italic)
Common 1-D open channel flow models behave poorly in terms of flow distribution
across a section in a natural meandering channel with vegetated flood plains [7].
Therefore, model calibration remains a critical step in numerical modeling [5]. The
model used in this paper enables multiple calibrating options. The considered approaches
are calibration with a constant Strickler's coefficient, variable coefficient set as a
function of the discharge, and coefficient as a function of the depth. Each approach was
implemented on the examined domain and used for the model calibration and
verification. The criteria to evaluate the considered methods is the requirement of the
calibration process, the physical justification of the considered approach as well as the
results deviation from the measurements.
Appointing a constant Strickler's coefficient for each computational point is a widely
accepted calibration method. The final goal of this calibration approach is selecting only
one Strickler's coefficient at each cross section that will produce the best results. With
this in mind, all the modeled reaches are calibrated for the time interval of six days, for
each of these cases separately, resulting in six series of Strickler's coefficient for the
complete model. The final value of the coefficient for a cross section is obtained by
averaging the previously selected series.
Although this approach can produce good results in the calibration process, using
constant Strickler's coefficient nstr for long term simulations proved to be inefficient,
since these values are valid in a certain interval of discharges located around the values
used for calibration Fig. 2. Varying the discharges in a broader range increases the
deviation between measurements and computed values as confirmed by the simulation
results on Fig. 3. These results indicate that instead of using constant nstr through the
simulation, a relationship enabling the variation of nstr throughout the computation
should be implemented. An additional issue of the constant coefficient nstr approach is
the excessive work it requires during the calibration, since its accuracy depends upon the
attention paid to selecting the characteristic discharges and their separate calibration.
Inspired by this, the developed model was extended in order to allow the Strickler's
coefficient to change with the discharge. As a result, for an arbitrary cross section
multiple pairs of nstr and corresponding discharges are assigned, enabling the variation of
the roughness through the computation, thus producing better results in the verification
procedure (Fig. 4). This method introduced a controversy as a result of the Iron Gate I
dams influence. Ordinary, the increased discharge results in water level elevation, unless
dams are used to keep the water level at a constant value, when the discharge is low, or
dropping the water level in case of floods, when the discharge is high. This results in a
physically unnatural relation between nstr and the discharge, which can introduce
instabilities in the numerical solution. Another disadvantage of this method is that it has
the same requirements in the calibration process as the method with the constant nstr.
The issues with this approach are the vague physical meaning and the amount of work
needed to produce adequate results, that subsequently lead to the use of another approach
and connecting the Strickler's coefficient with the water depth.
Using the logarithmic velocity distribution, the friction factor Cd can be presented as
2
Cd 2
, (1)
ln Z 1
k
where κ denotes the von Karman's constant, Z1 is the distance from the bed at which the
Cd is computed, defined as a fraction of the depth h, and k is the absolute roughness used
as the calibration parameter. After computing Cd, using Eq. (2) we obtain nstr,
g 1/ 6
h . (2)
Cd
The k is used for calibration through Eq. (1), and afterwards, depending on the depth, the
Strickler's coefficient is computed, thus allowing a more reasonable calibration. Since
now the nstr depends on the local depth, the influence on the water level dictated by the
dam does not introduce inconsistencies. Another advantage of this method is that it
simplifies the calibration, since the impact of the discharge variations vanishes this way.
Although the simulation period was from 1st of January to 31st of December 2006, in
order to analyze the studied approaches the results are compared and presented on a
shorter time interval (from 10 to 30 days). The results of the one year simulation are
given for the selected approach solely. Figure 2 shows the influence of the Iron Gate I
dam on the flow, displayed as frequent variations of the water level.
Due to the proximity of the downstream boundary condition, all of the considered
calibration approaches gave similar and good results.
However, as the distance from downstream boundary increases, the differences between
measured and computed results become more obvious. Considering the accuracy of the
presented results, the physical interpretation and the amount of work required in the
calibration process, it would be reasonable to model the Strickler's coefficient as a
function of depth.
Figure 6. Comparison of long term (one year) results and measurements at Beljin
Accordingly, the most suitable approach for future references is using the depth-
dependent model. In order to achieve clarity, the results are presented for a time interval
of only 55 days. Figure 5 shows the results for water levels at upstream and downstream
face of the dam in Novi Becej, and Fig. 6 presents results for Beljin. The agreement of
the computed and measured water levels is satisfactory, especially regarding the broad
range of water levels and discharges caused by the 2006 flood. Examining the results
confirms the developed models accuracy.
5. CONCLUSION
The considered model was implemented on a looped river network that consists of the
Danube River and all of its greater tributaries in Serbia. The calibration was done by
changing the Strickler's coefficient, using three alternate approaches. The first approach
used constant value for the Strickler coefficient for each cross section and produced poor
results for discharges that alter from the ones used for calibration. To address the later,
the Stricler's coefficient was assigned as a function of discharges at each cross section.
This approach also proved to be inadequate since it was time consuming and physically
unjustified. Thus, a third approach was introduced, that allowed the connection of the
Strickler's coefficient to the local depth leading to better results, intelligible reliance
between the roughness and local depth, and easier calibration. After determining the best
calibration approach, the results of a long term (one year) simulation were presented
endorsing the proposed calibration approach, as a simple, yet practical way of model
calibration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia, project number TR 37009.
REFERENCES
[1] Patro, S., Chatterjee, C., Singh, R., Raghuwanshi, N. S. Hydrodynamic modelling of
a large flood-prone river system in India with limited data. Hydrological Processes,
2009., vol. 23, p.p. 2774-2791.
[2] Husain, T., Abderrahman, W.A., Khan, H. U., Khan, S. M., Khan, A. U., Eqnaibi,
B. S. Flow Simulation Using Channel Network Model. Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, 1988., vol. 114, № 3, p.p. 424-441.
[3] Isić, M., Horvat, Z., Spasojević, M. Eksperimantalna verifikacija linijskog modela
neustaljenog tečenja. Zbornik radova Građevinskog fakulteta 20, 2011., p.p. 25-31.
[4] Castellarin, A., Baldassarre, G. D., Brath, A. Optimal Cross-Sectional Spacing in
Preissmann Scheme 1D Hydrodynamic Models. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
2009., vol. 135, № 2, p.p. 96-105.
[5] Vidal, J-P., Moisan, S., Faure, J-B., Dartus, D. Towards a reasoned 1D river model
calibration. Journal of Hydroinformatics, 2005., vol. 7, № 2, p.p. 91-104.
[6] Horvat, Z., Spasojević, M., Isić, M. Matematičko modeliranje mreže otvorenih
tokova. Zbornik radova Građevinskog fakulteta 19, 2010., p.p. 21-34.
[7] Martin-Vide, J. P., Moreta, P. J. M., Lopez-Querol, S. Improved 1-D modelling in
compound meandering channels with vegetated floodplains. Journal of Hydraulic
Research, 2008., vol. 46, № 2, p.p. 265-276.
1. INTRODUCTION
The maximum admissible ammonium content in drinking water in Hungary has strictly
lowered by law from 2,0 mg NH 4 / dm3 to 0,5 mg NH 4 / dm3 regarding subsurface water
+ +
from confined aquifers. Nearly on twenty percent of the settlements, ammonium content
of supplied drinking water fails to fulfil this new requirement, affecting more than fifteen
percent of the population (2250401 capita in 835 settlements [1]). In most cases
breakpoint chlorination technology was the applied solution, regardless its disadvantages
[2]. There were only a few cases where the already available treatment process allowed
application of biological ammonium removal. In these cases only spontaneous
nitrification in filters for iron removal had been utilized. Though this provided some
1
Eötvös József College, Institute of Urban Water and Environmental Engineering, Environmental
Technologies Workgroup, 14 Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Endre utca, 6500 Baja, Hungary
2
Eötvös József College, Institute of Urban Water and Environmental Engineering,Water supply and Drainage
Workgroup, 14 Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Endre utca, 6500 Baja, Hungary
factory scale experience in this matter already, independent ammonium removal process
steps never introduced into drinking water treatment.
Research was made on a rarely applied form of biological ammonium removal, a rapid
filter (with at least 5 m/h flow velocity) dedicated solely for nitrification.
The model equipment was a standing plastic pipe (Fig. 1.), partly filled with roughly
shaped plastic objects with 1,5-2 cm diameter and its lower part filled with zeolite
(trademark: Granofilter, particle size: 2-3 mm). The raw water was introduced at the top
of the filter, where it became nearly saturated with oxygen due to the trickling effect on
the large surface of the media and to the free fall and splash down below to the
headwater of the second filter. Feeding of the
filter with raw water was started late February in
year 2013. The adsorption capacity of the zeolite
media had been already exhausted and
ammonium removed from the water only by
biological means after two months by the time
of the experiments. Filtration velocity was
between 4.5 – 7.0 m/h because of the periodic
pressure changes in the hydrophore tank. Over
the three months of operation the water feed
stopped for approximately 36 hour long periods
in the weekends.
Only two occasional backwashes needed over
the sampling period a month apart: 27th May
and 1st of July. It took the headwater a month to
reach the overflow pipe due to the increased
pressure loss in the filter. 0,9 m increase in the
water level occurred during treating
approximately 1380 bed volume of water (1380
times the volume of the filter media, in this case Figure 1. Sketch of model equipment
8 m3 of water in 5,78 dm3 filter media).
(dimensions in mm)
3. WATER QUALITY
Two different water qualities were studied. In the first period until 25th of June raw
water from a groundwater well was introduced to the filter. Tap water was used in the
second period from 1st of July and its ammonium content had been set to an average of
5,0 mg NH -N / dm3 by adding ammonium-chloride. The characteristics of the two water
+
4
shown in Table 1.
Total dissolved iron content of the inlet water was less than 0,04 mg Fe / dm3, total
arsenic content was less than 1,5 μg/dm3. Ammonium content of the groundwater
dropped significantly on rainy days. Though the dissolved iron content was negligible,
the hydrophore system and the pipeline had significant amount of iron precipitation in
them. Some small flocks of oxidised iron reached the zeolite filter media, but they were
retained in the top layer, never entering the internal pores.
4. RESULTS
Two different raw water qualities are identifiable on the time series of the measured
ammonium contents (Fig. 2.):
Analytic results of samples from different places show that there is a significant
nitrification on the trickling media. Measured nitrite content was also higher in the
headwater of the second filter after aeration on trickling media, than in the raw water or
in the filtrate. There was not any major setback in the efficiency of nitrification after
backwashing the filter. Possible reasons are that the biofilm was not washed out from the
pores of the zeolite and the bacteria have been rapidly populated the zeolite filter from
the trickling media above. The explanation for the poor results of the last two samples is
that the filtrate was recirculated back and the removed ammonium content was replaced
in it. This caused nitrate to accumulate in the water up to 15 mg N /dm3 and more
importantly alkalinity to drop below 3 mmol/dm3. Observed decrease in ammonium
content was approximately 1,0 – 2,0 mg NH -N / dm3 regarding the whole filter.
+
4
Nitrogen balance was also investigated separately for the trickling media and zeolite
media. It is not yet clear that which one of them was less inhibited or more efficient in
nitrification, because of fluctuations in water quality. Nitrification rate for the whole
model is estimated to 5 – 10 mg NH -N / (dm3 · h), retention time calculated from the
+
4
bed volume and the flow rate. This suggests that under more steady conditions this
method is capable of removing the requested amount of ammonium from the raw water
to meet with the drinking water requirements. Similar results of 7 mg NH -N / (dm3 · h)
+
4
were measured under nearly similar conditions in rapid sand filter [3]. To check nitrogen
balance of the process, the amount of ammonium loss and the increase of the inorganic
nitrogen (nitrite and nitrate) content were calculated. Ammonium loss and increase of
the inorganic nitrogen are in acceptable correlation and there is no significant difference
between them. Total nitrogen loss also in correlation with the loss of inorganic nitrogen
(Fig. 3).
The differences in nitrogen balance are mainly due to the assimilation of nitrogen into
the biomass. Inorganic nitrogen forms were measured by photometric methods and total
nitrogen measured by TOC equipment. There are nearly error rates of 10% in the latter
method, which make hard to carefully study the total nitrogen balance.
Even in this experiment with rather fluctuating conditions there were only nitrite peaks
in the filtrate when sudden changes occurred. The measured nitrite content is shown in
Fig. 4.:
Since usually there is negligible amount of organic nitrogen in our subsurface water
reservoirs, the easy photometric measurement of the inorganic nitrogen forms is
satisfactory to operate biological ammonium removal processes for now. Results
revealed that subsequent studies needed on total nitrogen balance, and to find
correlations between the organic nitrogen forms and the operating conditions of
biological ammonium removal processes.
REFERENCES
[1] Csanády M.: A hazai ivóvízminőségi helyzet a nemzetközi előírások tükrében. ELTE
TTK, Buadpest, 1994
[2] Lewis, W.M.: Developments in Water Treatment - 2. Applied science publishers
Ltd, Barking, 2005
[3] Lopato, L., Röttgers, N., Binning, P., Arvin, E.: Heterogeneous Nitrification in a
Full-Scale Rapid Sand Filter Treating Groundwater. J. Environ. Eng., 2013, 139(3),
375–384.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Institute of Hydraulic engineering and Water management of Eötvös József College
(Baja, Hungary) has been involved in the research of fluvial sediment transport
processes for more than 10 years. The importance of sediment investigations is
nowadays much underlined by the Water Framework Directive of the EU (60/2000/EC),
because there is a requirement to continuously monitor morphological processes in order
to help determine changes in the status of waterbodies [TAMÁS 2005].
After the genesis of the sediment, the water – as a transporting medium- whirls it, and
it’s moving raises a several complicated inter-related problems. On the upper section of a
river (which have a large slope), there is enough energy to snatch the sediment up. Thus
the bed load is specific on the upper section of the rivers. On the middle and the lower
section the rate of the bed load is getting lesser, while the rate of suspended load is
getting higher [GRAF 2000]. During the movement of the sediment the fragmenting of it
1
Dániel, Koch, Water management technician, Eötvös József College, Institute for Hydraulic engineering and
Water management, Bajcsy-Zs. u. 14., Baja, Hungary. tel: +36 79 523900 113, e – mail: koch.daniel@ejf.hu
2
László Tamás, Vas, Water management technician, Eötvös József College, Institute for Hydraulic
engineering and Water management, Bajcsy-Zs. u. 14., Baja, Hungary. tel: +36 79 523900 116, e – mail:
vaslaszlo1991@gmail.com
3
Enikő Anna, Tamás, Civil engineer, Eur.Ing., PhD., director of Institute, associate professor, Eötvös József
College, Institute for Hydraulic engineering and Water management, Bajcsy-Zs. u. 14., Baja, Hungary. tel:
+36 79 523900 114, e – mail: tamas.eniko@ejf.hu
is discernible. In Hungary most of the rivers have middle sections. The bed of these
rivers are partially meandering. At these sections the methods of the river regulation is:
flood controlling and cutting through the overdeveloped bends. This methods have a
consequence of raising slopes. The raising slopes raise the sediment-transporting
capacity too. The river doesn’t snatch the sediment on the upper section, thus the river
snatches up the missing sediment from the bed. This phenomenon erodates the bed. At
the types of beds we must calculate with the reducing of the bed. At the case flood, we
can observe reducing beds and silting floodplain because of the anthropogenic effects.
The silting of the floodplains endangers the good ecological state as those getting under
the water with higher and higher water-level. For the engineers, because of these reasons
the samplings of sediment and processing at the laboratory is very important.
2. METHODS
Fieldwork
We have collected sediment samples in relation to three sampling campaigns in frame of
two projects:
● DANUBE EHT 2010 IPA CBC HU-SRB/0901/221/001
- 350 suspended load samples, 70 bed material samples
● TÁMOP 4.2.2.B-10/1-2012-0032 Tudományos képzés műhelyeinek támogatása
az Eötvös József Főiskolán (Scientific training at EJF)
- 75 suspended load samples, 10 bed-load samples, 10 bed material
samples
In our work, we collected bathymetry and free-surface elevation data along the entire
reach with bathymetry surveyed along transect lines set 100 meters apart, and free-
surface elevations measured at every river kilometer [TAMÁS ET AL. 2012]. At the
same time, detailed measurements were carried out at cross-sections 1 km apart. The
measurements taken at each of the cross-sections included: the ADCP (Acoustic Dopler
Current Profiler) flow discharge measurements along multiple transects from a moving
Sampling methods
For the elimination of this mistake, usually a camera is fixed in front of the sampler,
which is recording it’s opening. There is a screen on the boat, where we can observe the
sampling and the disturbing effects.
Often because of the big depth or the high velocity we can’t sample the bed load. In this
case we ought to sample the bed material. The grain-distribution of the bed material we
can conclude the type of the bed material. We can collect samples both of them because
they are completing each others’ results.
We sampling the bed material with a bucket-sampler. Circle-profiled opening is for
sleazy beds. For armoured beds, the opening of the sampler has to be sharped. The
sharped sampler is digging into armoured beds.
In addition to the samples we collected ourselves, we also carried out the laboratory
analyses of further two sample sets:
● Dráva morphological monitoring IPA CBC HU-HR/1001/112/0009
- 125db suspended sediment sample , 75db bed load sample,
75db bed sample
● "MORE" project
- 175db suspended sediment sample, 35db bed load sample,
35db bed sample
During the processing of the bed samples and the bed load samples, we dried the
samples at 105°C, until a constant weight. We measured their weight then we separate
each fractions with a sieve. If the residue of the sieving is more than 10%, we have to
elutriate it.
After a 24 hours elutriation we decant the water from the suspended sediment. We
measure the volume of the removed water. After we measured the volume of the rest
water on the suspended sediment, we wash it to a glass-bowl. After a 24 hours drying,
we measure the weight of the sediment. Dividing the weight of the sediment with the
volume of the water we receive the concentration of the suspended sediment. We put the
sediment with known weight into an aluminium-porringer with 0,65 m/m % NH4OH.
This reagent promotes anti-coagulation. We store the samples in this reagent for 24
hours. Then after we separate the fractions by sedimentation. We perform the
sedimentation in a modified Atterberg-type tubular elutriator. We pour the samples into
a vertical glass-cylinder, which is filled with NH4OH. We measured the temperature of
the NH4OH, so we know the sedimentation time of each fractions. In these times we
depress the elutriated sediment into some glass-bowl. The weights of each fractions is
measureable after drying. With this elutriater we can separate 6 fractions.
3. EXPERIENCES
4. OPPORTUNITIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The development is for lowering the investigation-time and the human-resources needed.
The planned innovation activity is for developing an existing technology and using it in
practice. The existing technology is a sedimentation analysis, in which we collecting the
elutriating suspended sediment in a dial, while we measuring the raise of its weight.
From the collected data we can define the grain size distribution without collecting,
drying and measuring subsamples.
During the development we have to define the parameters of components, the accuracy
required and the technique of reaching it. We have to make a measuring set and its
method of operation, and the documentation of it. Using the sedimentation balance we
can avoid the drying and measuring for two times, which is increasing the mistake. The
losses also increasing the mistake.
During the sampling, we done simultaneous ADCP measuring with no moving boat for
assign the sample with its velocity vector. This will be a chance to calibrate the ADCP.
The ViSea DAS PDT program is appropriate for finding link between ADCP data (from
the reflected strenght of signal of a cell) and suspended sediment concentration. At the
same time using the program is slightly complicated. It doesn’t separate the calibration
and the measuring methods. This program is good at showing the result at 3D, but the
subresults can’t exportable.
The LISST is expensive and can measure in a narrow interval. But with this tools we can
measure the grain size distribution and the concentration in-situ. Because of this, this
tool needs a lot of concentration and grain size distribution for its calibration.
REFERENCES
1. УВОД
1
Милош Трајковић, маст.инж.грађ., студент докторских студија, Универзитет у Нишу, Грађевинско-
архитектонски факултет, Aлександра Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија, e – mail: mr.milostrajkovic@gmail.com
2
др Драган Милићевић, доцент, Универзитет у Нишу, Грађевинско-архитектонски факултет,
Александра Медведева 14, Ниш, Србија, e – mail: drgara@gaf.ni.ac.rs
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1 УВОД
1
Маријана Дамњановић, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава
Черног 80, Пиносава - Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: marijana.damnjanovic@jcerni.co.rs
2
Бојан Миловановић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља
Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: hgvezbe@gmail.com
3
Предраг Војт, дипл. инж. грађ., Институт за водопривреду ''Јарослав Черни'', Јарослава Черног 80,
Пиносава-Београд, тел: 011 39 07 911, e – mail: predrag.vojt@jcerni.co.rs
4
Проф. др Радомир Капор, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 530, e – mail: rkapor@hikom.grf.bg.ac.rs
5
Проф. др Владан Кузмановић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет,
Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: vladak@grf.bg.ac.rs
6
Проф. др Љубодраг Савић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду - Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, тел: 011 32 18 556, e – mail: ljdsavic@grf.bg.ac.rs
ционим оптерећењима, због чега се ови утицаји морају познавати и узети у обзир
при конструктивном обликовању и димензионисању.
У оквиру рада анализирају се хидродинамичка оптерећења која делују на дно и
зидове базена, а за различите потопљености хидрауличког скока.
5 РЕЗУЛТАТИ МЕРЕЊА
Ако се посматрају промене средњег притиска дуж слапишта (слике 2 и 3), уочава
се другачији карактер промена на средини од промена уз зидове, што је последица
Вредности флуктуација притисака дуж тока опадају (слике 4 и 5), као и са пове-
ћањем нивоа доње воде. Флуктуације су значајно веће уз зидове него по средини,
као последица поменутог просторног струјања. На низводном крају умирујућег
базена ове вредности се приближавају.
6 ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
1
Миленко Туленчић, маст. инж.грађ. , ДОО „ХИДИНГ“ Нови Сад, Војводе Шупљикца 9, тел: 021472-
3772, e – mail: milenkotulencic@gmail.com
2
Доц др Матија Стипић, дипл.инж.грађ., АД“ВОЈВОДИНАПРОЈЕКТ“ Нови Сад, Булевар Краља Петра
I бр. 17, е-маил: matija@vojvodinaprojekt.rs
3
Проф др Срђан Колаковић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука,
Трг Доситеја Обрадовића 6, e – mail: kolak@uns.ac.rs
2. МЕТОДОЛОГИЈА
3. РЕЗУЛТАТИ ПРОРАЧУНА
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] ATV-A 128 (1992): Richtlinien für die Bemessуnг уnd Gestaltуnг von
Reгenentlastуnгen in Mischwasserkanälen. Hennef: GFA, Germany
[2] Brombach H., Weiss G., Pisano W.C., (2008). Clarifier-type CSO Tanks: Hydraуlic
Desiгn for Optimуm Sedimentation Efficiency, International Conference of Urban
Drainгe, Edinbуrг, Scotland, UK
[3] Matija S. at all. (2011). Novi Sad seweraгe system development proгramme
revision, Novi Sad, Srbija
[4] Matija S., Rihard Š., Dуšan P., Radojica S., Srđan K., (2012) Redesiгn of the
Existinг Combined Sewer System (CSS) of Novi Sad, 9th International Conference
on Urban Drainгe Modellinг, Beoгrad, Srbija
[5] Матија С., Срђан К., Миленко Т., Горан Ј., (2012) Растеретни преливи у
комбинованим системима канализације (ЦСС), 16. научно саветовање
Српског друштва за хидрауличка истраживања (СДХИ)
[6] SRPS EN Serbien Standards 752-4:2007, (2007). Drain and sewer system oуtside
bуildinг: Part 4. Hydarуlic desiгn and environmental considerations, Институт за
стандардизацију Србије, Београд
[7] Туленчић М., Ретензиони базени са растеретним преливима у комбинованим
системима канализације (CSS), Мастер рад, Факултет техничких наука у
Новом Саду, 2012 г.
[8] Valentin G., Jean-Lуc B.K., Mohammad M., Wolfгanг R. (2011). Implications of
lonг-term stormwater qуality modellinг for desiгn of combined sewer
infrastrуctуre. Urban Water Joуrnal, 8(3), 155-166
[9] Eуropean Parliament and the Coуncil (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC - inteгrated
river basin manaгement for Eуrope (EU Water Framework Directive WFD)
[10] Уредба о граничним вредностима емисије загађујућих материја у воде и
роковима за њихово достизање, ( "Сл. гласник РС", бр. 67/2011 и 48/2012),
competent flow for dimensioning of the WWTP can be defined. In the same time, waste
water discharge to recipient is also regulated with retention basin with relief overflow.
Criteria for dimensioning of these objects are presented in German standard ATV-A
128. With application of German ATV-A 128 standard, hydraulic parameters for
retention basin and relief overflow for Novi Sad are defined and tested in hydaulic
model made with EPA SWMM 5.0 software. These parameters are valid only for
combined sewage systems.
Keywords: Retention, basin, combined, sewer
1. УВОД
1
Бела Варга, Маст.инж. грађ., Техничка школа „Милева Анштајн“ у Новом Саду, е-маил:
varga.bela@yahoo.com
2
Доц др Матија Стипић, дипл.инж.грађ., АД“ВОЈВОДИНАПРОЈЕКТ“ Нови Сад, Булевар Краља Петра
I бр. 17, е-маил: matija@vojvodinaprojekt.rs
3
Проф др Срђан Колаковић, дипл.инж.грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука,
Трг Доситеја Обрадовића 6, е-маил: kolak@uns.ac.rs
2. МЕТОДОЛОГИЈА
2.1. БЛУ КЕНУ
4. АНАЛИЗА И РЕЗУЛТАТИ
Слика 3. Приказ Слободне површине водног огледала при протицају од 12.0 м3/с
и коти Дунава пред Барачку од 80.19 мнм
Помоћу програмског пакета Блу Кену је установљено да у основном доводном
каналу до ЦС Бездан II постоји јака турбуленција са рециркулацијом воде због
облика канала (које из птичје перспективе личи на обрнуто латинично слово С). У
анализама приказаних примера ископа канала примећено је да доводни канал до
ЦС има већу пропусну моћ ако су струјнице које су усмерене ка ЦС паралелне
(Слика 4.).
2. Ископ доводног канала Барачка, да омогући течење од 15 м3/с ка црпној
станици Бездан 2:
Барачку треба проширити од око 18% у сегментима где се улива у Дунав, а
доводни канал до црпне станице треба проширити од око 50%, док дно канала
треба спустити на коту од 77.70 мнм, са бочним нагибима корита од 1:3 у
Барачкој и 1:1 у доводном каналу до ЦС.
Слика 4. Приказ вектора брзина при протицају од 12.0 м3/с и коти Дунава пред
Барачку од 80.19мнм
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Blue Kenue Reference manual, Canadian Hydraulics Centre, National Research
Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2011.
[2] Бела, В.: Примена МКЕ и ТЕЛЕМАК 2Д у неустаљеном течењу у отвореним
токовима, Мастер рад, Факултет техничких наука у Новом Саду, 2012.
[3] Јовановић, М.Б.: Нумеричка хидраулика у пројектовању регулационих
грађевина: напери са крилима, 16.Саветовање СДХИ И СДХ – Доњи
Милановац, Србија, 2012.
[4] Јовановић, М.Б.: Основе Нумеричког Моделирања Раванских Отворених
Токова, Грађевински Факултет, 1998.
[5] Ланг, П.: Telemac-2D Softvare v6.0 User Manual, Telemac Modelling System (e-
book), 2010.
[6] Hydrodinamic model of St. Clair River with Telemac-2D, Canadian Hydraulics
Centre, National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2009.
[7] Рајић, Д., Буза, К.: Доводни канал за црпну станицу Бездан 2 (Елаборат) ,
Воде Војводине.
The calculations were done by using the Telemac 2D software, which is based on the
(FEM) and uses the fractional-step method, which has an advantage over the other
models in terms of calculation stability and the accuracy of the results. The aim of this
thesis is to show on a particular example (Case Study-CS-Baračka Bezdan 2) the
performance of the Blue Kenue and the Telemac-2D softwares.
Keywords: Telemac 2D, Hydraulic modelling of open flows, Blue Kenue, Bezdan,
Baracka.
1
Dr Zoran M. Radić, Građevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Bul. Kralja Aleksandra 73, Beograd,
Srbija, Tel:. O11 2638777, E-mail: zradic @grf.bg.ac.rs
1. INTRODUCTION
During the great expansion of mechanical industries in England, which spread rapidly to
northern Europe and even in America, while " erlin giant of electronic industry AEG"
[2] ( General electric company) hired Peter Berens as artistic advisor and designer to
"certain advanced technical structure transform into monumental architecture" [2],
Serbia was still to develope and become economically 3stronger. for For a german
1
Milena Jovanović engineer of architecture, PR Bureau for architecture and design MILIMARH, PhD student
at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Cara Dušana 6/33, Niš, Serbia, phone: +381 18 243
792, e – mail: mikacika79@gmail.com
2
Aleksandra Mirić, M.Sc. in architecture and heritage, conservation expert, PhD student researcher, l’Institut
de recherche sur l’architecture antique IRAA, Université Lyon 2, Lyon, France; Voždova 70а, 18000 Niš,
Serbia, e – mail: aleksandramiric@yahoo.com
3
Milena Jovanović engineer of architecture, PR Bureau for architecture and design MILIMARH, PhD student
at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Cara Dušana 6/33, Niš, Serbia, phone: +381 18 243
792, e – mail: mikacika79@gmail.com
finance investor Karl Bensajt industrial buildings are not only places of production
where a lot of people resident and work, but, according to words of architect Walter
Gropius , who redesigned the shoe factory Fargus, whose above mentioned magnant was
the owner, must be designed in order to "will of art erases seemingly insurmountable
obstacles .... in every material there is artistic potential laying" [2] .In Pancevo, which
was located on the territory of the AustroHungarian Empire in 1722.year, was built the
first industrial premise in the Balkans, founded by Abraham Kepis, and 125 years later
became the property of Ignacio Waifert [4], which still represents, in its monumentality,
an architectural model. Small, modestly built manufacturing workshops in southern
Serbia, such as leather factory of Nis commercial bank, after the liberation from the
Turks grow into larger, and after the World War II get confiscated and industrialized to
giant companies, setters of the economy in a ravaged country.
Although the existing Law on Cultural Property trough importance of "the development
of society, culture, tech and science" and "socioeconomic development ... in a certain
period" evaluates the importance of individual immovable cultural properties, industrial
heritage within is not recognized as special segment [9]. However, in 2007, signing of
the Protocol on the partnership cooperation between the integral protection of industrial
heritage is of historical, technical, social, architectural and scientific importance on the
territory of Republic of Serbia, created the initial conditions that the signatories,
especially the Ministry of Culture, the Republic Institute for Protection of Monuments of
culture Belgrade, regional offices responsible for the protection of cultural heritage,
and the Museum of Science and Technology, with joint work and individual efforts
contribute to the protection , promotion and popularization of scientific tehnical
immovable and movable cultural property [14]. Of course, we should not forget that in
addition to the established immovable cultural property protected by the provisions of
the Act, the total fund of industrial heritage makes numerous architectural works, such as
the aforementioned Leather Factory of Nis commercial bank, whose importance to the
local community is not negligible.
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The first part of the Leather factory, of Nis commercial bank, established in 1910. as a
limited company, when with its two steam engines and 18 different machines for leather
manufacture, was considered as the best arranged and most modern of its kind in the
Balkans. During World War I it manufactured soldier shoes for the Serbian army, and
during the Second World War produced for the needs of occupying forces. The second
part of the factory was established in 1914. as Leather factory "Balkan", which after the
Second World War in 1949. merged with the Leather factory "Arsen Balkanski" . Given
a new name " Djuka Dinic" – factory for leather and rubber products. Both factories that
have brought new one were confiscated by the state. Last change of "Djuka Dinic" was
in 1953., with the sepparation of rubber enterprise Rubber products industry " Vulkan”
Aleksandra Mirić, M.Sc. in architecture and heritage, conservation expert, PhD student researcher, l’Institut
de recherche sur l’architecture antique IRAA, Université Lyon 2, Lyon, France; Voždova 70а, 18000 Niš,
Serbia, e – mail: aleksandramiric@yahoo.com
while in 1979. the production moves to a new location in which property remains one
part of the separate premises, the object known as building "Stari Vuklan" [5]. Within
industrial complex "Djuka Dinic" during the seventies of the twentieth century were
built new facilities and production capacities expand.
In the only comprehensive monograph of cultural property on the teritory of Nis
"Monuments of Nis" by author B . Andrejevic, better known as facility "Stari Vuklan" is
presented as part of the complex of Leather company "Djuka Dinic". Facilities under that
name within the factory grounds were never identified as cultural property nor registered
as an industrial heritage that needs to be preserved and protected [ 1 ].
Figure 1 a) master plan for in 1925. indicating the object, b) current image of the
parcel, (taken jan.2014. from: www.geosrbija.rs)
Plan of the City of Nis 20102025. that in this region continues to place production
activity. Namely, in this important document beforementioned industrial buildings were
not recorded as part of the architectural heritage that requires additional conditions of
protection which may affect their planned or uncontrolled destruction. In addition there
is a risk imposed by the fact that, after several unsuccessful privatization processes, the
final sale of the bankruptcy estate, land over 5 hectares and facilities that have not been
registered in the Real estate Cadastre, occurred on 2008th [13]. As the form of
ownership has transformed, a preserved part of the complex transferred to private
ownership of legal persons [13], the legal representative of the buildings that have not
been declared as a cultural heritage, it is not obliged to comply with the Law on Cultural
Property and materially preserve the architectural value of industrial heritage .
Leather Factory "Djuka Dinic" as a symbol of former progress is significant testimony of
local history and a part of the city and civic identity. Today derelict and inaccessible,
typical scar in the urban fabric, this building has the potential of public space, open and
accessible to visitors, which may become one of the modern options for the cultural
development of city of Nis.
There are many examples around the world of industrial buildings usage with the aim to
promote cultural values, which can be applied to the architectural heritage of Nis. Of
course, creative approach to the revitalization of abandoned industrial complex requires
the initiative of the local community towards ending the destruction and neglect of these
buildings. In return, there are numerous possibilities for their repurposing, depending on
the needs of the community, location and architectural features of the buildings. Recover
process driven by the culture in this case would not exclude forming of space for
alternative and artistic activities for creative individuals and groups, such as studio and
exhibition space, much needed in Nis. Also, establishing of museum contents, space
intended for presentations and creative workshops, factory complex could be included in
the list of tourist attractions which would support local economic development. It should
be noted that, when it comes to the former leather factory, cultural revitalization and
greening of the complex to influence change in the environmental image of the former
polluters, and thus potentially revive the whole neighborhood.
6. CONCLUSION
.... "Any future will one day become the present. Each present will be history in the
future"[3]. Declaring the complex of the Leather factory "Djuka Dinic" as immovable
cultural property, it would preserve one of the few testimonies of public architecture
from the beginning of early twentieth century, a significant example of the historical
beginnings of industrial production after the liberating Serbia from the Turks,
outstanding aesthetic, cultural and visual values. Although the Institute for Protection of
Cultural Monuments in the city of Nis, in accordance with the Law on Cultural Heritage,
should refer an iniciative for technical documentating, recording, assessment of the
situation and a proposal to protect the building, its revitalization should be longterm and
strategically designed process in which team work of all factors will be cooperating in
chain of decisionmaking.
REFERENCES
1. УВОД
1
Љиљана Алексић, дипл.инж. арх., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: ljiljana.d.aleksic@gmail.com
2
Рудолф Клеин, дипл.инг.арх., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка
2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail:
3
Иван Хегедиш, дипл.инг.арх., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка
2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail:
7. МЕТОДОЛОШКИ ПРИСТУП
8. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Aлексић, Љ.: Еducation of students in the course based design of hauses on faculty
of civil engineering in Subotica, Internattional scientific conference and XXIV
meeting of Serbian surveyors „Profesional practice and education in geodesy and
related fields“, 24-26 jun 2011., Kladovo, Serbia
[2] Aлексић, Љ., Хегедиш, И.: Модул Стамбеног пројектовања на грађевинском
факултету у Суботици, Зборник радова Грађевинског факултета 20,
Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Суботица 2011.
[3] Алексић, Љ.: Основи пројектовања зграда, Приручник за студенте,
Грађевински факултет у Суботици, Универзитет Нови Сад, Суботица, 2012.
[4] Миленковић, Б., Увод у архитектонску анализу I, II, ДИП “Грађевинска
књига“ Београд, V издање 2001.
1
Ksenija Hiel, architect, PhD., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja
Obradovića 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, tel: ++381 62362893, e – mail: hiel@uns.ac.rs
2
Ivana Blagojević, master in landscape architecture., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Novi
Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 8, Novi Sad, Serbia, tel: ++381 642080439, e – mail: ivanab@polj.uns.ac.rs
1. INTRODUCTION
History of public open space settlements can be seen through the analysis of two key
elements: the linear space street and surface area square. Numerous archaeological
sites indicate equal importance of both spaces. While the streets are the linear path of
movement through the settlement, squares are areas for stationary stay and various social
events. The essence of these two elements is very vividly explained by Zuker "If one
visualizes the streets as rivers, channelling the streams of human communication which
means much more than technical measures "traffic" than the square represents a natural
of artificial light."[1] Squares as open public spaces in each settlement have their own
specific functional programs that are directly connected with public buildings which
physically frame them. Square should represents the most specific element of urban
structure towards which we are moving, as the final point and place with a variety of
events. Regardless of its size, to experience an open free space as a square it must meet
certain parameters that in the perception enable easy readability and visibility of the
entire space. During a process of development and growth, each settlement spreads and
forms a new network of physical streets’ and blocks’ frame. Depending on the spreading
of settlement planned or spontaneous, squares can be of different shapes and sizes and
specifically can occupy positions in the urban tissue. According to Zucker squares may
be classified as: closed, dominated, nuclear, grouped and amorphous squares [1]. In this
paper we explore examples of Novi Sad public open spaces that are typical
representatives of the group of amorphous undefined "unlimited spaces." They are only
by their names representing a square, but people do not see them as squares. The
analysed areas are: Square Carice Milice, Neznanog junaka and Square Republike in
Novi Sad. Based on the results of the survey respondents pointed to the problem of
identifying these "squares". Systematization of parameters on which these public open
spaces of the city can be identify, in conclusion we are pointing to the essential elements
of the identity of the public space of the city that can be identified as squares in Novi
Sad.
2. IDENTITY OF SQUARES
For an area of the city, in order to have its own identity, it is necessary to satisfy the
basic criteria of uniqueness and distinctiveness. They are reflected in the legibility of
elements which physically defined a space. Architectural buildings are the most
dominant elements in the formation of the urban environment. The perception of each
area is primarily based on subjective experience, but is often incurred in the common
consciousness that reflects the specific environment. Generalized image of a space is
coded with universal reading system and cannot be excluded in the process of perception
and experience of a space. Probably the most famous theorist in reading towns Kevin
Lynch emphasizes the elements of visual quality and identity of a space which are
defined as readability, authenticity, individuality, uniqueness and orientation in space.
[2] To makes one feel safe in a place and to make identity of that place in ones’
perception about a space, a place must be recognized and previously experienced. The
size, shape, equipment, availability and security are indispensable elements of an
experience of public space of the square. Even Vitruvius wrote about squares pointing
out the importance of adequate size and position of squares in the settlements, in order to
respond to the needs of citizens, for whom this space has to be formed [3]. The shape
and boundaries of the square are usually the first elements of the physical structure of the
square, which is perceived. Two main categories of squares’ form have been
distinguished: regular geometric and irregular, amorphous form. In order to classify the
area of the square in one of these two categories a frame which is usually composed of
architectural objects is obliged. When the borders are formed with different elements
such as bank river or lake or open spaces of wide streets roads, physical boundaries of
the square is hardly seen on the other side of these visual barriers. Arrangement and
order of streets’ interflowing in a square are also important factors in a perception of size
and shape of a square. Krier displays, in his research, a detailed analysis of the
combination of the square shape and position of the interflow of streets. [4] The results
of the survey, conducted in Novi Sad in three squares point to several key issues. The
first is reflected in the experience of space as too undefined framework, amorphous and
without clear boundaries. The majority of respondents (75 %) were not able to define the
boundaries of squares. The same amount of respondents did not know the name of the
area where they are. Typical indicators were the reason of being in the square, which for
the same respondents were just passing through the square. It is clearly evident that the
observed three squares have not recognizable function of the public space that is by
definition designed for pedestrians. Missing benchmarks and identity of architectural
buildings that connect them with this space are evident problems that have to be solved.
Although relatively decorated and maintained these spaces need more adequate facilities
and equipment.
3. CASE STUDY
At the western part of the Street Maksim Gorki, by intertwining two urban matrixes the
Square Carice Milice was formed. The current rectangular shape of the Square, cuts the
Boulevard Maksim Gorki, and shares it on two approximately equal triangles. Third part
of the square is platform in front of the north entrance in to SPENS (Sports and Business
Center). In the southern part a Street Dimitrija Tucovića flows into the square and
vehicular access is available to the south side of the building SPENS, while in the
northern part Sremska and Vase Stajića streets flow into the square (Figure 1, Figure 4).
The position of this square has an important place in the matrix of a broader core of the
city center. Maksim Gorki Street connects Danube river bank with Bulevar Oslobodjenja
running east west, and also a very important pedestrian passage in the northsouth
direction is connecting Bulevar Oslobodjenja (Futoška pijacamarket) along Sremska
Street with SPENS and continues to the University campus. Stadium "Vojvodina" and
mega structure SPENS represent the most important urban landmarks not only for the
square but for the city too. However, the space of the square is not clearly defined, which
significantly contributes to the roads along the Maksim Gorki, intersections with streets
Sremska and Dimitrije Tucovića and two large parking areas on the southwestern and
northwestern part of the square. Sights are semiopend, decoration and equipment is
satisfactory but with inadequate vegetation mostly along the traffics.
Figure 1. Square Carice Milice Figure 2. Square Neznanog Figure 3. Square Republike
[5] junaka [5] [5]
In place of the compound „Rainbow” bridge and Boulevard Mihajlo Pupin trapezoidal
square the Neznanog junaka is formed (Figures 2, Figure 5). This square as same as the
previous is physically divided into two parts with a traffic road running in the eastwest
direction. Vehicular lanes for entry and descent from the bridge further divided this area
into smaller units. The square varies in height with the lover part on the eastern border
arranged as shore promenade along the Danube. In the northwest street vojvode Putnika
flows into the square and in the southwest that would be street vojvode Mišića.
Pedestrian connections are organized around the perimeter of the square, with no
possibility of crossing the Mihajlo Pupin Boulevard. Thus fragmented public area is not
recognized as a square. Each green area flower bed, at the top level, has one monument
in its central part. Grassy areas with high vegetation on the lower level are not equipped
with a park or urban furniture elements, apart from the bus station positioned under the
bridge. Views from the bridge to the square, as well from the upper part of the square to
the Danube and Petrovaradin fortress are open. Perceptions of building facades that
define the square of the northern to the southern part are partially screened by high
vegetation of deciduous and evergreen trees. The identity of the square is buildings of
"DTD" (DanubeTisaDanube), „Rainbow Bridge” and memorials of musician Janika
Balaž and victim of the bombing in 1999. Oleg Nasov.
Figure 4. Square Carice Milice Figure 5. Square Neznanog Figure 6. Square Republike,
„flower market” [6] junaka, view to the north view to the west part of the
part of the square [7] square [8]
At the end of the pedestrian zone and on the crossing of the Danube and Zmaj Jovina
Street is the Square Republike. Extremely elongated rectangle aspect ratio 1:4, square is
defined on all sides with the buildings. The western part (one third) is a parking space,
till recently it was a turntable for the city bus service. The western part of the area is
occupied with a temporary buildings and stalls of "fish market." (Figures 3, Figure 6).
The east Street Žarko Vasiljević is a oneway traffic road with the green belt along the
sidewalks and buildings. The northern part of the square is also traffic road with
longitudinal parking along the sidewalks on a both sides. Parking space can be accessed
from Kosovska Street that is only twoway road. Two streets flow into the square on
northern part Šumadijska and on the western corner Daničićeva. The square is without
street furniture, benches and canopy. The sign of identity is Gymnasium Jovan
Jovanović Zmaj on the western edge and Archives building in the eastern part of the
square. Threestoreyed Military Headquarter in the southeastern corner is the dominant
building on the square. Views are very close with a dashed series of sequences that are
constantly shifting and horizontality position and length of the square as well as the
length of market stalls and facilities prevents perception of the square as a whole.
Regardless of the technological advances of the modern era, and virtual reality in which
the younger generation are beginning to live, a need for staying in the open spaces of the
city such as streets, squares, parks, shorelines, etc. will remain a fundamental need of
every social being. These areas of socialization and gathering in order to meet the
different needs in the modern way of life must undergo some changes. As the physical
structure of the settlement is slowly changing due to a number of mostly economic
factors, the intervention on the open spaces can be easily applied in the field of
functional modes such as the organization, equipment, availability and security of
residence. In this sense, changes of use of the researched squares could be one of the
starting points in their revitalization. The design of a feature is one of the most complex
issues in the transformation of three researched squares. Although the surrounding
objects in each area have individual values and signs of identity (SPENS, „Red signal”,
DTD building, Military Headquarter, Gymnasium Jovan Jovanović Zmaj) the areas are
less well defined, articulated and without clear and readable boundaries. Traffic calming
is imperative for the transformation of all three spaces. Radical changes in the form of
relocation or termination of traffics should be gradually introduced. The construction of
the underground garages, by taking into account a significant position in the urban
matrix of the squares in Novi Sad, would contribute to improving the quality of public
spaces for wider core city and enable the extension of the pedestrian zone to these
squares. Ground landscaping would have to follow the functionality on the square as
well as the contents in the ground floor of surrounding buildings. Special issue of
solving the problems is emphasized in the area of the Square Neznano junaka, because
of the river bank as a specific urban element, which has to be the place for the
connectivity of the city with the Danube. In any case, functional organizations and
programs in the ground floors of buildings as well as on the square impose the user type
– citizens, precisely it will form a target group that would occupying some space. Since
the squares are public areas by their nature they must meet the needs of all citizens,
regardless of their age, ethnic, cultural, economic or any other affiliation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
[1] Zucker P.: Town and Square, the MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and
London, England, 1970
[2] Linč K.: Slika jednog grada, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1974
[3] Vitruvije: Deset knjiga o arhitekturi, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2000
[4] Krier R.: Gradski prostor, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1999
[5] Google Earth
[6] Photo by Ksenija Hiel, 2010.
[7] Photo by Ksenija Hiel, 2012.
[8] www.basiccity.eu/republic
2. PERCEPTION OF PAVILIONS
Light contrast i.e. visualization of figure on the background is the basic principle of
perception of any space. At the first sight, the size and shape of the observing object is
dominant, while in a second glimpse the colour, material and texture are distinctive.
Design principles (symmetry / asymmetry, hierarchy, proportion, dynamic, rhythm,
balance, etc.) have important role in a perception. In built environment, the object
exterior is the first perception, while interior and details of the structure is perceived as
the second picture. [2]
In open shaped pavilions, the interior is closely related with exterior envelope, where the
green colour of verdure stands as a background. The columns of pavilions are design in a
harmony with the vertical part of a tree, particularly when the structure is wooden.
The colours of pavilions have a significant role in perception: principle of contrast (red
green) is often used in conceptual design of parks. White colour creates an impression of
lightness, while dark colours provide visual connection with surrounding trees (Figure 1,
Figure 2).
Traditional design of pavilions is usually squared, round (rotunda), hexagonal or
octagonal in basis. The fundament base is elevated from the terrain to create platform
and to protect the structure from weathering impact. Materials used for open pavilions
are traditionally timber and wrought iron.
In traditional concept closed pavilionskiosks are frequently created on a principle:
"form follows function". Materials for these pavilions varied from wood, iron, to brick,
stone or concrete.
Used colours depend from effects which designers prefer to achieve.
In a contemporary life open and closed pavilions are designed using free forms thankful
to new technological solutions and selfconscious, energy efficient principle of life.
Varied modern timber products allow unimaginable forms emphasizing the natural
colour and texture of wood.
Thus sculptural formed pavilions create unforgettable images of open spaces in towns.
The use of wood in pavilion design dated from old China and Japanese architecture, but
in Europian landscape architecture started to spread in early 18th century (with English
gardens) and till nowadays has significant importance. Thanks to its natural and tactile
beauty, related to its organic origin, as well as to good mechanical properties and easy
processing, wood offers a huge possibilities and practical advantages. As a building
material it is ultimately energy efficient (in production and use), sustainable, ecological
and user friendly, from renewable sources, with great opportunity of shaping and
production, so that the application of wood in pavilion design will remain inevitable in
the future. Due to modern technology, the nowadays pallette of wood based products,
apart from the commonly used solid timber, provides standardized quality and increased
durability, with possibility to fulfill the strong structural requirements and imaginative
architectural demands, oriented to open spaces and free form shapes. Palette of wood
based materials includes a wide range of products manufactured in form of glue
laminated timber (Glulam), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), different durable panel
boards and in form of innovative cross laminated timber (CLT).
Traditional use of timber in pavilion design considers the relatively simple structural
system, which consists from columns, beams and rafters, covered by tiles or bitumen
shits. Simple basis shape dictates the position of columns. Stability of vertical elements
is provided with plugged fence and by struts imitating the branches of the surrounding
trees, (Figure 1). Ornaments and changing of crosssection give the experience of natural
and plastic perceive. In cases where struts are omitted, the timber lattice in upper zone of
structure could be placed in order to increase the overall stability, (Figure 2). Basis of
pavilion is elevated from ground in order to increase durability, entrance could be
emphasized by few steps and there is no door. Nowadays, following the modern
technologies and urban way of life, pavilions get the new meaning. They are placed in
urban areas, squares and parking places, sometimes with clear function, sometimes with
idea to enrich the urban life with sculptures.
A special type of pavilioncanopies appears in the spa parks, were they are covering
drinking fountain with mineral water. In Japan culture there are pavilions for ceremonial
tea drinking. Closed pavilionskiosks are often small size (410m2), except in cases
where functional programs are developed and when they grow in to the size of a
building. Customers are not entering in to kioskpavilion, since communication with
inside function is through the windowcounters. Located in a car park outside Aixen
Provence, small timber pavilion designed by JeanLuc Fugier 2011, is an extraordinary
pavilionbox structure. The main function of this pavilion is parking attendant’s office, a
kiosk window, a restroom and a bin. Hyperbolic paraboloid shape of pavilion is achieved
with wrapped horizontal timber batons (Figure 3). “The apparently simple geometric
form hides the kinetic game at play, influencing the way in which one perceives the
building and making it difficult to understand”. [3] Optimization of a view to parking
area in a widest angle is accomplished with an L shape of plan (Figure 4). Two facades
with an entrance to restroom, with a ticket machine, information and payment window
are protected with a canopy, since the whole pavilion is creating a twisted cube.
Transparent horizontal strips between timber batons are illuminated during the dark,
when the interior of pavilion starts to be visible more than outside membrane. This
horizontal twisted timber batons, in natural colour of dark wood, are in the same time
functioning as a brisesoleils.
„Asuntomessut“ in Finland is an anual Housing fair organised each year in different city.
Info Pavilion in City Espoo, designed by architect Teemu Seppäsen 2006, is used in the
construction of modern woodworkingglulam timber product elements (Figure 5).
Computercontrolled processing technique allows diversity of threeway curved shapes.
The idea was to create a place that does not need a function. The shape of pavilion is a
self bearing cube 6x6x6 m, where windows and door openings in walls create an image
of cube looking like spider net or bird nest. “Information Bar is displaying a meeting
and information point at which the housing fair visitors can get relief from the thirst for
knowledge.” [4]
As an experimental project of an automatic cutter, which enables a diverse and irregular
shape of the pavilions walls, the purpose of Infobar pavilion was to be a service point for
exhibition visitors and customers of houses.
4. CONCLUSION
Pavilions or gazebos, as small buildings in urban open spaces, can provide different
satisfaction to a citizens. According to their structure and function, they can be very
attractive urban spots where people of all ages could gladly spent some free time.
Having in mind that wood comes from renewable sources, that is sustainable, ecological,
ultimately energy efficient in production and use, designers easily decide to utilize its
advantages in creating process of pavilion buildings. Natural tactile beauty and good
strength characteristics, offer to designers unlimited possibilities in creative shaping of
such small buildings. Regardless the typology of pavilions (open or closed), they
represent structures of memory and very often identity of a certain place in a
contemporary urban life. The beauty of such human creation can provide a sculptural
image perceived as different function of a space than it looks like. Very often, the natural
colour and texture of timber products are kept for a final surface of structural forms,
because the warmth and pleasures of tactile perception of wood. Modern technologies of
wood processing offer huge possibilities to designers, so the high aesthetical values of
pavilions could be achieved by creative thinking and innovative design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The paper is supported by research projects TR 36042 and TR 36017, financed by the
Ministry of Education and Science, Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] Burden E.: Elements of architectural design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York,
[2] Arnhajm R.: Umetnost vizuelnog opažanja, Psihologija stvaralačkog gledanja,
Univerzitet umetnosti u Beogradu, Beograd, 1987.
[3] http://www.dezeen.com/2011/07/20/parkingattendant%E2%80%99spavilionby
jeanlucfugier/, download 03.02.2014.
[4] http://www.puuinfo.fi/sites/default/files/content/puulehti/puulehti
32006/puulehti0603www.pdf, download 03.02.2014.
[5] http://www.bdonline.co.uk/swooshpavilionswoopsintoviewatthe
aa/3116685.article, download 03.02.2014.
1. INTRODUCTION
The turn of the century and the second half of the last century generated new demands
due to the intensifying motorized traffic and the growing population, and to solve these
problems the traditional urban fabric needed to be relaxed and more rationalized. Behind
these decisions about city planning stood not only the desire to rationalize, but also
social, political and sociological pressures. Artificial rifts in the city structure were
established which could be violent (not respecting the actual image and urban pattern),
and in a way organic. Violent: not taking into account the urban landscape and the built
environment Organic: improving the city's image, an environment was created where the
built environment is degraded, lowgrade houses, filling gaps in the urban pattern.
Subotica and Kecskemét are cities with sprawling plans, characteristic of socalled plain
cities that were created in on the SouthPlains. In both of the cities the irregular medieval
layout of the city partially remained, in spite of major interventions. The character of the
landscape defined the built environment of the both of the settlements, but nowadays the
formerly uniform look of the city has become collagelike in nature. The similarities
(plain towns, structures of the city) and the differences between these towns are the basis
of this study.
2. METHODOLOGY
The structural analysis of the two cities as two case studies can be applied in two
dimensions which transformed the city’s visual identity and communication not only at a
1
Eva Lovra, dipl. inž. građ., Msc, University of Pecs, Pollack Mihaly Faculty of Engineering and IT, Breuer
Marcell Doctoral School, Boszorkany street 2., Pecs, Hungary, email: lovra.eva@gmail.com
macro but also at a micro level. The scale of structural conflict between the traditional
and modern urban and architectural forms will be evident from studying the town maps.
Studies on the urbanscale level result in better understanding the aesthetic and spatial
relations, as well as the complexity of the traditional and modern values at work. The
details of construction are clear from the townwide scale of the urban fabric and the
interventions to the preexisting forms. The internal structure of the newly built areas
and the installation conditions can be identified, as well as the roads and buildings
inserted into the organically grown urban fabric, and their environmental relationship to
the evolving fabric can be studied. New elements of the intervening order of internal
structure, the nature of the incorporation of the new fabric and their combined
relationship to similar elements in the area, determine the divisions and conflicts in the
urban landscape. An analysis of the structural breaks in these two dimensions raises
dilemmas that summarize the conditions of the inserted elements and could be assumed
to be an isolated road or new construction in the city's body. The problem relates to the
newly developed organically intervening areas, such as new roads or buildings in the city
centre and their impact on the formation of the built environment and the resulting
relationships within a specific paradigm (transportation, morphology, sociology). The
study of the relationship between stability and change can be interpreted as the dynamic
equilibrium of continuity and discontinuity.
Dimensions of the study: Dimension of the urban fabric (Subotica: Marshall Tito
Avenue, Novi Bulevar. Kecskemét: Árpádcity, Rákóczi Avenue, inner ring)
Dimension of the building and housing unit (the multiunit
areas of the Marshall Tito Avenue, Árpádcity)
The study area of the present investigation is the radial streets of Subotica and Árpád
city in Kecskemét.
3. CASE STUDIES
A review of urban plans from the period after 1945 shows that Kecskemét did not have a
welldeveloped road or utilities network and that institutional coverage was incomplete.
The solution to these problems demanded a citywide reconstruction plan was authored
by the mayor of the city, Reile Géza (19611973). In the 1970s and 1980s the "city
rehabilitation" project that was imposed required the total demolition of the earlier fabric
of settlement. By the middle of the 20th century the built environment of the urban areas
had reached today's extent, and from the 1960s onwards, new buildings were conducted
only at the expense of demolishing existing ones. This process could be described as a
cityscale structural transformation (JUHÁSZ, 1998.: 239241.) in the case of Árpádcity
and the city centre. The construction of the former Leninresidential area (nowadays
Árpádcity with block of flats) started within the framework of the second Five Year
Plan in Rávagy Square in 1961. The western part of the city, including this housing area
has a negative aspect in terms of the city structure. In particular, the placement of
massive tenstory buildings is considered a mistake, because their dimensions ignore the
scale of traditional urban environment, making them almost impossible to integrate into
the urban fabric. In the former Lenincity the area with four or five storey buildings
(Árpád Boulevard and Rávágy Square) creates a more humane living environment than
could emerge in the region of Reile Géza, Bagi László and Damjanich Streets. The
streets located north of the Holy Trinity Cemetery represent a different world from an
architectural point of view. The residential area, created after World War I, was adequate
to the needs of its citizens and has retained its unique appearance (KOROMPAY, 1981.
1992). The design of the small city ring was one of the major structural interventions
undertaken, but did not create a lasting impact on the urban design. (KOROMPAY,
1981. 1992.) The changes made to the central area of the city that most shaped the city's
image can be observed on the city map from 1933 (MNLBKML XV.1/a.1.0766) and on
the seethrough map from 1977. Nowadays the highrise residential area is organically
integrated into the surrounding historic centre. It is linked in character to the Árpádcity
housing estates on the opposite side of the partly implemented inner ring. In the newly
built downtown area, where the secular centre is not separated from the religious centre
or other residential institutions, there is disharmony as a variety of different features are
mixed, which can be experienced from seeing the new and old buildings.
In Subotica the introduction of new radial roads, such as Marshal Tito Avenue on the
line of the Fűzfás spring (Vrbov) and the unrealized Novi Bulevar on the Rogina spring
floodplain, was important not only in terms of urban planning. At the Marshall Tito
radial street the challenges were to find a solution for the Zorka factory waste water
drain system, as well as to build new homes to increase the residential density of the
central part of the city. The avenues followed the natural topography, sloping with the
waterways in the direction of the central part of the city. The population had decreased
from the beginning of the last century due to the world wars, but by the sixties had
regained its inhabitants with population about 100,000 and trends showed this
increasing. The bombing of 1944 had damaged and destroyed many residential and
historic buildings, in particular next to the railways. This destruction of housing and
infrastructure and the poor quality and lack of development of the city contributed
significantly to the development of new residential areas such as Marshal Tito Avenue.
From an urban planning point of view, the main goals of the city planners in the fifties
(Baltazar Dulić and Franje De Negri) were increasing the residential density, replacing
outdated building stock with modern residential buildings, developing appropriate
infrastructure and public works, finding a solution to the waste water problem of the
Fűzfás spring (hygiene and health concerns played a role), not least developing new
urban areas, and this was their vision and the mission when they outlined the creation of
the Marshal Tito Avenue. The city's urban map from 1954 ( IAS: 003, 3.3.1.42) shows
both the existing building complex and the proposed outline of the Avenue. Here new
public and residential buildings began to appear in 1958 with the start of construction of
the first four storey buildings (IAS, F:138, 1956) using a design type of striking
characteristics and consistent materials. The splits were shown on the layered map (1.
Mihaly KönyvesToth: IAS/SzTL, F:003, 3.2.1.4.), 2. Kosta Petrović (IAS/SzTL, F:047,
II70/1927), 3. (IAS/SzTL, F:003, 3.3.1.42.) new public and private buildings 4.
Detailed plan of the city centre 1967/1970 (ZZUS I/37a) with new public and private
buildings).
Figure 2. Layered map of Subotica with the main changes, sematic figure of the splits
4. RESULTS
In case of Subotica and Kecskemét the period of construction of the new built
environment lasted from the 1960s to the 1980s, and resulted in a sharp fissure in the
urban form, made worse by a morphologically foreign building validation. One result
was that existing structures, which were literally bound by the traditional, closed
structure, where the height of the buildings respect the height of the adjacent traditional
buildings, were surrounded by alien building forms. The way these fit into the existing
urban pattern among the traditional structures, particularly when they affect more than
one building plot, created divisions between the distinct components of the environment
on the city plan, while it also responded to the changes.
Local and regional authorities of the socialist era deliberately broke with the continuity
of the architectural inheritance of the past, partially causing the disappearance of
historically significant architecture, including the demolition of valuable buildings along
the new regulatory lines of the avenues the affected areas of the historic urban fabric.
Another result of the morphologically alien pattern was that the continuity of the city's
construction on urban level was interrupted.
The primary typological analysis reveals to the relationship between the city 's historic
centre and the wedging of new roads. Since the study of the two cities took into account
a specific area of residential units, therefore the time period can be identified. The
current study specifically looks at the era after the World War II, when the historical city
center went through significant changes caused by the introduction of new housing units
and town planning methods (apartment on the Tito Marsal Avenue, inner ring, Árpád
city).
In Kecskemét, with the exception of the area of the Árpád housing estates, the
historically developed road network and urban structure has undergone only a qualitative
transformation and has not suffered greater injury. These buildings, as well as the
apartments in Subotica, are residential types.
Both of the case studies are specific in the phenomena that the construction date of
apartment units from the second half of the last century is impossible to determine by
just taking into account the physical dimensions of the living space, because soon after
the Second World War economic changes and demands appeared.
The size of the flats is only one of these phenomena, which is determined by human
scale and dimension, supporting the concept of residential units as physical objects.
By examination of maps of the study area in Kecskemét fundamental errors in the urban
pattern can be seen, such as the functional mixture of residential and industrial zones, the
lack of smooth transition of main roads into the city centre, and the quantitative and
qualitative inadequacy of the housing blocks.
The only solution to the undeveloped network of public institutions would be a citywide
reconstruction. The structure of the town plan has been changed by redirecting traffic
from routes (44, 52) through the city centre and 26th street, and opening and rerouting
the inner ring in the city's historic urban plan (JUHÁSZ 1998: 229238).
The inner ring raises similar problems to the construction of the Novi Bulevar.
According to the thesis of the Athen's Charter and M.R.G. Conzen’s theoretical approach
to spatial planning and structures, the unfinished radial street in Subotica, Novi Bulevar,
would follow the unspoken principle of splitting the traditional fabric of the city centre,
opening spaces and creating a looser structure. The basis of this vision can be found in
the Athen's Charter, however it would have been inherent in Subotica’s implementation
of the plan that the city's buildings, with the exception of the city's oldest houses, along
the maiden radial street, would be demolished buildings without regarding to their
architectural and historical value.
The Charter, however, supports the preservation of historical heritage. One element of
paradox that can be found on numerous levels is that preserving heritage is only made
possible by process of rehabilitation. It can be concluded that in both cases a partial lack
of complexity can be discovered, the solution of which is a task for additional theoretical
case studies to search for both positive and negative solutions.
The development of complexity at different levels is a function of social determinants, as
well as the historic cityscape. The urban fabric of modern structures and buildings
associated with harmonious unity (ROWE, COETTER ?: 50), combined with the
internal operation of the area, and a balanced state between each other often creates
conflicting demands.
In spite of the modern interventions, the historic city lives on organically, with a collage
like nature combining different features, spatial effects and structural intertwining. The
case of these two cities may reveal a theory of structural conflict as a solution brought to
bear by a virtual collage of transparency.
The stratification of neighbourhoods, structures that build on each other and the
juxtaposition of different forms may have an foreign effect on the newly built areas and
roads, creating functional splits.
The negative penetrations are created in such a way as to create a system in which the
importance of conflict in creating areas that belong to the city centre, and at the same
time are separated by their external nature.
A collagelike system, by its very nature, seems to reveal the hidden relationships
between the existing and the new, foreign forms created by the interventions into the
historic form.
A foreign element within a specific period of time can be identified not necessarily a
structural break, but as merely a morphological, functional and aesthetic conflict
between traditional and new pattern and values.
REFERENCES
[1] Bárth, J., Csatári, B.: Kecskemét monográfiája I., Kecskemét, 2002.
[2] Juhász, I.: Kecskemét város építéstörténete, Kecskemét, 1998., 229238., 239241.
[3] Korompay, K.: Kecskemét Árpádváros II. ütem RRT Városképi és műemléki
vizsgálat, Kecskemét, 1981.
[4] Korompay, K.: Kecskemét város történeti, városépítészeti, építészeti értékvizsgálat,
Kecskemét, 1992.
[5] Meggyesi, T.: A 20. század urbanisztikájának útvesztői, Budapest, 2005.
[6] Conzen, M.R.G.: Thinking about Urban Form, Bern, 2004.
[7] Rowe, C., Koetter, F.: Collage City, Cambridge, ?, 50.
1. INTRODICTION
If " a city is the best body of memory that a man has ever created"[1], it is
understandable why all changes that occurred in the long genesis as a result of territorial,
social, economic, cultural and spiritual prosperity, can be observed through its physical
structure. The human need to conquer the space surrounding them, to expand the city
where they live and adapt it to themselves, induced morphological and physical changes
in the environment, and created heterogeneous neighborhoods that are environmentally,
functionally and architecturally very jarring and different. The main arbiters of
significant changes in the cities are the economic demands of the community, aspirations
of political leaders and city officials, and accommodation of the residents and their
1
MArch, Faculty of Technical sciences, Department of Architecture ana Urbanism, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
Novi Sad, Srbija, 021 485 2462, email: dijana_apostolovic@yahoo.com
2
MArch, Faculty of Technical sciences, Department of Architecture ana Urbanism, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
Novi Sad, Srbija, 021 485 2462, email: aleksandrabandic@gmail.com
3
PhD, Faculty of Technical sciences, Department of Architecture ana Urbanism, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
Novi Sad, Srbija, 021 485 2462, email: ksenija.hiel@gmail.com
constant pursuit of comfort and safety, which is now, however, unconsciously lost as a
result of permanent urban transformation, dictated by the aforementioned influential
forces.
"The form of the city is, above all, an expression of spiritual, social, historical, spatial
and physical continuity"[2], which has developed in every society independently of the
enveloping system. In chronological terms, an urban matrix is the central representative
of the changes and the best indicator of the transformations which formed the
appearance of a settlement in time, and influenced the creation of collective memory in
the community. Nevertheless, the city as a whole is very abstract and virtual for the
inhabitants because it is impossible to experience it perceptually in totality, as a unified
system. Traces of social prosperity, territorial development and social genesis, are best
identified through analysis of the street network of the settlement, where the time
dichotomy in overlappingof the old and new street stencils is clearly noticeable.
"Urban morphology is a tool that allows us to discover the many facets of the essence of
built structures and open spaces", [3] which can be seen through the changes in the street
network, through street function, development hierarchy, and the introduction of new
routes that fundamentally alter the familiar image of the city. Although the city is
commonly observed in a certain moment, it represents an epochal structure formed
through time, changed due to social maturation of the community and transformed
owing to the evolution of awareness and aspirations.
Urban matrix of a settlement is an apparent indicator of development, which maps out all
the changes, conditioned by the technological progress, political upheavals, ideological
concepts and socioeconomic parameters present in the specified built environment, into
the horizontal plan of the city. The analysis of the street network of Novi Sad shows a
heterogeneity in the construction periods, a prominent position of the city center as an
ambiental, cultural and social junction, a great disharmony in a morphological sense
when it comes to the basic urban elements in the areas of both the center and outskirts of
the settlement. Urbanistic reading of the city indicates three characteristic periods
spatially marked by the introduction of strong marginal routes that divided urban tissue
in subunits.
The most significant changes, implemented during the period of the XX and XXI
century, influenced the creation of the city in the form known to its inhabitants today,
thereby forming the urban identities and traffic representatives of settlements
boulevards. Built in the early twentieth century, Mihajlo Pupin Boulevard is the oldest
transport routeof this magnitude in the city, and it pointed out the concept that not all
cities have the same attitude towards the reconstruction of the inherited street network in
the central areas[4]. Expansion of car traffic in the city, caused the development of
important routes that connected the urban domains, enabled the construction of
representative public typology and functionally unburdened the urban tissue and formed
a continuity and linearity in traffic. Introducing traffic and a dominant traffic route in the
During the period of the creation of the Mihajlo Pupin boulevard and Oslobodjenja
boulevard, the urban tissue of these parts of the city had already been formed. The
primary function of streets is to "structure, connect and separate urban forms" [7] and
thus become dynamic axes that influence the interrelation of the surrounding area to the
traffic as a whole.Mihajlo Pupin boulevard, formerly Maršala Tita, denies the existence
of the previous street system, in two visible places in the horizontal plan. The
disconnection of the singular direction that leads through streets Kralja Aleksandra and
Železnička, as well as the direction of the Jevrejska street throughout Pozorišni trg to trg
Slobode, is noticeable when it comes to continuity and ease of movement, visual and
perceptual overview of the segment and the relation of the architectural objects on the
street corners to the intersection itself. In addition to the aforementioned functional and
aesthetic flaws, the problem of such spatial interventions is also reflected in the
ambiental, symbolic sense and the issue of disrupted identities of the edifice that have
lost their significance as entities which used to belong to a different concept. This point
of view can be supported by simply observing Menratova palata, a representative of
both business and residential building at the corner of Kralja Aleksandra street and
Mihajla Pupina boulevard, that have remained oriented with a blind facade towards a
frequent and dominant traffic direction after the transformation and building of the
boulevard. The new route brought a number of identities, recognized today as the
benchmarks of the city, but it also took away a portion of physically shaped memories of
the former collective consciousness and historical facts.
The demolition of the buildings that were positioned in the space determined for the
formation of the new boulevard, also occurred during the construction of the
Oslobodjenja boulevard. A large number of functionally justified, architecturally adapted
and morphologically interesting objects had to be physically removed due to ideological
reasons. "One of the functions of architecture, as well as one of the measures of its
artistic values, is the attitude towards the ambience" [8]; this is also the issue of the
relation towards the existing and yet the justification of the desire and need for change.
In two places along this boulevard, the existing street network has been discontinued,
thereby the relation to the current had to be completely annulled. The biggest drawback
in this area is the complete inferiority to the significant linear sections of the Železnička
and Lasla Gala streets, as well as the direction made by the Avgusta Cesarca and Danila
Kiša streets. The problem with this kind of relation is the disturbance of the identity the
streets once had, and the disregard of the collective memory and the significance the
aforementioned hubs used to have on the mental map of the city.
In contrast to those previously described, the boulevard Evrope, as the youngest
representative of changes in the urban matrix of Novi Sad, was created in a manner that
did not require demolition of the former, compactlybuilt space. Constructing the borders
of traffic areas and closing the street fronts that still takes place, is proving to be a time
consuming process, that should involve the planned construction of adequate facilities.
Changes in the city, created by the penetration of the boulevard have, at each stage,
introduced further changes in the appearance of the city and affected the perception and
experience of the various urban units. Today, these directions divide the city into areas;
streets flow into them and depart from them; the morphology of the blocks is changing
and typologies and functions are shaped to accommodate the needs and potentials of the
boulevard area. On the other hand, the boulevards connected the different areas of the
city, enabled the efficient movement and improved the traffic communication.
Regrouping of the functional areas of the city has been stimulated, and the opportunities
provided by connecting them leaves space to the potential decentralization of the city.At
each stage of development, boulevards have contributed to the regrouping of the
importance of certain areas, thus allowing the highlighting and exploitation of the
potentials of previously less accessible areas.
The importance of the boulevards as links between different units of the city and the
need for their existence and dominant crosssection in order to meet the needs of the
increasing number of users is undeniable. The grid lines of public transport, are an
eminent proof of the importance of boulevard routes built during the twentieth century.
Two of the boulevard from this period today represent the routes of the most lines of
public transport.Through them, all parts of Novi Sad, central and peripheral, are
connected to each other, and they are the nist inportant points of intersection and
junction of all transport routes of the city
4. CONCLUSION
The three described stages in the development of Novi Sad, reflected through the
significant changes in the urban matrix, are among the most important influences that
formed the city as we know it today. Mihailo Pupin and Oslobodjenja boulevards
destroyed the physical structure of the city, in order to create the now wellknown and
functionally important areas of Novi Sad. Identities were demolished, to enable the
building of new landmark of collective memory. With all the criticism and controversy
among experts and the acceptance or condemnation of the population, these prominent
urban elements are direct factors of undisturbed functioning of the entire city life.
Analysis of the public transport system shows apparent importance of these boulevards,
through which it is possible to connect and network the city. At the same time, they
represent the nodes, boundaries and connections in the physical structure, integrating
significant functions and various typologies that shape the lives of the citizens of Novi
Sad.
The changes that the street network suffered in the phase that formed three new
boulevards, did not degrade the built environment and had no destructive character as the
previous two phases, indicating a tendency to expand the city in nonurbanized areas and
to preserve the existing built structure in the form established in the past. Upon entering
the XXI century, the negative segments of the previous penetrations of boulevard routes
and the interventions in the street network, have been superseded by the construction of
new ones. Time will tell whether the newly formed dominants can achieve the positive
features and utilize the proven potential of these line elements of the urban tissue.
REFERENCES
[1] Mamford L.: Grad u istoriji, Book i Marso, Beograd, 2006. godina, 569. str.
[2] Radović R.: Forma grada - osnove, teorija i praksa, Orion ArtBeograd i Stilos
NoviSad, 2003. godina, 65. str.
[3] Đokić, V.: Urbana morfologija - grad i gradski trg, Arhitektonski fakultet
univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd, 2004. godina, 2. str.
[4] Pušić LJ.: Gradovi XX veka Vojvodina, Novi Sad, 2009. godina, 162. str.
[5] Pušić LJ.: Grad bez lica, Medi Terran, Novi Sad, 2009. godina, 76. str.
[6] Foucault, M.: O drugim prostorima, u Operacija: Grad priručnik za život u
neoliberalnoj stvarnosti, Reprint, Zagreb, 2008. godina, str. 32
[7] Reba D.: Ulica-element strukture i identiteta, Orion Art, Beograd, 2010. godina,
str. 36
[8] Radović R.: Živi prostor, Nezavisna izdanja 24, Beograd, 1979. godina, str.17
1. УВОД
2. АРХИТЕКТОНСКИ КОНЦЕПТ
3. МЕТОДОЛОГИЈА
Профит на пројекту се може рачунати као нето добит, односно као разлика између
прихода од продаје и улагања (укупних трошкова). Да би се могло вршити
ОРИГИНАЛНИ
КОНЦЕПТ
ОПТИМИЗОВАНИ
ΔР=Роп-Рор
КОНЦЕПТ
4. СТУДИЈА СЛУЧАЈА
5 20,5
15,7
4 9,8
6,9
RENTABILNOST
3 19,2 OPTIMIZOVANA
13,2
ORIGINALNA
2 19,8
15,4
1 23,4
19,3
Слика 2. Рентабилност оригиналног и оптимизованог решења
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Guckert, D., King, J.R.: Who pays for the architect's mistakes. Facilities Manager,
2002., september/october.
[2] O'Leary, A.F.: Imperfect Contract Documents Who Pays for the Errors?. Design
Cost Data, 1995.
[3] Закон о планирању и изградњи. Службени гласник Републике Србије, 72/2009,
2009.
[4] Малдини, С.: Речник архитектонског пројектовања.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/23199020/SlobodanMaldiniRe%C4%8Dnik
arhitektonskogprojektovanja, преузето 9.2.2014
[5] Меданић, Б.: Management u građevinarstvu, Građevisnki fakultet u Osijeku,
Osijek, 1997.
[6] Стојадиновић,З., Маринковић,Д., Микић,М.: Вредносно инжењерство у пракси
примена на нивоу идејног пројекта. IX међународни научно-стручни скуп
"Савремена теорија и пракса у градитељству", Бања Лука, 2013., Зборник
радова стр. 233-242.
1. УВОД
1
Асистент Марко Николић, дипл. инж. арх, Универзитет у Нишу, ГАФ Ниш, Александра Медведева
14, Ниш, Србија, тел: 018 588 200, e – mail: marko.nikolic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
Доцент др Александар Милојковић. дипл. инж. арх, aleksandar.milojkovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Доцент др Александар Кековић. дипл. инж. арх, aleksandar.kekovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
Прeмa [4], C. J. Marsan кaжe дa прoсeчaн гoст прoвeдe oкo чeтири сaтa днeвнo
будaн у хoтeлу, a нajвeћи дeo прeoстaлoг врeмeнa прoвeдe у крeвeту. Пoлoвинa
„будних” сaти oбичнo бивa пoтрoшeнa у грaницaмa хoтeлскe сoбe [5] a прeoстaлa
двa сaтa нa рaзличитим мeстимa у oквиру хoтeлa. Ипaк, ни нa jeднoм другoм мeсту
у хoтeлу гoст нe дoлaзи у тaкo близaк кoнтaкт сa прojeктoвaнoм и угрaђeнoм
oпрeмoм кao у хoтeлскoj сoби. Пoрeд тoгa, пo прирoди ствaри гoст, oсим нa
пoнуђeни кoмфoр, прe свeгa oбрaћa пaжњу нa мoгућнoсти зa зaдoвoљaвaњe
сoпствeних пoтрeбa.
Meђутим, чaк и кaдa су сви oснoвни зaхтeви испуњeни нa зaдoвoљaвajући нaчин
(удoбaн крeвeт, дoбрa звучнa изoлaциja, нeчуjнa климaтизaциja, aдeквaтнo
oсвeтљeњe) зa „прeкaљeнoг“ пoслoвнoг путникa или туристу, дoживљaj хoтeлскe
сoбe мoжe бити дoсaдaн. Oбичнo рaзнa хoтeлскa искуствa пoстajу мaглoвитa
свaкa сoбa мoжe бити у билo кoм хoтeлу, билo гдe у свeту, jeр су кoнфигурaциja
сoбe, пa сaмим тим и дoживљaj истe, гeнeрaлнo исти у вeћини хoтeлa. Oвa
нeгaтивнa искуствa узрoкoвaнa су нeдoстaткoм индивидуaлнoсти, бaнaлнoшћу и
мoнoтoниjoм.
Билo дa гoст изнajмљуje луксузни aпaртмaн или jeднoстaвну двoкрeвeтну сoбу,
зaхтeви у суштини oстajу исти, нaизглeд кoмплeксни, a ипaк пoтпунo рaзумљиви:
oдржaвaњe хигиjeнe, oсaмљивaњe, кoзмeтичкe пoтрeбe, oблaчeњe и свлaчeњe,
спaвaњe, рaзмишљaњe, oдмoр, вoђeњe љубaви, читaњe, сaњaрeњe, слушaњe
музикe, глeдaњe тeлeвизиje, прaвљeњe плaнoвa, писaњe, цртaњe, тeлeфoнирaњe
итд. Сви oви прoцeси и пoтрeбe зaхтeвajу прoстoр, кojи стoгa мoрa бити
мултифункциoнaлaн, a зaхтeви зa нajвeћoм мoгућoм рaзнoврснoшћу кoришћeњa,
бeз oбзирa нa тo штo у извeснoj мeри зaвисe oд типa и кoнцeпциje хoтeлa,
прoузрoкoвaни су свe вeћoм дoстунoшћу путoвaњa и свe мaњим рaзликaмa у
пoтрeбaмa и oчeкивaњимa рaзнoрoдних типoвa клиjeнтa. Гoсти oд сoбa трaжe вишe
нeгo икaдa рaниje [1] и oнo штo je извeснo je дa je прaг зaдoвoљствa вeћ вeoмa
висoк, a гoст сa jeднoм зaдoвoљeним „мaњим” пoтрeбaмa, зaхтeвaћe свe вeћe
пoдстицaje дa зaдржи исти нивo зaдoвoљствa [6]. Збoг тoгa je нeoпхoднo дa
дaнaшњи стaндaрдни рaспoрeд хoтeлскe сoбe будe знaчajнo другaчиjи oд oнoг
пиoнирскoг из '50их гoдинa прoшлoг вeкa.
Сaврeмeни кoнцeпт прeвaзилaзи првoбитну функциjу хoтeлa и нe пoдрaзумeвa
вишe сaмo мeстo склoништe зa људe рaзличитoг пoрeклa, нaмeрe, тeмпeрaмeнтa,
пoтрeбa и интeрeсa. Хoтeл мoрa дa свojим кoрисницимa oбeзбeди уживaњe, a
хoтeлскa сoбa je jeдaн oд физичких eлeмeнaтa излoжeних врeднoсним димeнзиjaмa
eлeгaнциje, удoбнoсти, eстeтикe и зaдoвoљствa. Oвaj кoнцeпт прeтпoстaвљa
буђeњe нoвe сeнзaциje кoд кoрисникa, штo рeзултуje инсистирaњeм нa
пeрсoнaлизaциjи прoстoрa. Иaкo мнoги eлeмeнти хoтeлскe пoнудe дoпринoсe
пoзитивнoм утиску гoстиjу тoкoм њихoвoг бoрaвкa, рaзнe кoмпoнeнтe сe
усмeрaвajу кa крeирaњу урaвнoтeжeнoг сeнзуaлнoг искуствa, чeстo oписaнoг кao
„чврстoг“ прeгрaднoг зидa кojи рaздвaja oвe двe зoнe, чимe сe ствaрa визуeлнa вeзa
измeђу њих и пoвeћaвa утисaк прoстрaнoсти.
Примeнoм нoвих тeхнoлoгиja и мaтeриjaлa, пoпут мaтирaнoг, или стaклa у бojи, зa
тoaлeт и туш лoцирaнe уз зид кa кoридoру, рeaлизaциja oвaквoг рeшeњa дaнaс нe
прeдстaвљa вeлики тeхнички прoблeм.
Прeгрaдни пaнeли (нeпрoвидни, или трaнспaрeнтни сa oдгoвaрajућим зaстoримa)
мoгу бити и клизни, чимe сe oбeзбeђуje нeoпхoднa привaтнoст, aли и „зaмaгљуje“
крутa пoдeлa измeђу зoнe купaтилa и зoнe зa спaвaњe.Умивaњe и oдгoвaрajућa
oпрeмa („кaбинeт“ сa умивaoницимa) мoгу чaк бити интeгрисaни и у прoстoр сoбe
и тaкo пoстaти прeлaзни eлeмeнт измeђу oвe двe зoнe, a истoврeмeнo бити
искoришћeни зa смeштaњe минибaрa и oдлaгaњe рaзличитих упoтрeбних и
дeкoрaтивних прeдмeтa [12].
У нeким рeшeњимa, пoсeбнo кoд нoвих сoбa пoвeћaнe ширинe, мoгућe je пoмeрaњe
купaтилa сa уoбичajeнoг мeстa и пoдeлa зoнa купaтилa и сoбe пo дужини. Mнoги
сaврeмeни хoтeли пoзициoнирajу купaтилa нeких свojих сoбa уз фaсaднe зидoвe,
oмoгућуjући увoђeњe прирoднoг свeтлa у oбe зoнe, и пoглeд гoстимa нa oкoлину из
тушкaбинe или кaдe (aли и пoглeд oнимa сa улицe или из сусeдних згрaдa нa
купaтилo). У гoтoвo свим oвим случajeвимa и прeгрaдa измeђу купaтилa и сoбe je
тaкoђe трaнспaрeнтнa.
Слика 1. Модел хотелске собе на IGЕHО сајму, Басел, 1995., на основу конкурсног
решења из 1993. за хотел Park Hyatt у Цириху, Meili, Peter Architekten
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] DeVeau, L., DeVeau, P., Portocarrero, N. and Escoffier, M.: Front Office
Management and Operations, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall , 1996, стр. 516
[2] Rutes, W., Penner, R. and Adams, L.: Hotel Design, Planning, and Development,
Architectural Press, Oxford, 2001., стр. 266279
[3] Doswell, R. and Gamble, P.: Marketing & Planning Hotels & Tourism Projects,
Barrie and Jenkins, London, 1979., стр. 130
[4] Ogle, A.: Making sense of the hotel guestroom. Journal of Retail and Leisure
Property, 2009., vol. 8, бр. 3, стр. 159172.
[5] Lundberg, D.: The Hotel and Restaurant Business, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1994., стр. 64, 100.
[6] Balmer, S. and Baum, T.: Applying Herzberg’s hygiene factors to the changing
accommodation environment. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 1993., vol. 5, бр. 2, стр. 3235.
[7] http://www.hotel
online.com/News/PressReleases1999_4th/Nov99_NoblesAtmosphere.html,
03.02.2014.
[8] Walker, N.: Viewing guestroom perfection. Asian Hotel & Catering Times, 2002.,
vol. 27, стр. 1215.
[9] Lockyer, T.: Business guests’ accommodation selection: The view from both sides.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 2002., vol. 14, бр.
6, стр. 1215.
[10] Baumann, M. A.: Bed designs give residential look. Hotel & Motel Management,
2002., vol. 217, бр. 14, стр. 143.
[11] http://www.informedesign.org/_news/june_v03rp.pdf, 03.02.2014.
[12] http://www.totalvenue.com.au/articles/hotel_trends/hotel_trends.html, 03.02.2014.
[13] http://www.hospitalitynet.org/news/4059445.html, 03.02.2014.
1. UVOD
Toplotni komfor direktno utiče na opšti osjećaj ugodnosti, zdravlje, radnu sposobnost,
kvantitet i kvalitet rada zaposlenih [1] zbog čega predstavlja nezaobilazan činilac kako u
projektovanju novih zgrada, tako i u rekonstrukciji postojećih. Prema važećem
evropskom standardu „Toplotni komfor je stanje uma koje predstavlja zadovoljstvo
toplotnim okruženjem“, pri čemu se ugodnom sredinom smatra ona koju najmanje 80%
ispitanika smatra prijatnom, odnosno, neutralnom [2, 3]. Kako na uslove unutrašnjeg
komfora važan uticaj ima i klima podneblja bitno je napomenuti da se Banja Luka nalazi
u području sa umjerenokontinentalnom klimom, sa relativno blagim zimama i toplim
ljetima. Prosječna godišnja temperatura vazduha za period od 1981. do 2013. god.
iznosila je 11.4°C, dok je ukupna relativna vlažnost iznosila 76% [4].
1
Ljubiša Preradović, Arhitektonskograđevinski fakultet Univerziteteta u Banjoj Luci, Republika Srpska –
BiH, tel: 0038751462543, e – mail: ljpreradovic@agfbl.org
2
Biljana Antunović, Arhitektonskograđevinski fakultet Univerziteteta u Banjoj Luci, Republika Srpska – BiH,
tel: 0038751462543, e – mail: bantunovic@agfbl.org
3
Aleksandra KrstićFurundžić, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Republika Srbija, email:
akrstic@arh.bg.ac.rs
3. ISTRAŽIVANJE - ANKETA
Rektorat i Akademija
umjetnosti
Arhitektonsko
građevinski fakultet
/lokacija br. 1/
Prirodnomatematički
fakultet
Prosječna starost svih ispitanika iznosi 38.66 godina (najmlađi ispitanici su iz zgrade R i
AU sa prosjekom od 35.47 godina, a najstariji su sa PMFa 42.68 godina). Na pitanje o
dužini boravka na radnom mjestu tokom dana svega 14.6% ispitanika se izjasnilo da na
radnom mjestu provode od 1 do 4 sata, dok su se preostali izjasnili da na radnom mjestu
provode više od 4 sata, što dodatno implicira važnost uslova komfora radne sredine.
4. REZULTATI ANKETA
4
Kancelarije AGFa koje se nalaze na drugoj lokaciji su u prizemlju, ali takođe nemaju klimatizaciju.
ovog testa dobijena je visoko statistički značajna razlika subjektivnog osjećaja vlažnosti
vazduha u prostoriji ljeti kod zaposlenih prema instituciji (p = 0.003).
Svega 17.2% zaposlenih (najviše sa PMFa) se izjasnilo o vidljivim tragovima vlage u
prostoriji.
U oblasti temperature vazduha u prostoriji pri kojoj se čovjek prijatno osjeća (opseg
temperature: 19 do 23 ºC), može da se mijenja vlažnost vazduha u jednom relativno
širokom opsegu od oko 35% do 70%, a da se lica koja u njoj borave ipak osjećaju
ugodno, dok se pri povišenoj vlažnosti vazduha javlja osjećaj sparine [9]. Preniska
vlažnost vazduha nije ugodna za čovjeka jer može izazvati pretjerano isušivanje kože, a
naročito sluzokože (očiju i disajnih puteva). Nasuprot tome, previsoka vlažnost pri
visokim temperaturama onemogućava odavanje toplote sa tijela znojenjem dok
previsoka vlažnost pri niskim temperaturama doprinosi vlaženju odjeće i samim tim
povećanom odavanju toplote sa tijela, što nije ugodno pri niskim temperaturama okoline.
Jednostavno pravilo toplotne ugodnosti glasi: Što je viša temperatura vazduha, relativna
vlažnost treba da je niža.
5. ZAKLJUČAK
LITERATURA
[1] Eversheim, W., Schuh, G. Produktion and Management (Teil 2), Springer Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg New York, 1996.
[2] ISO 7730, Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and
interpretation of thermal comfort using the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal
comfort criteria, International Organisation for standardization, Switzerland, 2005.
[3] ASHRAE Standard 552004, ''Thermal environmental conditions for human
occupancy. Atlanta: American society of heating, refrigerating, and airconditioning
engineers '', 2004.
[4] Hidrometeorološki zavod Republike Srpske
[5] Fanger P.O.: Thermal Comfort – Analysis and Applications in Environmental
Engineering, Danisch Tehnical Press, Kopenhagen 1970.
[6] http://maps.google.com/ , preuzeto, 13.01.2014.
[7] Frontczak M., Wargocki P.: Literature survey on how different factors influence
human comfort in indoor environments. Building and Environment, 2011, Vol. 46,
No. 4, str. 922937.
[8] Antunović B., Preradović Lj., Krstić, Furundžić A.: Toplotni komfor i energetska
efikasnost univerzitetskih zgrada u Banjaluci. Naučno- stručni simpozijum,
Instalacije & Arhitektura, Beograd, 2013, str. 2330
[9] Šild K., Vilems V. M., Dinter S.: Građevinska fizika – priručnik – Deo I,
Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2008.
1
Оливера Николић, PhD студент архитектуре, Грађевинскоархитектонски факултет у Нишу, email:
o_milosavljevic@yahoo.com
2
Владан Николић, асистент, Грађевинскоархитектонски факултет у Нишу, vladan_nikolic@yahoo.com
3
Др Бисерка Марковић, Грађевинскоархитектонски факултет у Нишу, email: bisam@gaf.ni.ac.rs
4
Др Милан Гоцић, Грађевинскоархитектонски факултет у Нишу, email: mgocic@yahoo.com
5
Младен Милановић, PhD студент, Грађевинскоархитектонски факултет у Нишу, email:
mmsmladen@gmail.com
1. UVOD
Antičko naselje Medijana kod Niša smešteno je u dolini oivičenoj tokom Nišave na
severu i Vlaškim brdima na jugu. Prostire se na površini od oko 40 hektara. Podizanje
vile na Medijani započeto je verovatnou III veku [1], ali je najviše građena u IV veku, u
vreme vladavine cara Konstantina. U antičkim izvorima postoji vrlo malo podataka o
Medijani, zapravo, spominje se dva puta, jednom kao predgrađe Niša, a drugi put kao
utvrđenje oko Niša koje je izgradio vizantijski car Justinijan. Prva istraživanja na
Medijani vršio je Feliks Kanic 1864. godine i on je Medijanu označio kao „carski
letnjikovac“, što je i danas prihvatljivo. Uglavnom, današnja predstava o ovom lokalitetu
izgrađena je na osnovu podataka dobijenih arheološkim iskopavanjima koja u
kontinuitetu traju od 1932. Godine [2, 3].
U ovom radu biće prikazan proces izrade modela carske palate, tzv. Vile sa peristilom.
Metodom analize arheološke građe, izvora o načinu gradnje stambenih objekata u
antičkom periodu, kao i primera izvedenih rekonstrukcija objekata ove vrste u zapadnoj
Evropi, a zatim i sintezom definisan je mogući izgled vile. Metodom modelovanja
izvedena je virtuelna rekonstrukcija objekta.
2. REKONSTRUKCIJA VILE
Do 1939. godine otkriveno je više značajnih građevina na lokalitetu, među kojima i vila
sa peristilom. Vila je na lokalitetu centralno pozicionirana i zauzima površinu od oko
6800m2. Atrijum dimenzija 62,2x 35,4m uokviruje kolonada stubova, peristil, širok
3,3m. Pod peristila, osim u delu glavnog ulaza koji je na južnoj strani, bogato je ukrašen
mozaicima sa geometrijskim motivima. Iz peristila se istočno i zapadno ulazi u po
sedam prostorija dimenzija 8,5x5,5m, a iz kojih se pristupa u po još jednu prostoriju istih
dimenzija. Arheološki podaci ukazuju da su istočno i zapadno krilo bili prizemni, a
podovi su uglavnom popločani opekom. U severnom delu peristila je uzdignuti plato,
naglašen ulaz u carski deo vile. Sa tog platoa pristupa se sali za audijenciju dimenzija
18,6x11,6m. Desno od nje je triklinijum, velika sala sa polukružnim apsidalnim
završetkom i pilastrima na spoljnjoj strani, a levo nimfeum. Severni deo palate ima
dvospratnu visinu. Zapadno od palate su ostaci termi kojima se pristupalo toplom vezom
iz zapadnog krila. Nakon iskopavanja u 2006. godini, južno od ulaza u vilu s peristilom,
otkrivena je građevina, koja treba daljim iskopavanjima da potvrdi hipotezu, da je ona
bila u funkciji carskog ulaska u Medijanu. To bi bacilo znatno više svetlosti na dvorski
ceremonijal u Rimskom carstvu u IV veku [4]. Triklinijum, nimfeum i terme nisu
modelovani prilikom virtuelne rekonstrukcije.
Pri odabiru softverskog paketa za modelovanje palate vodili smo se činjenicom da
arheološka istraživanja na Medijani nisu završena, već će se vršiti i u narednom periodu,
što znači da će se dobiti još podataka koji će biti značajni za proces rekonstrukcije vile.
Zato smo se odlučili za rad u Open BIMu (engl. Building Information Modeling),
Graphisoftovom softverskom paketu Archicad. BIM je naslednik CAD tehnologije i
baziran je na ArchiCAD konceptu virtuelne građevine, što znači da se virtuelni model
a) b) c)
Slika 1. a) Archicad model, b) osnova palate Archicad 2D, c) osnova palate, grafički
prilog Zavoda za zaštitu spomenika Niš
Na slici 2a, prikazan je izgled zidova u modelu sa prozorima i vratima. Na slici 2b, dat je
detalj konstrukcije nadstrešnice bez krovnog pokrivača, dok se na slici 2c vidi kompletan
model sa atrijumskim prostorom, istočnim, zapadnim i severnim krilom.
a) b) c)
Slika 2. a) model zidova, b) model peristila, c) model palate
3. REKONSTRUKCIJA PODOVA
Peristilna vila u svojoj drugoj građevinskoj fazi dobila je bogatu unutrašnju dekoraciju,
koja je uključivala i postavljanje mozaičkih podova. Mozaici su krasili peristil i
reprezentativnu veliku prostoriju sa apsidom u severozapadnom delu građevine.
Peristilni mozaici su organizovani u tepihe sa različitim geometrijskim motivima, među
kojima dominiraju oktogoni, rombovi i kvadrati, u koje su umetnuti vegetabilni motivi
ili motiv propelera [8]. Arheološkim istraživanjima otkriveno je 945m2 mozaika, koji su
radi očuvanja pokriveni slojem peska, te tako nisu vidljivi za posetioce.
Podovi pokriveni mozaicima su element vile koji je očuvan i danas nam poznat. Iz tog
razloga, bilo je bitno u model uneti teksturu koja će ih verno predstaviti. Kako nam nisu
bili dostupni ortofoto snimci mozaika, njihovoj rekonstrukciji smo pristupili uz pomoć
trenutno dostupnih fotografija.
Na ovaj način kreirana je tekstura mozaičnog poda u istočnom i zapadnom delu peristila
kod koje se određena šema ponavlja duž krila peristila (slika 4).
a) b) c)
Slika 4. a) linijska šema poda, b) šema poda sa obojenim poljima, c) tekstura mozaičnog
poda
a) b)
c)
Slika 5. a) linijska šema poda, b) šema poda sa obojenim poljima, c) tekstura mozaičnog
poda
4. ZAKLJUČAK
modelovanja za rezultat ima mnogo jasniji prikaz o izgledu palate, njenoj veličini i
materijalizaciji nego što to može pružiti uvid u ostatke građevine na terenu.
ZAHVALNOST
LITERATURA
1
Др Радмила Пањевић, дипл, инж. арх, Урбаистички завод Суботица, panjevic@urbansu.rs
2
Др Иван Хегедиш, дипл, инж. арх, Грађевински факултет Суботица, hege@tippnet.rs
3
Др Милан Кекановић, дипл, инж. грађ, , Грађевински факултет Суботица, kekec@gf.uns.ac.rs
4
Арпад Чех, дипл, инж. грађ, , Грађевински факултет Суботица, ceh@gf.uns.ac.rs
1. УВОД
Сл 2. – Саобраћај на пијаци
Сведоци смо и учесници таласа експлозивног урбаног развоја који није допринео
стварању хуманијег амбијента за човеченство. Крај 20. века бележи прекретницу у
изградњи увођењем „интензивнијег“ коришћења простора. Надградња постојећих
приземних гаража даје допринос унапеђењу интегралне структуре града и лика
окружења.
Иновативна саобраћајна решења у комуналној инфраструктури су урбанистичко
планска решења која успостављају „одрживи развој“ и унапређују лик насеља у
којим се развија живот. На предметно решење може се применити „Brundtland“
извештај са приципом да је „одржив развој процес промена у којима су,
коришћени ресурси, управљање инвестицијама, оријентација технолошког развоја
и институционалне промене, у хармонији и повећавају се подједнако, садашњи и
будући потенцијал у корист људских потреба и жеља.“
7. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. INTRODUCTION
1
Nebojša Čamprag, M.Sc., Darmstadt University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Urban Design and
Development Unit, ElLissitzkyStr. 1, Darmstadt, Germany, tel: +49 (0) 6151 16 7062, e – mail:
camprag@stadt.tudarmstadt.de
(Gospodini, 2002). Rotterdam is one of the few European cities, which opted for
modernisation rather than reconstruction after the fatal destructions of the II World War.
After a long quest, this city is nowadays an example of how contemporary, innovative
design can be used as a powerful tool for establishing recognizable urban identity even
within delicate European cityscape.
Being highly complex and multilayered phenomenon, urban identity can be described
from perspectives of various disciplines, ranging from psychology and sociology, to
urban design and development; lately even in terms of branding and marketing of cities
(Hilber & Datko, 2012: 1929).
The most recent trend among scientists and practitioners, as a reaction to globalization,
goes into direction of recognizing all the values and significance of urban identity, as
well as its integration into the urban development concepts, emphasizing the importance
for identity of a city to function not only inwards, but outwards as well (Hilber & Datko,
2012). From the perspective as a set of distinctive characteristics of built environment,
urban identity within the frames of this paper will assume exclusively the visual identity
of the place itself, as “the special character of the location, its unmistakable uniqueness”
(Lalli, 1992: 291) that distinguishes it from any other places (Watson & Bentley, 2007:
1).
Special local and regional identities for a long time used to be spontaneously
constructed, as a result of vernacular processes, without anyone necessarily aiming to
achieve them. However, after more than a century of new technological potentials,
design ideas, and various laws and regulations for controlling rapid industrial
urbanisation, regionally distinctive built forms ceased to occur by default. Instead, “the
question of regional character has become a question of choice and, therefore, of design
rather than of necessity” (Watson and Bentley, 2007: 1, quoting Michael Hough).2 Since,
urban design became a determining and canalizing factor in formation, change and
reproduction of urban identities (Watson and Bentley, 2007).
In addition, in the era of economic globalisation, innovative design schemes also became
a powerful medium to attract economic development of cities (Gospodini, 2002: 30). As
an example, innovative architecture was strongly supported by the practice of
commissioning famous architects by civic leaders to produce landmark structures, in
order to raise a city’s international profile and boost its positioning on global
competitiveness stage. Design that is working as a landmark and placeidentity generator
thus became a key factor for many cities to attract new enterprises, residents and urban
tourists, making urban morphology itself a sightseeing, tourism and economic resource
(Gospodini, 2002: 31). As initiators of further investments and development, iconic
architecture in such contexts also play an important role in urban imagemaking and
marketing, and therefore hold certain primacy in creation and control of sense of a place
(Smyth, 2005: 84; 228).
2
Hough, M.: Out of Place: Restoring Identity to the Regional Landscape. Yale University Press, New Haven,
London, 1990
absolute centre of design and architecture, not only in the Netherlands, but on the global
scale as well.
Image 1. Examples of innovation and experiment in design within the former historic
urban core of Rotterdam (Cube House, Central Library, Centraal Railway Station, Test
Site Rotterdam, Schouwburgplein). Own photos, 09.2012
Innovation in urban and architectural ventures in Rotterdam reached its peak during the
1990es, when some of the most important flagship projects have initiated urban
development, making recognizable features of the city till today. Blaak Station (1993)
and Schouwburgplein (1996; image 1) in the historic centre are only some of the most
iconic developments, which provided character to the attractive, but neglected urban
core. In addition, further development of the earliest skyline around the main train
station in the Central District, was secured through a special master plan for this area,
involving a new station building with strong sculptural character (image 2). This iconic
structure had the role not only to improve traffic and connections, but also to serve as a
magnet for further development of the isolated business environment. After relocation of
parking places underground, as well as of motorized traffic in an underground tunnel, a
system of newly designed pedestrian squares, which planners unofficially call ‘the red
carpet to the city’, ensured a smooth connection with attractive ‘cultural’ way, leading
further to the opposite side of development axis on the riverfront.4
With the completion of the iconic Erasmus Bridge (1996; image 2), not only a vital
connection with lessdeveloped southern Rotterdam areas have been established, but also
a flagship project for overall redevelopment of the empty brownfield site on the river.
The idea of developing an attractive “River City” (Binnenstad als Citylounge, 2008) was
even more fostered with the construction of the first skyscrapers on the pier with
prominent location during the 2000s (image 2). Former headquarters and departure hall
of the shipping company HollandAmerica Line (HAL) on Wilhelminapier, which until
1972 carried passengers to the United States (Van Ulzen, 2007: 199), served as a suitable
framework for redevelopment of the complete Kop van Zuid area. Many new iconic
skycrapers of the globally recognized ‘star architects’ are in the meanwhile creating a
recognizable ensemble of an iconic, vertical city on the water, which already became a
new face of the city, and one of the most used motives in urban branding and marketing.
The whole riverfront area is simultaneously being transferred into an attractive strip of
recognizable architecture with innovative quality (image 2). Therefore, besides the
4
Since 2000, the City Planning Office treats the axis from the inner city to the left riverbank as Rotterdam’s
prime highrise zone.
creation of the links with the river, central to the project for the former port area was the
creation of higherincome housing, attracting offices to the city, bringing city centre
functions to the riverside, and finally enhancing Rotterdam’s competitive position in the
Netherlands and Europe (Doucet et al., 2011: 133). However, experimenting and
conceptualising are going a step further. Sustainable Floating Pavilion, launched by the
City Municipality, is relocating the focus to the aquatic environment, connecting
innovation in design and technology (image 2). These movable, futuristic structure
turned the former port into an urban laboratory for testing the future forms of alternative
and sustainable housing, at the same time showing the endless possibilities of innovation
in designing our cities.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Being experimental field for modern architecture and urban planning during a range of
years, for Rotterdam meant following a unique path towards finding its lost identity. In
fact, innovation and experiment in general became in the meanwhile an integrated part of
its tradition and the main core of its metropolitan identity. This extreme example of
establishing recognisability and fostering competitiveness through innovative design
proved potentials of contemporary architecture, which in varying degree can serve as a
viable alternative and inspiration for drafting urban development strategies, even for less
progressive or more traditional European cities.
REFERENCES
[4] Gospodini, A.: European cities and place-identity, Discussion Paper Series 8(2),
2002, University of Thessaly, Department of Planning and Regional Development,
pp. 1936.
[5] Hilber, L. & Datko, G. [edit.]: Stadtidentität der Zukunft, Jovis Verlag GmbH,
Berlin, 2012
[6] King, A.: Spaces of Global Cultures – Architecture Urbanism Identity, Routledge,
London and New York, 2004
[7] Koolhaas, R. & Mau, B.: Generic City; “S, M, L, XL”, The Monacelli Press, New
York, 1995
[8] Lalli, M.: Urban-related Identity: Theory, Measurement and Empirical Findings,
Academic Press Ltd., Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1992, No. 12, pp. 285
303.
[9] McLuhan, M.: Understanding Media, Gingko Press, 2003
[10] Mitscherlich, A. Die Unwirtlichkeit unserer Städte, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main,
1965
[11] NorbergSchulz, C.: Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture,
Academy Editions, London, 1980
[12] Smyth, H.: Marketing the City – the Role of Flagship Developments in Urban
Regeneration, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005
[13] Stadsvisie Rotterdam (Rotterdam Urban Vision), Spatial Development Strategy
2030, Publication of the City of Rotterdam, January 2007 (draft)
[14] Van de Laar, P. & Van Jaarsveld, M.: Historical Atlas of Rotterdam – The City’s
Growth Illustrated, SUN, Amsterdam, 2007
[15] Watson, G. B. & Bentley, I.: Identity by Design, Architectural Press, 2007
[16] Welsch, W.: Transculturality: The Puzzling Form of Cultures Today; in Spaces of
Culture: City, Nation, World, M. Featherstone & S. Lash [eds.], Sage, London,
1999, pp. 194213.
[17] Will, T.: ®MIT in Dresden -The European City between Restoration and
Transformation, in The European City in Transformation, DRESDEN, Pham, N. &
Heinen, M. [eds.], Delft, 2009, pp. 1419.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the period of classical antiquity, Naissus was formed on a slightly elevated spot,
where today are situated the remains of the medieval bastions and fortification walls.
From the right side, the city would spread in the periods that followed, to the left side of
the river Nišava, so that, with the erection of the mentioned fortress and the bridge on
Nišava, further conditions of the urban development could be created.
The square which bears the name of King Alexander the Unifier, like the city of Niš
itself, represents a layered city area on which life played out ever since the periods of the
Turkish domination until today. It resides, like the Square of King Milan, in a place
1
Aleksandra Mirić, M.Sc. in architecture and heritage, conservation expert, PhD student researcher, l’Institut
de recherche sur l’architecture antique IRAA, Université Lyon 2, Lyon, France; Voždova 70а, 18000 Niš,
Serbia, e – mail: aleksandramiric@yahoo.com
2
Milena Jovanović engineer of architecture, PR Bureau for architecture and design MILIMARX, PhD student
at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Czar Dušan 6/33, Niš, Serbia, phone: +381 18 243
792, e – mail: mikacika79@gmail.com
where city’s essential roads branch out, which permitted its growth and development
with the evolution of the urban tissue surrounding it.
The story of the public space on which now the Square of King Alexander the Unifier is
situated begins in the first half of the 18th century, when this area, then wide grassland,
was used for commercial trade. So called Arnaut market stretched in the southwestern
part of the city, outside of the fortification walls, not far from the city’s main traffic
intersection (Fig. 1a).
The Arnaut market later became the city’s main market, surrounded by workshops,
stores and one storey houses. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Arnaut market
was a simple street, where, like two centuries earlier, smaller manufacturers presented
their craft for sale.
The place in which the today’s square is situated was a free area without trees, paved
with cobblestones and with a drinking fountain in the middle [6].
Fig 1.a- The Arnaut market and main traffic directions on the Plan of Niš by Franz
Winter from 1879, b- the Square of King Alexander the Unifier on the map of
contemporary Niš
(taken on January 2014 from https://maps.google.rs/)
After the liberation from the Turks, and especially in the period after World Wars, the
name of Arnaut market, as the function itself, was completely lost.
Although in the period that followed, the square often changed its name, the one thing
left behind the Arnaut market, was the public space and the habit of citizens to gather
there. Namely, in accordance with Winter’s plan from 1879, the process of urban
modernization of the former province began.
The mentioned public space carried the name of Prince Mihailo Obrenović, and when
administrative services where moved from within the fortification onto the territory of
the left river bank, it gained on its urban significance.
A testimony to that is the fact that in 1937, the Square of Prince Mihailo was one of the
tram stations on a line that connected the main railroad station with Niška Banja, as its
final destination [2].
With the placing of the King Alexander I the Unifier statue in 1939, the square got his
name (Fig. 2a and 2b), but at the end of the Word War II in 1946 the monument was
removed and the square was called the Square of the Yugoslav People’s Army, then the
Square of the Yugoslavia Army, and finally in 2003, the Army Square.
In year 2004, the initiative was created for the reinstallation of the monument and name
was reverted back to the Square of the King Alexander the Unifier [6], who is
remembered by declaring in 1918 the unification of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes into a
single state and who was killed in 1934 in Marseille.
Fig. 2.а- “The Square of Prince Mihailo” and b- The Square of King Alexander as seen
in the pre-war postcards (taken on January 2014 from http://www.skyscrapercity.com)
The urban form of the square, the closest to the one we know today, was created in the
period of the dynamic growth of the city after World War II.
The function of this public surface was a park, a memorial site, a circular crossroad and a
bus stop space, but it also had a significant role in the traffic regulation in the densely
populated urban core, especially the neighbourhood Kičevo that is situated west from the
square and the neighbourhood Marger which spreads from its east end.
Around the square, several streets start, from the north Princess Ljubica and Sokolska
street, from the east the Square of Pavle Stojković and Nikole Pašić, from the south Jug
Bogdan street and Toplička street, while from the west side starts Jovan Ristić street
(Fig. 2b).
In its final shape, the square is a public area with vegetation and the appropriate walking
paths. In the main walking axis that is stretching in from the east to the west is a
monument, as the most prominent feature of the square.
Alongside the monument to King Alexander, there are 5 more memorials, among whom
are the Graves of the allied soldiers who had died during the battle for the liberation of
Niš in 1944, the monument of the war hero Ratko Jović, as well as the memorial bust to
the writer Duško Radović.
After the death of King Alexander Karadjordjević, the need was born for a landmark to
be placed in the centre of Niš. The Bansko board of the Moravian Banate opened a
contest for “the erection of the monument for the late knight king Alexander I the
Unifier”. Among the many authors, Anton Augustinčić answered this contest. The
creative solution of young Radeta Stanković was especially noted, as he was the most
prominent sculptor between the two World Wars, born at the beginning of the 20th
century in Vienna, in a family with a long academic tradition, and schooled at the Royal
Academy of Arts in Zagreb [5]. Although Radeta never won the first prize, the board
decided that his solution of the horseman figure of the king should be realized. The
whole procedure of the opening of the contest, choosing the best creative solutions and
the making of the sculpture, was extremely fast, so that it was inaugurated in 1939. The
realized idea of Radeta Stanković represents a typical achievement of this very prolific
sculptor. The statue of King Alexander was compact figure of impressionistic shapes,
created under the influence of Michelangelo, Rodin and Meštrović. The monument was
revealed and sanctified on the king’s birthday on December 4/17.1939 [4]. It is
interesting to note that the inauguration was attended by Radeta’s father, Radenko
Stanković [4], one of the founders of cardiology in Serbia, a senator, and then a royal
deputy in the period from 1934. to 1941. [3]. Unfortunately, the monument did not stay
long in its intended place. In 1946, the monument was removed and melted down. From
the original design, only two reliefs on the sides of the pedestal remain, and they can be
currently found in the depots of local cultural institutions. Also, several working models
remain, like the head of the horse and technical documentation of the author, which
belongs to his widow, Natalija Stanković (Fig. 3a and 3b).
During the ‘90s, city fathers of Niš started an initiative for revitalization of the park, and
in the place of the former statue of Radeta Stanković, a statue reconstruction was
planned. They invited Oto Jovan Logo, one of our most acknowledged contemporary
sculptors, who demanded that he be allowed freedom in regards to the original solution.
As the demand was contradictory to the position of the legal copyright owner, Oto Logo
withdrew his participation in this project. The next initiative bore fruit. In the middle of
2000, another contest was created in which, considering the legal issues surrounding
copyright and the poor quality of the technical documentation of the first author, the
reconstruction was cancelled and full creative freedom was given to applicants. After
three months, 8 creative solutions came to Niš. The best solution was by a sculptor
Zoran Ivanović from Belgrade, born in 1967, who graduated and got his magisterial
degree on a topic “Horseman sculpture as a memorial sculpture” at the Academy of
Applied Arts in Belgrade. This solution, next to others, was displayed at an exhibition in
Niš Fortress (Fig. 3c). The new solution with which the author won the competition had
3
This part of the paper represents a continuation of a research by A. Mirić, for the needs of her lectures, which
she prepared for the National Library in Niš, that she held in 23.7.2013 in Niš. She contacted the author of the
monument of King Alexander, Zoran Ivanović, sculptor, to whom she owns her sincere gratitude for all the
information shared about the technical characteristics of the monument and the creative process itself.
a concept that differed from the original one. Although the wardrobe of the rider and the
horse equipment were preserved, the facial expressions, and the movements, were
authentic. Also, the direction of the monument was changed. As the former monument
was a prominent piece of history, The Institute for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Niš
required that the original size of the monument must remain – 4.5m. The author of the
monument created it in two phases: in the first, a model of 143cm was made so that later,
it would be created three times bigger in proportions at the final height of 440cm. An
interesting fact is that inside the sculpture there are 800 kilos of rods made out of
stainless steel which give the monument its stability, and that explains how this statue,
that has 30% and 40% of its weight out of its centre of mass, is standing upright. The
final cast, prepared in the foundry Kuzman in Smederevo, heavy between 2.6 and 2.7
tons, was assembled from three parts. And only when it was put on its stand, it was
discovered that the plinth was bigger than the pedestal. It was concluded that the original
monument was a bit smaller than what was prescribed in the conditions of the contest,
probably around 3.6m. The pedestal of the monument was around 7m high, coated with
grey granite slabs, 16cm thick in all areas of the pedestal, some of which are a couple of
hundreds of kilos heavy. In the pedestal there is an gravure “King Alexander
Karadjordjević 18881934“. In accordance with the wishes of the sculptor Zoran towards
the ideals of the classical standards of antique beauty, the sculpture of the horseman is in
the golden ration in regards to the pedestal, and the movement is emphasized, especially
with the dynamic figure of the horse.
Fig. 3.а- “The square and palace in the Army area”, b- a monument by sculptor R.
Stanković (taken on January 2013 from http://www.skyscrapercity.com ), c- a monument
by sculptor Z. Ivanović (photo by A. Mirić 2013)
It is interesting that there is a different spatial orientation of the horseman and the horse.
According to the author, in a stereotypical representation of a rider on a horse, a
horseman is always a personification of a ruler, while the horse represents his subjects.
In this case, the dichotomy between the rider and the horse is natural. The attitude of the
author is that it represents the personification of political imperialistic interests, which
were probably exaggerated because the king died by the hand of his political opponents.
From the artistic point of view, the problem of the rampant horse hiding its rider is
familiar. By doing this, the sculptor opened a front towards the face of the horseman.
The monument was revealed on December 7. 2004. on a 90th anniversary of the adoption
of the historical Niš declaration of unification of Slav peoples in the Balkans and the
goals of Serbia in the World War I.
4. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy sources are the natural energy sources which can be fully or
partially renewed. The need for usage of such sources arose several decades ago, after
alarming data on the effects of greenhouse gases emission, generated by the fossil fuel
combustion, were published. This caused global climate change, which reflect,
primarily, in the increase of the mean temperature, that is, global warming. The climate
change also affected Serbia the temperature has been increasing since the 80’s of the
previous century, and due to the climate change, the most extreme changes of weather
1
Dušan Grdić, dipl.građ.inž., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko arhitektonski fakultet u Nišu, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14 , Niš, Srbija, тел: 018 588 200, e – mail: dusan.grdic@hotmail.com
2
Nenad Ristić, dipl.građ.inž., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko arhitektonski fakultet u Nišu, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14 , Niš, Srbija, тел: 018 588 200, e – mailnenad.ristic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Gordana Topličić Ćurčić, dipl.građ.inž., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko arhitektonski fakultet u Nišu,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14 , Niš, Srbija, тел: 018 588 200, e – mail: gordana.toplicic.curcic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
4
Zoran Grdić, dipl.građ.inž., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko arhitektonski fakultet u Nišu, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14 , Niš, Srbija, тел: 018 588 200, e – mail: zoran.grdic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
can be expected, such as: dry and extremely hot summers, incidents such as floods and
hail and other [1].
Majority of people lives in structures countering the climate rather than using it. They
are energy inefficient, excessively cold or hot and expensive to maintain. Most of the
homes uses more water than required and often are constructed of materials having bad
effects on health and environment. Application of environment friendly materials
comprises creation of comfortable homes which have minimum impact on the
environment, and which are at the same time more costefficient and healthier for living.
[2].
Sustainable building is a building where care is taken that the future generations can
use what is built today. It is one of the important segments of the sustainable
development, and includes usage of environmental building materials which are not
detrimental for the environment, and which preserve the resources, reconstruction of
existing and construction of new energy efficient buildings, as well as rational removal
of the existing structures and reuse of material from the demolished buildings [2].
Renewable energy sources, once called as permanent energy sources are such sources
used for production of electric of thermal power, i.e. for useful work, whose reserves are
continuously or cyclically renewed [1]. Renewable energy sources are: solar energy,
wind energy, biomass, geothermal energy and water course energy.
For decades, the solar energy has been used for heating water, living space but also for
cooling. The use of solar energy has multiple advantages. It is a silent, clean and reliable
energy source. Because of the increasing cost of fossil fuels, and the growing
environmental awareness, the interest for using of solar energy has been increasing. [3].
In the housing structures, there are two types of solar energy systems: those used
exclusively for heating water, and those providing internal heating (so called combi
systems). Solar water heating energy systems are designed so as to be the sole heaters of
water in the warm seasons of the year. In winter season, hot water is provided by the
heaters fired by oil, gas or wood, supported by the solar heating energy system in the
sunny days. This means that each year, around 60% of required hot water can be
obtained using solar heating energy systems [4].
One of the big advantages of solar energy is that it can be obtained in the remote
locations where there is no power grid. One example is production of energy in space,
where the satellites are supplied with power using very efficient solar cells. Seventy
thousand of photovoltaic solar panels generate 15 MW of power.
Installation of solar panels in the remote locations is a much more favorable solution,
from the standpoint of saving money, than installation of high voltage power mains.
Solar panels can be mounted on the roofs of many houses, which eliminates the problem
of finding space and of investment in new installations. Another extraordinary property
of solar energy is its cost. Even though the initial investment cost is high, once the solar
panels are installed, they provide free energy which will, in years of service repay the
initial costs. Usage of solar energy provides independence from the global fossil fuel
reserves [5].
Wind is a free and renewable source of energy, and wind farms do not use any fuel.
Wind power generators do not produce any waste nor create any greenhouse gases. The
areas occupied by these facilities can be normally used for agricultural production. Wind
power generators are a good way to keep the remote consumers supplied with electric
power. [6].
Wind has a stochastic characters, so the wind generator power is a stochastic parameter.
The most convenient locations for installations of wind generators are: on the coastline,
river banks or mountains. In the first case, the land lease is expensive, in the second case,
the construction cost investment is high. There are opinions that covering of terrain with
wind farms mars the appearance of the landscape, that they pose threat to birds
(especially if they are constructed across their migratory routes). Also, the operation of
wind generators can interfere with the reception of television signal. Wind power
generators produce a continuous, weak and unpleasant hum [6].
Unpredictability of electric power production in wind generators, limits their maximum
share in production of an electric power system, are calls for increase of backup supply
in an EPS. Development of long term and short term forecast of wind is of great
importance for a reliable planning of production in EPS with powerful wind generators.
[7].
2.3 BIOMASS
Usage of biomass, or fuels or waste matter obtained from biomass as an energy source
requires their combustion and release of heat powering the electric power generators.
The energy stored in biomass is chemical so there is no discontinuity in its usage, as it is
the case with solar or wind energy. The environmental aspects biomass energy usage are
as follows:
biodegradability of biomass in soil is excellent, since almost 95% of biomass matter is
decomposed within 28 days;
biofuel contain only negligible amounts of sulfur so there is no sulfurdioxide in the
combustion products (and it is an inevitable product of fossil fuel combustion);
Below the surface of the earth, there are immense reserves of thermal energy –
geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is a renewable source of energy, since the heat
is perpetually generated inside the Earth, in different processes.
One of the greatest advantages of geothermal heating is the low heating cost (saving can
amount up to 80% in respect to fossil fuels) and the small amount of consumed energy in
respect to the standard heating systems. The efficiency of geothermal heating is
significantly higher than in the standard forms of heating. Geothermal energy is 48%
more efficient than the gas boilers and more than 75% more efficient than the oil boilers.
Using the geothermal energy emits very little (sometimes none) harmful gases into the
atmosphere, so accordingly, geothermal heating is environmentally very acceptable form
of heating. [10].
The main downsides of geothermal heating are very high initial costs and scant areas
where such energy source can be used. Such areas are positioned on the rims of tectonic
plates, while outside these regions, the Earth’s crust is simply excessively thick for any
commercial usage of geothermal energy. According to the data of the US ministry of
energy, the initial investments can be repaid in the range from 2 to as much as 20 years.
As a downside, it should be mentioned that geothermal heating is not 100% pure form of
heating, because of the heat pumps which use electric power for their operation, and that
electric energy is produced in a regular way, thus certain amount of harmful gases is
released into the atmosphere [8].
Straw The advantages of straw as a construction material are: good thermal insulation,
fire resistance, relatively good compressive strength, low construction cost and good
earthquake resistance.
Straw walls must be plastered so that the straw would be protected from the external
effects, and it would remain hidden among the layers of mortar, and the only proof of its
presence is considerably lower heating bill. The mortar used on the straw walls must not
be based on cement. The mortars with additives cannot be used, either. Such mortars are
not vaporpermeable and they prevent “breathing” of the walls. Because of this only the
mortars based on lime or gypsum can be used for plastering of straw walls. [11].
Soil Building with soil is based on construction a formwork into which the soil is
compacted, creating in this way the bearing walls. After compacting, the formwork can
be immediately removed, and it takes several warm and dry days for the wall to dry up
and acquire necessary strength. The wall may acquire strength up to two years after
construction, depending on the thickness, climate conditions and other. The thickness of
such wall was once more than 30 cm so that they would have the necessary strength.
However, today, using modern tools and machinery, the formwork can be set at 10 25
cm. For compaction, pneumatic or hand tool is used, compacting earth at around of 50%
of its original volume in the formwork. The compaction process is done in layers, until
the wanted height is reached. [12].
5. CONCLUSION
Sustainable development is such a development which satisfies our needs today, without
compromising the future generations’ potential to satisfy their needs [14]. It comprises
usage of renewable energy sources such as: solar energy, wind energy, biomass,
geothermal energy and water course energy, as well as environment friendly materials.
Usage of renewable energy sources, apart from an environmental, also has an economic
importance – it can contribute to the reduction of import of fossil fuels, development of
local industry, creation of jobs, and provide savings to the households.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of investigation within the research project TR
36017 „Utilization of by – products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites
in the scope of sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and
environmental assessment of possible applications“ supported by Ministry for Science
and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Šljivac. D., Šimić. Z.: Obnovljivi izvori energije:vrste, potencijal, tehnologije. Ovaj
project je financiran od EU
[2] Vodič kroz energetski efikasnu gradnju, siječanj 2005., Zagreb
[3] Radosavljević, J., Pavlović, T., Lambić, M.: Solarna energetika i održivi razvoj.
Građevinska knjiga, 2004,Beograd
[4] Lambić M.: Priručnik za solarno grejanje. Naučna knjiga,1992.,Beograd
[5] Stamenović,Lj.: Korišćenje solarne fotonaponske energije u Srbiji. Jefferson
Institute,2009.
[6] Zlatanović, M. Korišćenje energije vetra u srbiji – prirodni uslovi i praktična
politika. Jefferson Institute,2009.
[7] http://www.tfb.edu.mk/files/materials/4a31809e4415f.pdf. 12.102013.
[8] Cakić,M.,Veljković,V., Stamenković, O.: Održive tehnologije. Tempus 158989
Tempus120091BETempusJPHES
[9] JordanovićVasić,M.: Upotreba biomase iz poljoprivrednog otpada kao obnovljivog
izvora energije. Nauka + praksa, 2009., Niš
[10] Janković,V.:Geotermalna energija: Kako iskoristi skriveni potencijal Srbije.
Jefferson Institute,2009.
[11] Glasnović,Z.,Horvat,J.,Omahić,D.: Slama kao superiorni građevinski material.
Zaštita okoliša. 3/2008, svibanj.
[12] Krnjetic,S.,Mrkajić,V.: Nepečena stabilizovana zemlja – građevinski materijal. kgh
3 2008, BIBLID 0350–1426 (206) 37:3 p. 45–48
[13] Vračić,T.: Najveća gospodarska građevina od bambusa. GRAĐEVINAR 64 (2012) 5,
2012
[14] Grdić,Z.,TopličićĆurčić,G.: Ekološki materijali – komponente održive arhitekture.
Zbornik radova Građevinskog fakulteta u Nišu, br.25.pp 8794.2010.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is expected for solar panels to have a guaranteed service time of 20 to 30 years and
typical degradation rates of 0.30.5%/a of STC power output for crystalline modules. But
in the open field, recent failures have indicated that theoretical and actual service
lifetime can differ significantly. Failures can occur a few weeks after installation in some
cases. In this paper it is presented an overview of the results of studies that focused on
peel off, gel content and potential induced degradation tests, and results of quality
assurance action.
If you compare the reasons for the aborts, the main reason for aborts for thinfilm
technologies have been the mechanical load test, insufficient STC power output and
outdoor exposure test. For cSi modules, failures are usually due to climate chamber test.
2. LAMINATION QUALITY
1
Mr, Lecturer, College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Belgrade, Hajduk
Stankova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, vesnatdragisic@sbb.rs
the curing process in the laminator. The material is irreversibly cured when the original
themoplastic has become an elastomer, which can no longer be melted.
the curing agent may evaporate before curing due to incorrect storage, or mistakes
made on the producer side;
insufficient curing time, in order to achieve process optimization and increase the
production, may results in inhomogenous curing across the modules, or homogenous but
only partial curing;
too high or too low temperature for curing, which may result in partial curing or the
material could be irreversibly damaged;
development of ultrafast curing sheets, in combination with the increase in module
sizes, which results in nonuniform curing (the problem is the time difference between
the curing temperature reaching the center and the corner of a module);
error made by supplier who does not put enough peroxide in the EVA, stores it for too
long or just mixes different qualities, which may causes different properties within the
module area.
Generally, the EVA manufacturers recommends a gel content >75%, but about 60% of
tested modules do not reach this value. The quality of processing deviates not only
among manufacturers but also within one producer.
Figure 3. Frequency distribution of EVA gel content of analyzed solar modules from
one manufacturer
It is also important to seal the module properly in order to ensure a long service time.
Therefore, adhesion should be checked and the force required to separate the module
layers should be measured.
It is possible to test the adhesion between encapsulant material and the back side of solar
cells; encapsulant material and the bus bars; encapsulant material and the front glass;
layers within backsheet material.
The peeling test has to be initiated manually.
A free strip is then clamped in the wedge grip. An increasing force is applied to the
wedge grip, and the specific force is recorded at the point when the strip starts to
separate from the module. Some clustering of test results can be observed for forces
above 95N/cm, but there is no standards defined for this test yet.
The STC power output of PV module may degrade due to electrical potential between
the frame and the cells. It can be detected via an electroluminescence analysis. The
affected cells no longer contribute to power output and are recognized as ’blackcells’ in
electroluminescence images.
For installed modules, degradation first affects modules with the highest electrical
potential and those located in humid environments (near to the ground, or frame parts
with water inside).
The sensitivity of a module or of cells can be detected in accelerated dampheat climate
chamber tests. The modules were treated for 48 hours in a dampheat chamber, with a
potential of 100V at the terminals. The results are shown on figure 4.
Figure 4. Top: module in initial state. Bottom: same module after treatment, with a loss
of 40% of initial STC power output.
The efficienci of modules at low irradiation levels is a crucial factor for the energy yeild
of a PV system. Measured in a Pasan IIISb flash light sun simulator, the change in
electrical efficiency relative to STC efficiency is evaluated. It has been measured for
multicrystalline Si (mcSi) technology modules, with a wide variation of the results. A
positive weak light behaviour at an irradiance level of 100W/m2 is a maximum
efficiency loss of 10%. The worst performers have shown a decrease in relative
efficiency of 30%, as it is illustrated at figure 5.
Figure 5. Weak light performance curve of amodule with a positive weak light
behaviour. There is an efficiency drop of 30%, which is also possible.
5. FIELD DATA
The reason for testing already installed modules can be an unexpected low energy
yeildof a PV system. This may occure to single modules. But equally for the entire
strings of modules in a PV power plant. By adequate monitoring of photovoltaic system,
the beginning of the degradation process can be detected. The need for further analysis is
then required, which means removing the modules and transffering them to the
laboratory environment. This can be quite time consuming and expensive, and can be
prevented by performing a quality check before mounting.
6. CONCLUSION
If you take into consideration possibilities of module damage, low energy yeilds and
quality assurance actions, it becomes clear that certification according to IEC are not
sufficient for ensuring a service time of 20 or more years. There is many significant
variations in quality between manufacturers and within the delivered charge from a
specific manufacturer. If the module is already installed, it can be difficult to ascertain
whether degradation is due to unsatisfactory design of the solar power system or to
inherent problems of the modules themselves. With quality checkin tests, which include
factory inspections, advanced visual inspections, electroluminescence analysis, EVA gel
content tests and peeloff tests, it is posssible to prevent these problems and confirm the
longterm stability of modules. This implemented quality asssurance actions also triggers
an educative effect on the part of the manufacturers.
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
Human activities represent a serious threat to the environment and among them the
building industry has one of the largest environmental impacts. Concrete is the world’s
1
Jelena Dragaš, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 3218 618, e – mail: jelenad@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Prof. dr Snežana Marinković, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar
kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: ++381 11 3218 547, e – mail: sneska@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3
dr Ivan Ignjatović, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 3218 546, e – mail: ivani@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
4
Nikola Tošić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra
73, Belgrade, Serbia, tel: +381 11 3218 501, e – mail: ntosic@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
Most fly ash is pozzolanic, which means it’s a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
material which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide
The watercement (w/c) ratio is defined as the mass of water divided by the mass of
cement. Similarly, the watercementitious material (w/cm) ratio is defined as the mass of
water divided by the mass of all cementitious materials (cement plus fly ash). When
proportioning HVFAC, a low w/cm ratio is necessary. During research conducted at
CANMET, Bilodeau [8] determined that for HVFAC, the proportion of fly ash should be
as high as possible and the w/cm ratio as low as possible to provide adequate early age
strength and durability. The literature showed that other studies utilized w/cm ratio in the
range of 0.19 to 0.60 in most cases. According to Malhotra [8], to insure proper
performance w/cm ratio should be kept as low as possible, preferably below 0.40.
Mehta and Monteiro [10] define setting of concrete as “the onset of solidification in a
fresh concrete mixture.” Initial setting time defines the time at which fresh concrete can
no longer be properly mixed and placed, whereas final setting time defines the beginning
of the development of mechanical properties. Setting time for HVFAC is influenced by
the following factors: class and quantity of fly ash, type and quantity of cement, concrete
temperature, use of chemical admixtures, and w/cm ratio [10]. Ravina and Mehta [11]
indicates that HVFAC exhibit delayed setting times when compared to a control mixture
with no fly ash replacement and a similar w/cm ratio. This research [11] reported initial
setting time delays of 20 minutes to 4 hours and 20 minutes and final setting time delays
of 1 hour to 5 hours and 15 minutes when compared to the control concrete depending
on the fly ash type and dosage. ASTM Class C fly ashes resulted in longer setting times
when compared to equivalent concrete mixtures prepared with Class F fly ashes. Also,
the delay in setting times increased with higher fly ash replacement levels.
The use of fly ash as cement replacement generally reduces the water demand for a
given workability. Thomas [12] approximates that each 10% of fly ash replacement
should provide at least 3% water reduction. Mehta [13] states that the reductions in water
demand may be attributed to three mechanisms. First, the fine fly ash particles prevent
cement flocculation. Also, since the fly ash particles have a smooth, spherical surface,
interparticle friction is reduced. Finally, the reduction in water demand may be attributed
to more efficient particle packing within the paste. Based on the results, it is apparent
that fly ash may be used as a water reducing SCM at high replacement levels.
3.5. Bleeding
Gebler and Klieger [14] verified that fly ash reduces the bleeding capacity of concrete.
They also found that concretes proportioned with Class C ashes generally exhibited less
bleed water than those proportioned with Class F ashes. The bleeding capacity of a
concrete mixture is directly related to the water demand. Therefore, bleeding is typically
reduced in HVFAC mixtures due to the low water contents required for adequate
workability.
Hydration of cement is an exothermic process. When fly ash is used to replace cement in
Portland cement concrete, the rate of heat development and overall heat of hydration is
altered. In some cases, the total heat of hydration is reduced, which can be very
beneficial in mass concrete construction. Langley [15] performed research to quantify
the effect that high fly ash dosages have on the temperature rise for concrete. The
research showed that the temperature rise caused by the hydration of HVFAC may be
significantly reduced.
3.7. Strength
The rate of strength gain in mixtures containing high volumes of fly ash will be slower
due to the slow rate of the pozzolanic reaction.
This results in lower early strengths. However, the pozzolanic reaction will also
generally produce greater strengths at later ages. Both the strength at a given age and the
rate of strength gain of fly ash concrete are affected by the characteristics of the fly ash,
the type of cement, the proportions of each used in the concrete mix and w/cm ratio [16].
Fig. 1, 2 and 3 show relationship between compressive strenght of concrete made with
fly ash compared to referent concrete (cement concrete with the cement content equal to
cementitious materials content of fly ash concrete) and procentage of replacement of
cement with fly ash.
Compressive strenghts of specimens are measured at the age of 7, 28 and 91 days,
respectively. All specimens had w/cm ratio from 0.40 to 0.60 and the total cementitious
content from 400 to 415kg/m3 of concrete. T
he replacement of cement varied from 15 to 70 percent of total cementitious materials
mass. It can be concluded that increase of cement replacement leads to decrease of
compressive strenght of concrete at all ages. Fig. 4 shows compressive strenght growth
of concrete made with 228kg/m3 of fly ash and 186kg/m3 of cement and w/cm ratio of
0.38, 0.43 and 0.50 [17]. It can be concluded that w/cm ratio is a very important factor of
influence on compressive strenght of HVFAC. To achieve good early and long term
strenght of HVFAC w/cm should be as low as possible.
Figure 1. Compressive strenght of fly ash Figure 2. Compressive strenght of fly ash
concrete/compressive strenght of cement concrete/compressive strenght of cement
concrete ratio at the age of 7 days concrete ratio at the age of 28 days
depending on the cement replacement [17, depending on the cement replacement [17,
18, 19, 20, 21] 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]
Results shown in Fig. 1, 2 and 3 indicate that compressive strenght of fly ash concrete
with cement replacement from 30 % to 70 % and w/cm ratio above 0.40 is lower than that
of referent cement concrete even after 91 days. However, lowering the w/cm ratio below
0.40 and/or replacing not only the part of the cement but also the part of fine aggregate
with fly ash can significantly improve the HVFAC compressive strength at all ages [8,
23, 24].
Results from [23] indicate that HVFAC with 50% of cement replacement and w/cm ratio
of 0.30 can achieve equal compressive strenght as that of referent cement concrete at the
age of 28 days.
The HVFAC strength at the age of 3 days was decreased by 25% compared to the
referent concrete strength, but still adequate for practical use in concrete construction.
Research from [24] investigated HVFAC with 45% of cement replacement and w/cm
ratio of 0.34, but the total fly ash mass was larger than mass of cement replacement.
Concrete mixture was made with 211.75kg/m3 of cement and 278.25kg/m3 of fly ash.
Results showed that 3day compressive strenght was 91% and 14days compressive
strenght was 94% of referent cement concrete strength with 385kg/m3 of cement.
3.8. Durability
One of the major advantages of use of fly ash in concrete mixes is an improved
durability of concrete. The existance of large pores and crystalline products in the
transition zone in concrete without fly ash are greatly reduced by the the introduction of
fly ash particles.
The decrease in water content and fine fly ash particles decreases the permeability of fly
ash concrete. The reduced permability results in improved long term durability and
resistance to various deterioration processes of concrete structures.
Acording to Bilodeau and Malhotra [25] HVFAC has exellent resistance to repeated
cycles of freezing and thawing and very high resistance to the penetration of chloride
ions. This resistance was considerably higher than that of conventional Portland cement
concrete of similar strength [25].
The freezethaw resistance of concrete in the presence of deicing salts is generally lower
than the resistance to freezing and thawing alone. Laboratory tests have demonstrated
that HVFAC can provide an excellent protection to the reinforcing steel against
corrosion.
A study performed at CANMET [25] on the sulfate resistance of concrete specimens
immersed in a 5% Na2SO4 solution demonstrated that the HVFAC performed better than
the reference cement concrete without fly ash. Alkaliaggregate reaction is caused by the
expansion of concrete due to the reaction between the cement alkalies and certain types
of reactive silica in aggregates [25]. Extensive tests performed at CANMET [25] showed
that the use of HVFAC can effectively reduce the expansion due to alkalisilica reaction.
4. CONCLUSION
The effects of high fly ash dosage on selected fresh and hardened concrete properties
may be summarized as follows:
The use of fly ash generally reduces the water demand for a given workability,
Bleeding is typically reduced for HVFACs mixtures due to low water contents,
HVFAC exhibit delayed setting times when compared to a referent concrete with
no fly ash replacement,
Most of the test results show that HVFACs with simple replacement of cement
don’t have compressive strenght comparable to concrete without fly ash. However,
concrete mixtures with w/cm ratio below 0.4 and/or amount of fly ash that is grater
then the amount of removed cement can achieve compressive strenghts equal to or
comparable to concrete without fly ash at all ages. Adequate workability of HVFAC
with low w/cm ratio can be easily achieved with the addition of high range water
reducing admixtures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this study is a part of the investigation within the Research Project
TR36017: ’Utilization of byproducts and recycled waste materials in concrete
composites in the scope of sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation
and environmental assessment of possible applications’, supported by the Ministry for
Education, Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Chen, I.A., and M.C.G. Juenger. Incorporation of Waste Materials into Portland
Cement Clinker Synthesized from Natural Raw Materials. Journal of Materials
Science, 2009, 44, no. 10:26172627.
[2] Greer, W. L., G. J. Hawkins, and T. B. Carter. Air Emissions and Control Measures.
Chap. 6.1 in Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing. Skokie, 2004, Illinois:
Portland Cement Association.
[3] Malhotra, V.M. and P.K. Mehta. High Performance, HighVolume Fly Ash
Concrete. Supplementary Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development, Inc.,
Ottawa, Canada, 2002, 101 pages.
[4] Malhotra, V.M., and Ramezanianpour, A.A., Fly Ash in Concrete, Second Edition,
Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 1994, CANMET – Canadian Centre for
Mineral and Energy Technology.
[5] Годишњи извештај Електропривреде Србије 2011
(http://www.eps.rs/GodisnjiIzvestaji/ Godisnjak%20EPS%202011_sr_web.pdf),
При ступљено 29. августа 2013.
[6] United States Environmental Protection Agency, Coal Combustion Residual
Beneficial Use Evaluation: Fly Ash Concrete and FGD Gypsum WallboardFinal
report, February 2014.
[7] ASTM C61812a: Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
2012.
[8] Malhotra, V.M., HighPerformance highvolume fly ash concrete, Concrete
International, 2002, 3034.
[9] Bilodeau, A., V.M. Malhotra, and P.T. Seabrook., Use of HighVolume Fly Ash
Concrete at the Liu Centre. International Centre for Sustainable Development of
Cement and Concrete (ICON), Materials and Research Laboratory, CANMET.
Natural Resources Canada. Ottawa, Canada, 2001, 21 pages.
[10] Mehta, K. and P. Monteiro., Concrete: Microstructure, Properties and Materials.
3d. ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006.
[11] Ravina, D, and P.K. Mehta., Properties of Fresh Concrete Containing Large
Amounts of Fly Ash. Cement and Concrete Research, 1986, Vol. 16, No. 6, 227
238.
[12] Thomas, M., Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete. Portland Cement
Association, 2007, Skokie, IL. 24 pages.
[13] Mehta, P. K., HighPerformance, HighVolume Fly Ash Concrete for Sustainable
Development, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology. ed. Kejin Wang., 2004, 314. Center for
Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University.
[14] Gebler, S.H., and P. Klieger., Effect of Fly Ash on the Durability of AirEntrained
Concrete. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume,
Slag, and other Natural Pozzolans in Concrete. ACI SP91, Vol.1, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1986, 483519.
[15] Langley, W.S., G.G. Carette, and V.M. Malhotra., Strength Development and
Temperature Rise in Large Concrete Blocks Containing High Volumes of Low
Calcium (ASTM Class F) Fly Ash. ACI Materials Journal, 1992, Vol. 89, No. 4,
362368.
[16] Berry, E.E., and Malhotra, V.M., “Fly Ash in Concrete”. Energy, Mines and
Resources Canada, CANMET, Ottawa, Canada, 1986.
[17] Quan Hongzhu and Kasami Hideo, Experimental Study on Effects of Type and
Replacement Ratio of Fly Ash on Strength and Durability of Concrete, The Open
Civil Engineering Journal, 2013, Vol. 7, 93100.
[18] Lam L., Wong Y.L., Poon ChiSun, Effect of fly ash and silica fume on
compressive and fracture behaviors of concrete, Cement and Concrete Research,
1988, Vol. 8, 271–283.
[19] Siddique Rafat, Performance characteristics of highvolume Class F fly ash
concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 2004, Vol. 34, 487493.
[20] Mittal Amit, Kaisere M.B., Shetti Rajendrakuma, Experimantal study on use of fly
ash in concrete, Tarapur Atomic Power Project 3 and 4, Nuclear Power Corporation
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[21] Kou ShiCong, Poon ChiSun, Chan Dixon, Influence of Fly Ash as Cement
Replacement on the Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete, Journal of
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[23] Atis Cengiz Duran, HighVolume Fly Ash Concrete with High Strength and Low
Drying Shrinkage, Journal of materials in civil engineering, 2003, Vol. 5, 153156.
[24] McCarthy M.J. and Dhir R.K., Development of high volume fly ash cements for use
in concrete construction, Fuel, 2005, Vol. 84, 1423–1432.
[25] Alain Bilodeau and V. Mohan Malhotra, HighVolume Fly ash System: Concrete
Solution for Sustainable Development, ACI Materials Journal, 2000, Vol. 97, 4147.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although climate change, in last few decades, attracts wide interest at research and
policy levels, little attention is paid to its impact on cultural, especially built heritage. In
a period when Serbia tries to enhance regulation in the field of cultural heritage and to
improve standards according to the European demands, it seems important to explore
how the threat of climate change to cultural heritage can become better recognized and
perceived as relevant. It is important to stress that for the first time cultural heritage is
threaded as a nonrenewable resource, to be transmitted to future generations, in the
Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, adopted in 2010. In the SWOT analysis done for
the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia in 2010, it was noted that one of the
weaknesses in the field of cultural heritage is the lack of global strategy in the
conservation, governance and use of built heritage. An opportunity was missed to
introduce into the strategy the process of standardization for protection of cultural
heritage endangered by Climate Change.
Rather than examining the fate of individual historical building, it is more important to
take a strategic overview of the changing pressures on built heritage. As there is no
systematical research of this topic in our country, we have to learn from European
1
Dr Nađa Kurtović Folić, professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of technical sciences, Trg D. Obradovica
6, Novi sad , Serbia, tel: +381 21 4852470, e – mail: nfolic@uns.ac.rs
2
Mr Nataša Živaljević Luxor, PhD student, City planning Institute of Nis, 7.јули 6, Nis, tel: +381 18 243 363,
nluxor@gmail.com
experience. The results can be incorporated in our legislation and practice where
appropriate. Most of European countries have already prepared vulnerability atlases and
accompanying guidelines. Those countries have also studied the effects of future climate
variations on cultural heritage, producing in advance the measures that could use the
knowledge of the climate science to anticipate the potential damage to our material
heritage. [1] Scientists have assembled a growing body of evidence showing that human
activities play an important role in the extent of change of the earth's climate. This
warning has led international, regional, and national organizations to develop dedicated
programs to asses and ménage the impact of climate change.
The impacts of Climate Change are affecting many and are likely to affect many more
built heritage properties in the years to come. The national cultural preservation service
has to work hard on several serious topics. They have to start with few requests such as:
To review the nature and scale of the risks posed to built heritage properties
arising specifically from Climate Change;
To jointly develop a strategy to assist national and local governments to
implement appropriate management responses; and
To prepare specialists how to predict and manage the effect of climate change on
built heritage. [2]
It is very difficult to make any general conclusion on this problem, as there is no serious
analysis, studies or reports on impacts and implications of climate change on cultural
heritage. Even our knowledge on different categories of climate change in Serbia is
fragmentary. It is obvious that for now Serbia is not suffering from the most serious
climate change, such as North and South America, Northern Europe and Northern and
Central Asia. In scientific literature climate change is described by using several key
indicators, such as greenhouse gas composition (especially CO2), surface temperature,
precipitations like rain, snow and hail, snow cover, sea and river ice, glaciers, sea level,
climate variability, and extreme weather events. [3] For Serbian region, glaciers, sea
level, sea ice are indicators than have no direct influence as yet. But, the extent of future
temperature increase, that could be registered even now all over the Balkan, is difficult
to project with certainty since there is very few and incomplete data of this process. The
socioeconomic factor that will influence the magnitude of such increases in the future is
also elusive. [4]
Drying has occurred in the Mediterranean and Serbia suffers this influence, based on
observations for the period since 1999. Floods are not as extensive as they are in
surrounding countries, such as Romania, Croatia, Hungary, but they endangered some
regions of Serbia every year. Strong storms are rare and passing, but are likely to
become unforeseen and more intense.
Anthropogenic warning and see level rise would continue for centuries due to the
timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks even if greenhouse gas
concentrations were to be stabilized.
As there are few or no data about climate change effects on the cultural heritage in
Serbia, the research has to start by determine of meteorological changes which are
critical to the built heritage in our country. [5]Research activities have to be focused first
on defining the parameters of future climate variables related to temperature such as:
range, thermal shock, freeze and thaw. In this part we could relied on the first
international results which show that there will be a decline in the frequency of freezing
over the twentyfirst century and a lower potential for frost damages. Next part will be
the process of defining the parameters for future climate variables based on water change
influence such as torrent, sedimentation, humidity cycles, time of wetness, and dryness.
Very important is to define longterm meteorological changes that have great impact on
the built heritage.[6]
Figure 1. Flood around the tower Nebojsa-Belgrade fortress [after 6] Figure 2. High
level of Danube river and flood around the ramparts of Petrovaradin fortress [7]
The data, research results and mapping have to be further compared with the already
prepared climate map for Europe in which the climate parameters are selected as most
important for the protection of the built heritage. In the European Noah’s Ark Project
two baseline periods are important for us: near future (20102039) and far future (2070
2099). The results show that climate change occurs over longtime scale and could be
very subtle.
Figure 5. Church in Grabovo – the bell tower destroyed by stormy wind in 2009. [10]
Yet, some climate parameters such as humidity cycles, wind driven rain and freezing can
change by large amount. That means that built heritage can be at risk even though
changes in average temperature or precipitation amount are rather small.
All European projects and documents dealing with climate change hazards and risks they
could provoke insist on the necessity to develop strategies for mitigating and adapting to
the global climate change impact on built heritage. After two firs steps, identifying the
climate parameters and assessing the respective changes over the hundred year, and
recognizing all possible treats to building materials, surfaces and structures, drying out
and structural damages are in the focus of mitigating strategies.
After the range of different building simulation programme which has been reviewed,
the public domain software programme Energy Plus has been widely recommended as
the most appropriate programme for the simulation of the hydrothermal environment of
built heritage. Energy Plus is a whole building energy simulation program that engineers,
architects, and researchers use to model energy and water use in buildings. Modeling the
performance of a building with EnergyPlus enables building professionals to optimize
the building design to use less energy and water. Programme takes as input the physical
properties of the building and a weather file giving the annual local climate conditions,
and is also able to compute dew points, surface temperature and surface relative
humidity. The process simulates the building's indoor environment, which is the result of
the interaction of the external climate conditions and the physical properties of the
building. The same programme use indoor and outdoor temperature and relative
humidity to validate the model.
Another simulation programs are developed to simulate the water penetration and drying
properties in many useful casestudies of historic buildings.
Prevention strategies could be best formulated when are focused on the problems
generating the most dangerous effects caused by climatic issues such as weathering
degradation in combination with rain and wind, strong winds, heavy rains, floods and
landslides. Continuous analyses and archive records on structural and building failures
can help to propose global frame for solving the individual problems of the sensitivity of
historic materials and structured exposed to weather and disaster action; the static and
dynamic loading of historic structures due to air flow and strong winds, and integrated
risk of flood damage. The strategies must encompass the models of subsoil behavior for
landslides prediction to avoid subsoil instability and damage consequences.
Data and maps achieved through different European research project points out that the
most important climate parameters relevant to building damage and degradation could
undergo significant changes in the 21th century. This, not so bright perspective for the
cultural heritage future, open the way for creation the specific heritage climatologies.
seasonality of extreme events such as droughts, fires, heavy precipitations, floods, and
storms. Climate change has implications for different natural and societal systems
including cultural and natural heritage. The assessment of the impacts of Climate
Change on built heritage must account for the complex interactions within and between
nature, culture and society. Changes to cultural heritage caused by climate change cannot
be viewed separately from changes in society, demographics, people’s behaviour, the
impact of conflicting social values and land use planning which will also need to evolve
in the face of climate change. Cultural heritage is now defined very widely to include
not only individual sites, buildings or structures but also urban or rural landscapes in
process which may include dynamics that are not only subject to climate change but also
contribute to climate change.
Climate change will have physical, social and cultural impacts on cultural heritage of
Serbia. It will change the way people relate to their environment. This relationship is
characterised by the way people live, work, worship and socialise in buildings, sites and
landscapes with heritage values. Climate change and the socioeconomic changes that
will result will have a greater possible impact on the conservation of cultural heritage
than climate change alone. This combined effect is not yet recognised in the strategies
for monitoring, governance, presentation and use of cultural heritage in Serbia. The
problem needs to be explored more fully and this can be done in the context of
preparations for adopting the new Law on Cultural Heritage.
Many of built heritage examples are living places which depend on their communities to
be sustained and maintained. Climate change has consequences for the whole of human
existence and the products of human creativity. In the case of built heritage these
consequences will be manifest in at least two principal ways: direct physical effects on
the site, building or structure and the effects on social structures and habitats that could
lead to changes in, or even the migration of, societies that are currently sustaining those
examples. The implications of the latter are not well understood, even if the nature of
the impacts will vary depending on the nature of the built heritage category.
The character of cultural heritage is closely related to the climate. The urban landscape
and the built heritage have been designed with the local climate in mind. The stability of
cultural heritage is, therefore, closely tied to its interactions with the ground and the
atmosphere. Where built heritage is in use by local communities there may be pressure
for significant adaptive changes to allow use and occupation to continue. Even where
this is not the case, there can be very direct physical effects. [13]
In the context of complex interactions such as mentioned in the paper, one needs to
define indicators to assess the overall impact of climate on built heritage. Climate change
can be subtle and can occur over a long period of time. However, some climate change
parameters such a freezing, temperature and relative humidity shock can change by large
amounts over a short period of time. To identify the greatest global climate change
hazards and risks they can provoke by their impacts on built heritage, the community,
local and state governments have to be well prepared. [14]
The strategy could be on the strategy developed after the detailed analysis of the various
issues elaborate in the report on “Predicting and Managing of Effects of Climate Change
on Word Heritage” prepared in 2012. In this Report actual term Conservation means the
management of change, and the climate change is treated as one of the most significant
global peril facing society and the environment in 21th century. According to proposed
strategy the actions that need to be taken to safeguard heritage are threefold:
Preventive actions: monitoring, reporting and mitigation of Climate Change
effects through environmentally sound choices and decisions at a range of
levels: individual, community, institutional and corporate.
Corrective actions: adaptation to the reality of Climate Change through global
and regional strategies and local management plans.
Sharing knowledge: including best practices, research, communication, public
and political support, education and training, capacity building, networking, etc.
All mentioned actions are suitable to be implemented in our strategy and practice
without any correction.
REFERENCES
[1] Bostrom, a., Grenger Morgan, M., Fichoff, B., Read, D. What Do People Know
About Global Climate Change? 1. Mental Modes. Risk Analysis,1994., vol. 14, № 6,
p.p. 959970.
[2] The Atlas of Climate Change Impact on European Cultural Heritage, Scientific
Analysis and Management Strategies. (Ed. C. Sabbioni, P. Brimblecombe and M.
Cassar), 2012., Anthem Press.
[3] Berenfeld, M.L. Climate Change and Cultural Heritage. The Georg Wright Forum,
2008., vol. 25, №2, p.p. 6682
[4] KurtovicFolic, N., "Standards for Restoration of Built Heritage Endangered by
Natural Hazards”, Keynote leacture, 14th International Conference “Structural
Faults&Repair”, (M. Forde ed.), July 35th 2012, Edinburg, Book of Abstracts and
CD Rom, pp.110.
[5] Kurtovic Folic, N., Sladic, M.“Strategy for Protection of Cultural Heritage Exposed
to the Natural and Manmade Activity Disasters in Serbia”, 2nd International
Conference RESPAG 2013, Conference Proceedings, (M.Vujosevic, S. Milijic, eds),
May 2225 2013, IAUSISOCARP, Belgrade, CDRom and Book of Abstracts, p.p.
9901006.
[6] http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/beograd.74.html:428219BeogradUponedeljak
zatvorenprolazkodNebojsinekule, download 15.o3.2014
[7] www.panoramio.com/photo/ 84225266, download 15.03 2014.
[8] www.novosti.rs%252Fvesti%252Fbeograd.74.html%253A347838, download
15.03.2014
[9] http://forum.badnjak.com/viewtopic.php?f=4&t=27&start=90 , download
15.03.2014
[10] http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monuments_culturels_du_district_de_BaCka, download
15.03.2014.
[11] Climate Change and Cultural Heritage, (ed. R.A., Lefėvre and C.Sabbioni), Centro
Universitario Europeo per i Beni Culturali, 2010., Edipuglia, Ravello.
[12] Cassar, M., Pender, R. The impact of climate change on cultural heritage: evidence
and response. In: Verger, I, (ed.) ICOM Committee for Conservation: 14th
Triennial Meeting, 2005., The Hague, Preprints. James & James, p.p. 610 – 616.
[13] Cassar, M., Climate Change and the Historic Environment, The Russel Press,
Nottingham. 2005.
[14] Global climate change impact on built heritage and cultural landscape, (ed. R.Fort,
M.Alavrez de Buergo, M.GomezHeras, C.VasquezCalvo), Proceedings of the
International Heritage, Weatering and Conservation Conference, 2. Vol.,
Taylor&Frances Group, London. 2006.
Тhis paper is a part of research project TR 36042 Ministry for Education and Science
R Serbia.
1. УВОД
2
Народни музеј је, скоро две деценије по оснивању, 1863. био смештен у делу објекта „Капетан
Мишино здање“, да би након више „гостовања“ у београдским палатама (1892. зграда браће
Величковић; 1922. кућа Раше Милошевић; 1936. зграда Новог двора) 1952. био пресељен у зграду
државне хипотекарне банке (изграђена 1903), где се и данас налази. Од 2003. године, када је требала да
почне темељна обнова зграде, Народни музеј није отворен за посетиоце. Прим. аутора.
3
Дргуа фаза адаптација старе школске зграде за потребе Народног музеја у Краљеву реализована је у
пероду 200205. (деценију након завршетка прве фазе радова, 199395). Музеј у Пријепољу је обновљен
у периоду 200607, а радови на уређењу новог простра Југословенске кинотеке у Београду су трајали од
200611. године. Комплексном реконкструкцијом Народног музеја у Ваљеву (200107) обезбеђени су
нови простори за депое, документациони центар, конзерваторску радионицу и кабинете стручних
служби, а Народни музеј у Зајечару је у обновљеном простору (200810) добио нову сталну поставку.
Нова стална поставка Музеја у Вршцу отворена је у згради „Конкордија“ из 1847, која је обнављана од
201012. Централна зграда Крушевачког народног музеја обновљена је од 20112013. године.
4
У раду се позива на: Huang, H., The Spatialization of Knowledge and Social Relationships, Proceedings,
3rd International Space Syntax Syzmposium, Atlanta, 2001, pp.43.143.14.
5
Пројекат је рађен у Покрајинском заводу за заштиту споменика културе из Петроварадина за потребе
Националног савета Словака, уз подршку Републике Србије и Републике Словачке. Пројектована бруто
површина објекта је 1193,72m2, док је нето корисна површина музејског простора 945,60m2. Аутор
пројекта је архитекта др. Дубравка Ђукановић. Извор: ПЗЗЗСК, Е54/12, 2012.
6
Пројекат је реализован је у оквиру активности експертског тима HTSPE, ангажованог од стране
Делегације Европске Уније у Србији на пословима стручне техничке подршке српским партнерима на
краткорочном пројекту Обнове и рехабилитације Фрањевачког самостана у Бачу (201416)
финансираном од стране Еврпског Савета. Укупна површина будућег Музјеско образовног центра,
укључујући и делове самостана и цркву, износи 1311,70m2. Аутор пројекта је члан експертрког тима,
архитекта сениор експер др. Дубравка Ђукановић.
7
Пројекат је реализовао „Студио Д`АРТ“ за потребе Српске правоаславне црквене општине у Новом
Саду, која је као власник простора и инвеститор (уз подршку градске управе) целог пројекта. Корисна
површина будуће ризнице је 281,41 m2, а бруто површина пројектваног простора је 379,10 m2. Аутор
пројекта је архитекта др. Дубравка Ђукановић. Извор: Архива „Студио Д`АРТ“, Е134/13, 2013.
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Развој савременог музеја обележила је стална, више од века дуга, потрага за новим
вредностима, новом позицијом, новом улогом и новим институционалним и
социјалним идентитетом. Улога музеја као „трећих простора“ произилази из
потребе људи за атрактивним просторима за социјалну интеракцију, која нису
само места сусрета и разговора, него и места која морају да обезбеде "осећај
припадности, посвећености, гостопримљивости, виталности и историјског и
културног континуитета". [13: 25] Социјални дискурс одређује музеј као место
друштвене интеракције, а историјска компонента музеја смештених у старе
грађевине им даје вредност више, надрастајући рехабилитативни значај нове
намене. У оквиру мандата Грчке да председава Европском Унијом одржана је
почетком марта 2014. године конференција под називом „Прво наслеђе! Ка
заједничком приступу за одрживу Европу“ (EU Presidency Conference Heritage
First! Towards a Common Approach for a Sustainable Europe) чији је циљ био да
нагласи пресудан и недвосмислен допирнос културног наслеђа одрживом
економском и социјалном развоју, у циљу јачања потенцијала културног наслеђа
као кључног ресурса у реализацији циљева стратегије Европске Уније до 2020. [17]
Активности усмерене ка формирању нових, темтски конципираних, регионалних
музеја у Србији, посебно оних који су овом раду представљени и који интегрално
и у садејству са историјским простором у који су смештени, презентују регионлане
вредности и представљају потенијал развоја локалне заједнице треба валоризовати
са једне стране у светлу рада на рехабилитацији крхког градитељског наслеђа, а са
друге у светлу јачања потенцијала културног наслеђа као развојног ресурса.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Duncan, C., Wallach, A., The Museum of Modern Art as Late Capitalist Ritual: An
Iconographic Analysis, Marxist Perspectives, 1978., vol.1, no.4, Winter, pp.2851.
[2] Johnson, Ph., Writings, Oxford University Press, New York, 1979.
[3] Hillier, B., Hanson, J., The Social Logic of Space, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1984.
[4] Мароевић, И., Изложба као облик музејске комуникације, Осјечки зборник, Ед.
Младен Радић, бр.21, 1991., стр. 287299.
[5] Музеји у Срији: започето путовање, Ед. Гавриловић, Љ., Стојановић, М.,
Музејско друштво Србије, Београд, 2008.
[6] Museum, Media, Message, Ed. Hooper – Greenhill, E., Routledge, London & New
York, 1995.
[7] Staniszewski, M.A, The power of Display, MIT Press, Cambridge: Mass., 1998.
[8] Мароевић, И., 19. Стољеће – традиција и модерне нације, Музеологија, 2001.,
бр.37, стр.714.
[9] Noordegraaf, J,. Strategies of Display, NAI Publishers, Rotterdam, 2004.
[10] New Museum Theory and Practice, Ed. Marstine. Ј., Blackwell Publishing, Oxford,
UK, 2006.
[11] Hillier, B., Tzortzi, K., Space Syntax: The Language of Museum Space, A
Companion to Museum Studies, Ed. Macdnald, S., Blackwell Publishing, London,
2006., p.282301.
[12] Tzortzi, K.: Museum Building Design and Exhibition layout: patterns of interaction,
Proceedings, 6th International Space Syntax Symposium, Istanbul, 2007., p.072.1
072.16.
[13] Knox, P., Mayer, H., Small City Sustainability- Economic, Social, and
Environmental Innovation, Birkahäuser, BaselBostonBerlin, 2009.
[14] Антош, З., Еуропски етнографски музеји и глобализација, Музеологија, бр.47,
2010., 9205.
[15] Хорић, А., Књига као изложбени објект у књижници, Музеологија, 2012., бр.
48/49, стр.3845.
[16] Đukanovć, D., Polić, D., Rehabilitation of the old warehouse for hop – motives,
constrictions, expected positive effects and impact of the intervention on cultural &
urban feature and sustainable development of the historic village and it`s
ПРИЛОЗИ
Слика 1-2. Локација магацина и сушаре хмеља у централној зони насеља Бачки
Петровац и будући изглед комплекса Музеја словачке националне мањине
1. UVOD
Ovim načinom tretmana filtrata osim stalne recirkulacije zagađene vode, kvašenjem
tijela deponije omogućava se brža razgradnja organskih materija na deponiji što
omogućava i stvaranje većih količina otpada za deponovanje.
Pored lagune 1 izvodi se sabirni bazen od armiranog vodonepropusnog betona sa
standardnim slojevima hidroizolacije na zidovima. Zapremina sabirnog bazena iznosi
V=10,0 m3, i u njega se prelivaju vode iz lagune 1, prema slici 6. Iznad sabirnog bazena
izvodi se pumpna stanica, odnosno objekat dimenzija 2,0 x 2,0 m [4].
5. ZAKLJUČNA RAZMATRANJA
LITERATURA
[1] Dragičević, L. T.: Biorazgradnja otpadne vode deponija, interna skripta, 2012.
[2] Kvasnička., P., Veinović, Ž.: Površinska odlagališta otpada, interna skripta,
Rudarsko-geološko-naftni fakultet Zagreb, 2007.
[3] Rudarski institut Tuzla: Glavni građevinski projekat sanacije i rekultivacije
postojećeg odlagališta otpada „Babunovići“ kod Srebrenika, 2006.
[4] Rudarski institut Tuzla: Glavni projekat sanacije deponije komunalnog otpada
„Desetine“ kod Tuzle, knjiga 2, 2008.
1. УВОД
1
Мирјана Томичић-Торлаковић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет ,
Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија
2
Жарко Грујић, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Бањој Луци, Грађевински факултет, Степе
Степановића 77/3, Бања Лука, Република Српска, тел: 0038751462616, е-mail: zgrujic@agfbl.org
прихватити. Како је крутост дефинисана као однос силе и помјерања које она
изазове (1), проблем се своди на одређивање ове двије величине са назнаком да је
у питању вертикално помјерање тј. угиб, чиме је одређена само вертикална
крутост.
F (t )
k (t ) (1)
z (t )
У интерпретацији резултата оптерећење-угиб (сл. 1) [2], могуће је у зависности од
врсте проблема дефинисати секaнтну (2) и тангентну (3) крутост.
Fy Fy
k x y (2)
z y zx
dF
k tg , z (3)
dz z0
Оптерећење које прихвата колосјек је динамичког карактера те га осим
интензитета карактерише и фреквенција, дефинишући на тај начин динамичку
крутост зависну од фреквенције.
2. МЕТОДЕ МЈЕРЕЊА
Portancemetre
Овај уређај има исти принцип рада као и RSMV али посебну конструкцију
састављену од рама са овјешаним оптерећењем и ослоњеним на само једну
осовину са точковима[3]. Осовина и точкови су неовјешани и преко електричних
побуђивача монтираних на рам добијају поремећајну силу. Укупно статичко
оптерећење могуће је примјенити у распону од 70 – 120 kN, док је максимално
додатно динамичко оптерећење до 70 kN. Горња граница радне фреквенције је 35
Hz.
Укупна сила примјењена на колосјек (FTA) потиче од маса које је могуће мјерити,
али како је у питању динамички систем, то оне учествују у укупном оптерећењу
преко законистости својих помјерања. Овјешане масе и вибрирајући точак имају
yr H h (5)
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Грујић, Ж.: Методе мјерења крутости колосјека, 2013., семинарски рад из
предмета „Одабрана поглавља горњег строја железница“ на докторским
студијам на Грађевинском факултету Универзитета у Београду, ментор Проф.
др Мирјана Томичић-Торлаковић
[2] Пузавац, Л., Поповић, З., Лазаревић, Л.: Influence of track stiffness on track
behaviour under vertical load. Promet-trafic&Transportation, 2012., Vol 24, No. 5,
405-412.
[3] Berggren, E.: Methods of track stiffness measurements. INNOTRACK, 2006., No. 5
[4] http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/mechengfacpub/?utm_source=digitalcommons.unl.ed
u%2Fmechengfacpub%2F33&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPage
s, преузето 21.5.2013.
1. УВОД
1
дипл.инг.грађ. пројект менаџер ,, ИНТЕГРАЛ ИНЖЕЊЕРИНГ“а.д Бањалука, Трг Републике 10,
Тел. 00 387 65 685905; е-mail: boro.zdjelar@integralgrupa.com
2
студент грађевинског факултета у Бањој Луци
Слика 1
нису мали, а у великој конкуренцији могући профит је релно мален. На овај начин
улази се у још већу опасност уласка у зачарани круг задужења и финансијских
проблема. Почиње неконтролисано трчање за новим послом, послом који доноси
на кратко вријеме свјеж новац којим се привремено рјешава нека финансијска
обавеза. Једном ријечи, долази до прецијењивања властитих могућности, покушава
се купити вријеме до добијања новог посла који би требао бити профитабилан.
Овакви послови све теже долазе, јер је конкуренција све оштрија, а самим тим
расположиви профит све мањи, могућност спасавања компаније на таквом послу
реално и не постоји. Финансијски проблеми за компанију постају све већи, воде их
до банкрота.Овакве примјере имамо у окружењу, банкрот великих предузећа у
Словенији и Хрватској.
,,SCT '' Љубљана, добија посао у Сарајеву на основу нереално ниске цијене и не-
завршава га, банкротира. Слична судбина десила се са ,, Конструктор'' Сплит или
,, Осијек Котекс'' који је на обилазници око Сарајева био нереално јефтинији од
другопласиране компаније. У Републици Српској талијанска компанија ,,Vidoni'' из
Удина повукла се из посла прије завршетка радова, годину дана касније
банкротирала. На тендеру je била јефтинија од неколико домаћих компанија.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] др Жељко Поповић дип.инг.гр. publication,Parsons Brinckerhoff
[2] Б.Вукмир В.Скендеровић: Концесије и уговарања пројеката, Загреб, 1999.год.
ORGANIZATIONAL EXPERIENCE IN
CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY TO THE REPUBLIC
OF SERBIAN
Summary: Local construction company shall use the opportunity for construction of
motorways in the Republic of Srpska, given to it, to outgrow locality and become a
regional-size company. How to establish organization when the works are executed
according to the principle “DESIGN AND BUILD”, commonly referred to as the
“Yellow FIDIC”? What are the advantages and disadvantages, how to reconcile the
interests of the Employer and the Contractor? Learning from the mistakes of similar
companies in this region, further development must focus on preservation of market
competitiveness, but avoiding contracting at all costs.
Кеywords: Оrganization, learning, planning , competitiveness , development
1. УВОД
1
Prof. dr Aleksandar Prokić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Eng. Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: aprokic@EUnet.rs
2
Nataša Mrđa, PhD student, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Eng. Subotica, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica,
Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: mnatasa@agfbl.org
3
Asistent Elefterija Zlatanović, dipl.inž. građ., Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Srbija, tel: ++381 18 588 200, e – mail: elefterija2006@yahoo.com
Пренос оптерећења код атхезионог сидра се врши целом дужином сидра, док се
код експанзионих сидара пренос оптерећења врши само на једном, малом делу
обима, на најудаљенијем делу сидра од тунелског отвора. Уградња сидара у
стенску масу полази од идеје да када се стенска маса почне померати ка отвору,
сидро трпи напоне затезања (под претпоставком да је сидришна зона у стабилном
делу стенске масе), који се у стенску масу преносе као напони притиска, и самим
тим придржавају стенску масу. Уколико се ради о преднапрегнутим сидрима, у
стенску масу се у почетној фази уносе напони притиска као последица напона
затезања у сидру.
Сидра која су са стенском масом повезана само преко котве на крају сидра и
главе сидра на слободној површини стене (DMFC) су услед померања тла
оптерећена само преко тих делова, те је и њихово понашање при оптерећењу
независно од околног тла. За разлику од овог типа сидара, CMC/CFC су сидра која
су континуално спојена са стенском масом (трењем преко омотача) и понашају се
као арматура, па се њихово понашање не може посматрати независно од стенске
масе [3].
0.4
0.2
atla/g [m/s 2]
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.2
-0.4
t [s]
2.1. Пример 1.
2.2. Пример 2
У претходном примеру, разматран је случај када између стенске масе и тела
сидра нема трења. Међутим, приликом утицаја земљотреса, неминовно је да ће
тело сидра доћи у контакт са стенском масом. Да би се овакво стање реално
приказало, потребно је у модел стенске масе са сидром унети и утицај трења при
контакту тела сидра са стенском масом. У литератури овај проблем је решаван на
различите начине, а један од најчешћих је када се тело сидра моделира као опруга,
о чему је већ било речи. У овом раду, приказани су резултати другачијих приступа
овом проблему, преко модела којима се врши симулација трења тела сидра о тло.
Да би тело сидра имало садејство са сенском масом, на одређеном броју места је
повезано са околном стенском масом, тако што су везе моделиране елементима
који се у ABAQUS-овој библиотеци називају конектори. Из библиотеке конектора
изабрани су елементи типа PLANAR приказани на слици 7 код кога су омогућена
померања у правцу U2 и U3 и обртање око осе 1, Ur1, док су спречени степени
слободе померања у правцу локалне осе x – U1, те обртања око локалних оса 2 и 3
односно Ur2 и Ur3. Силе веза у равни 2-3 су дефинисане као силе трења, због чега
је овај елемент погодан за моделирање трења између тела сидра и стенске масе.
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
Аутор рада се захваљује на подршци Министарства просвете, науке и
технолошког развоја Републике Србије у оквиру научно–истраживачког пројекта
ТР36043 (2011–2014) и ТР36028 (2011-2014).
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] ABAQUS: Finite Element Program, from Hibbit, Karlson & Sorensen, Inc. 1080
Main Street, Pawtucket, RI, USA. 2005.
[2] ABAQUS: Theory manual.version 6.7. Dassault systems, 2007.
[3] Bobet, A.: A Simple Method for Analysis of Point Anchored Rockbolts in Circular
Tunnels in Elastic Ground, Rock Mech. and Rock Eng. 2005., 39 (4), pp. 315 – 338.
[4] Bobet, A., Einstein, H.H.: Tunnel reinforcement with rockbolts, Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology, 2011., 26 (2011), pp. 100-123.
[5] Bobet, A.: Elastic solution for deep tunnels. application to excavation damage zone
and rockbolt support. Rock Mech. and Rock Eng. 2009. 42 (2), pp.147–174.
[6] Brady, B.H.G., Brown, E.T.: Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, 3rd ed.
Kluwer Academy Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2004.
[7] http://peer.berkeley.edu
[8] Carranza-Torres, C.: Analytical and numerical study of the mechanics of rockbolt
reinforcement around tunnels in rock masses. Rock Mech. and Rock Eng. 2009.,42
(2), pp. 175–228.
[9] Chen, S.-H., Qiang, S., Chen, S.-F., Egger, P.: Composite element model of the
fully grouted rock bolt. Rock Mech. and Rock Eng. 2004., 37 (3), pp. 193–212.
[10] Li, C.: Analytical study of the behavior of rock bolts. In: Girard, Liebman, Breeds,
Doe (Eds.), Pacific Rocks 2000. Balkema, The Netherlands, 2000.
1. УВОД
1
Prof. dr Dragan Lukić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Eng. Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
Subotica, Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: drlukic.lukic@gmail.com
2
Mila Svilar, PhD student, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Eng. Subotica, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica,
Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: mila.svilar@gmail.com
3
Prof. dr Aleksandar Prokić, dipl.inž. građ., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Eng. Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: ++381 24 554 300, e – mail: aprokic@EUnet.rs
а) b)
Слика 1 - Аксијална деформација и деформација закривљености дуж тунела
Figure 1 – Axial and curvature deformation along tunnel
(а)
(b) (c)
ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЗАХВАЛНОСТ
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
deformation along the curvature of the tunnel. Numerical analysis of impact was based
on the assumption that it is a shallow circular tunnel in a homogeneous and isotropic
rock mass. This paper presents an example calculation of earthquake in the longitudinal
direction of the circular tunnel, taking a concrete example of earthquake magnitude 6.5
(Friuli, Italy). For the calculation used software package ABAQUS.
Keywords: Circular tunnel, axial deformation, earthquake, rock mass, a software
package
1. INTRODUCTION
The rising population in urban areas comes with an associated demand for increased
public transportation. Due to the lack of surface space, an often utilised solution is to
construct rapid transit systems with tunnels. Any subsurface construction will generate
ground movements, such as ground settlements and latteral movements, which have the
potential to cause damage to existing surface and underground structures. An
urbanisation and congested cities have imposed the need for accurate predictions of
tunnelling-induced ground settlements, and have produced many publications (e.g.,
Peck, 1969; Cording & Hansmire, 1975; Clough & Schmidt, 1981; O’Reilly & New,
1982; Attewell & Yates, 1984; Cording, 1991; Mair et al., 1993, and Mair & Taylor,
1997) [8]. However, these empirical-based prediction methods are limited to the case of
a single tunnel. Gauss curve is typical for surface settlement profile induced by a single
tunnel. Yet, this curve cannot give either subsurface movement or stress distribution.
Generally, rapid transport systems comprise of a pair of tunnels constructed in a close
proximity, also known as twin-tunnel structures. A number of case studies has shown a
significant difference in ground settlements due to a construction of twin tunnels (e.g.,
Cooper et al., 2002; Cording & Hansmire, 1975, and Nyren, 1998) [3]. Furthermore, a
1
Assistant Elefterija Zlatanović, grad. Civ. Eng., University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: +381 18 588 200, e-mail: elefterija2006@yahoo.com
2
Prof. dr Dragan Lukić, grad. Civ. Eng., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering of Subotica,
Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia, tel: +381 24 554 300, e-mail: drlukic.lukic@gmail.com
series of plane strain centrifuge tests was carried out in order to investigate twin-
tunnelling-induced ground settlements in overconsolidated clay. The results of these
tests are related to the prediction of ground movements in the plane perpendicular to
advancing tunnels, and the significant remarks of the researches are as follows:
1. Single-tunnelling-induced surface and subsurface settlement troughs are well
represented by Gaussian distributions, however, the twin-tunnelling predictions can be
improved by modifying the settlements solely due to the second tunnel construction.
2. The magnitude of volume loss induced by the newly-built tunnel structure is increased
due to the presence of the first tunnel. This effect could be decreased by larger spacings
between the tunnels.
3. Ground settlements induced by a construction of the second tunnel can be predicted
using equations by Peck (1969) [9], O’Reilly & New (1982), and Mair et al. (1993), but
with some modifications [8]. The surface and subsurface settlement distributions
towards the existing tunnel were observed to be wider than that for the case of a single
tunnel.
These were further investigated by numerical studies, which have confirmed the
aforementioned observations (e.g., Addenbrooke & Potts, 2001, and Hunt, 2005) [1, 5].
Numerical analyses that used isotropic linear elastic – perfectly plastic soil models have
resulted in somewhat wider surface settlement troughs than that observed by the
Gaussian distribution (Mair et al., 1981) [6]. Predictions have been improved by using
non-linear elastic – perfectly plastic models, which have resulted in deeper and wider
settlement trough predictions that compare more favourably with field observations.
The layout of twin tunnels can have a number of different configurations such as
horizontal, vertical, or inclined alignment (Figure 1). During the construction of each
line, two tunnels can be constructed within a relatively short time and in a reasonably
close proximity (up to 3D, where D stands for a tunnel diameter) [1, 4].
Many useful insights into bored tunnelling-induced ground movements in clayey soil
deposits can be gained from investigations that are assumed to be “greenfield”, as
illustrated in Figure 2 after Attewell & Yeates (1984) [2].
Figure 2. Settlement above an advancing tunnel heading (Attewell & Yeates, 1984) [2]
depth. In most cases, the value of 0.33 was the most suitable for the ratio of surface
maximum settlement to subsurface maximum settlement.
In this section a number of methods for the prediction of soil movements induced by
twin bored tunnelling is outlined. A relative small body of the literature is dealing with
the behaviour of twin tunnels and their interaction, and consequently, only few
prediction methods have been developed. The complexity of any of these prediction
methods is further increased by the almost infinite number of possible configurations of
twin tunnels. Under the assumption that the tunnels are parallel, it could be stated that,
generally, there are three possible twin tunnel configurations. Two-dimensional
idealisations are shown in Figure 1. It could be seen that among these three variations, a
side-by-side configuration (Figure 1(a)) refers to twin tunnels being constructed at the
same horizontal axis depth. A stacked/piggy back configuration (Figure 1(b)) stands for
the case of the second tunnel being constructed directly above or below the first one. An
offset (Figure 1(c)) could be described as the middle case of the side-by-side and stacked
configurations.
The Superposition Method is a simplified approach for predicting surface settlements
above any twin-tunnel configuration. According to this simplified method, a tunnelling-
induced ground settlement curve positioned over the centre-line of each tunnel is
obtained, ignoring any influence from the other tunnel. The summation of these two
overlapping curves describes the total settlement. This is illustrated in Figure 4 that
shows the superposition of two individual tunnelling-induced ground settlement curves,
with regard to the case of 4m-diameter twin-tunnel structures. The settlement troughs are
calculated for tunnels with 3% volume loss in a clayey soil deposit with an overburden
cover of 8m. O’Reilly & New (1982) provided a formula for evaluation of twin-
tunnelling-induced ground settlements by superposition:
xA2 ( x d ) 2
S v S max exp 2 exp A 2 (1)
2i 2i
where d is the horizontal distance between two tunnels’ centre-lines, and xA is the lateral
distance from the centre-line of the first bored tunnel.
The expression presented above assumes that the tunnels are parallel and they have the
same tunnel diameter, volume loss, and settlement trough width. Moreover, it is possible
to take into account different depths of twin tunnels and tunnelling-induced trough
widths by expansion of the expression. However, this expression due to the priciple of
superposition implicitly ignores any interaction between the tunnels.
Figure 4. Example of the Superposition Method used to predict the surface settlement
induced by 4m-diameter twin tunnels with an overburden cover of 8m
4. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Ministry of Education, Science,
and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia in the scope of the scientific–
research projects TR36028 (2011–2014) and TR36043 (2011–2014).
REFERENCES
[1] Addenbrooke, T. and Potts, D. M.: Twin tunnel interaction - surface and subsurface
effects. International Journal of Geomechanics, 2001, Vol. 1, pp. 249-271.
[2] Attewell, P. B. and Yeates, J.: Ground movements and their effects on structures.
Blackie and Son Ltd, Attewell, P. B. and Taylor, R. K., 1984.
[3] Cooper, M. L., Chapman, D. N. and Rogers, C. D. F.: Prediction of settlement in
existing tunnel caused by the second of twin tunnels. Transportation Research
Record 1814, 2002, Paper No. 2-2729, pp. 103-112.
[4] Hage Chehade, F. and Shahrour, I.: Numerical analysis of the interaction between
twin tunnels: Influence of the relative position and construction procedure.
Tunneling and Underground Space Technology 23, 2008, pp. 210-214.
[5] Hunt, D. V. L.: Predicting the ground movements above twin tunnels constructed in
London Clay. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2005.
[6] Mair, R. J., Gunn, M. J. and O'Reilly, M. P.: Centrifugal testing of model tunnels in
soft clay. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, 1981, Vol. 1, pp. 323-328.
[7] Mair, R. J.: Centrifugal Modelling of Tunnel Construction in Soft Clay. Ph.D.
Thesis, Cambridge University, 1979.
[8] Mair, R. J. and Taylor, R. N.: Bored tunnelling in the urban environment.
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, 1997, Vol. 4, pp. 2353-2385.
[9] Peck, R. B.: Deep excavation and tunnelling in soft ground. Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1969,
Mexico City, Vol. 3, pp.225-290.
[10] Wu, B. R., Chiou, S. Y., Lee, C. J. and Chen, H. T.: Soil movements around parallel
tunnels in soft ground. Proceedings of the International Conference Centrifuge ‘98,
1998, Vol. 1, pp. 739-744.
1. UVOD
Trasa auto puta koridor Vc na poddionici Karuše Usora se nalazi na dionici Johovac –
Doboj Jug. Kao najsloženija podionica, njena trasa je utvrđena nakon nekoliko
predloženih varijanti.
Složenost geološke građe terena, kao i naseljenost prostora, otežavali su izbor trase.
Nakon utvrđene trase i položaja objekata na trasi urađena su istraživanja terena u cilju
definisanja geoloških i ostalih karakteristika terena, neophodnih za projektovanje.
Ranija istraživanja terena, prvenstveno za izradu osnovne geološke i inženjersko
geološke karte, dala su dovoljno podataka, da bi se istražni radovi odredili na
optimalnim mjestima, odnosno mjestime gdje potrebno detaljnije definisati građu terena
po dubini.
Obim istražnih radova je zadovoljavajući u dijelu poznavanja geološke građe, ali
nedovoljan i za geostatičke proračune posebno za mostove, obzirom da se nije poznavao
tačan položaj svih mostova i njihovih stubnih mjesta.
1
Проф. др Неђо Ђурић, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка 2а,
Србија. E-mail. nedjo@tehnicki-institut.com
Kao podloga za izradu Idejnog projekta date su preporuke geotehničkih uslova izgradnje
trase i objekata duž poddionice Usora – Karuše. Za izdvojene karakteristčine dijelove
trase dati su prijedlozi stabilizacionih mjera, a za objekate na trasi dati su prijedlozi
načina temeljenja [3,4,5,6,7,8].
Trasa je položena djelimično na padinskom dijelu, a većim dijelom u nasipu. Na
padinskom dijelu predložene su sljedeće snacione mjere:
skidanje i zamjena površinskih humusnih materijala do dubine od 1,2 m
predvidjeti kanal za odvodnju površinskih voda sa brdske strane
predvidjeti drenažnu zavjesu ispod kanala sa brdske strane, uz nožicu nasipa,
dubine minimalno 4,5 m
na strmim dijelovima osigurati nožicu nasipa kameno-drenažnom bermom izvesti
drenažne rovove u depresijama i uvesti ih u drenažnu zavjesu
Analize stabilnosti urađene su prema mjerodavnim karakteristikama, odnosno
vrijednostima c, i parametara datih za materijale pokrivača na padinama, odnosno
horizonta 4.
Na dijelu trase postavljene u nasipu, obzirom na karakteristike sedimenata pojedinih
horizonata, preporčuju se sljedeće sanacione mjere:
skidanje i zamjena sedimenata površinskog pokrivača
predvidjeti kanal za površinsku vodu sa brdske strane
osigurati nožicu nasipa sa kameno-drenažnom bermom u zoni koja će biti u
doticaju sa rijekom.
Na trasi se nalazi jedna petlja i pet (5) mostova. Obzirom da se u ovoj fazi nisu znale
precizne lokacije navedenih objekata, kao ni broj stubnih mjesta, to su način temeljenja i
osnovne karakteristike sedimenata date samo za neke mostove.
Most Tešanjka 2, dužine 214,8 m sastoji se od dva obalna i šest riječnih stubova na
svakoj traci. Ispod svake trake predviđaju se po dva stuba u koritu rijeke.
Desna obala
temeljenje izvršiti na šipovima
pojava raslabljenog supstrata je na 9,8 m
pojava supstrata je na 13,8 m od površine terena
Lijeva obala
temeljenje stupova obaviti direktno na krečnjacima
dubina temeljenja je 3,2 m + 1,0 = 4,2 m od površine terena
Most Tešanjka 1, dužine 214,8 m sa dva obalna i šest stubova u rijeci na svakoj traci.
Ispod svake trake po tri stuba u koritu rijeke.
Obalni pojas
temeljenje mosta na obalama izvesti na šipovima.
supstrat leži na dubini od 6,0 m od površine terena
Korito rijeke
5. ZAKLJUČAK
LITERATURA
1. UVOD
1
Проф др Петар Сантрач, дипл.грађ.инж., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: +381 24 554 300, email: santrac@gf.uns.ac.rs
2
Жељко Бајић, дипл.грађ.инж., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка
2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: +381 24 554 300,
praktične probleme, zbog složenosti, rešenja se uglavnom mogu dobiti samo primenom
približnih, numeričkih postupaka, kao što su metoda konačnih razlika ili konačnih
elemenata.
Model zasnovan na modulu reakcije tla, koji je originalno predložen od strane Winkler-
a, 1867, karakteriše tlo kao seriju međusobno nepovezanih linearno-elastičnih opruga,
zbog čega su deformacije samo na mestu gde postoji opterećenje. Očigledan nedostatak
ovog modela je odsustvo kontinuiteta, a realno tlo se do određene mere može smatrati
kontinualnom sredinom, u kojoj se uticaj opterećenja širi obrnuto proporcionalno nekom
stepenu odstojanja. Drugi nedostatak modela je zavisnost modula reakcije tla od oblika i
dimenzija opterećene površine. Sa teorijskog stanovišta, model elastičnog kontinuuma
bolje opisuje ponašanje tla zbog kontinualne prirode tla. Međutim, uprkos pomenutim
nedostacima, model zasnovan na modulu reakcije tla se u velikoj meri i dalje koristi za
praktične proračune u fundiranju. Razlog tome leži u jednostavnoj analizi i mogućnosti
uvođenja raznih faktora kao što su nelinearnost, promena krutosti sa dubinom,
uslojenost. Osim toga, u postupku određivanju modula reakcije tla, stečeno je veliko
iskustvo tokom višedecenijske primene na praktične probleme i postoji velik fond
različitih korelacija za određivanje modula reakcije u funkciji rezultata standardnih
geomehaničkih ispitivanja.
z
kh nh (1)
d
U gornjoj jednačni, z je dubina od površine terena u kojoj se traži modul reakcije tla a d
je dimenzija upravno na pravac dejstva horizontalne sile. Za statička opterećenja
Terzaghi je gradijent modula reakcije prikazao u funkciji relativne zbijenosti Dr peska,
prema tabeli:
Veći broj autora je na osnovu probnog opterećenja šipova horizontalnom silom, pokazao
da su veličine nh koje je predložio Terzaghi vrlo konzervativne i da se mogu povećati za
najmanje 2, do čak 5 puta. R.F.Scott (1981)[2], predlaže da se za proračun horizontalno
opterećenih šipova, usvoje vrednosti modula reakcije tla koji su dvostruko veći od onih
koje predlaže Terzaghi. Na bazi probnog opterećenja šipova u srednje zbijenom do
zbijenom potopljenom pesku, Reese, Cox i Koop (1974)[3] predlažu vrednosti koje su 3
puta veće od Terzaghijevih. **U tabeli 1 su u zagradama prikazane dvostruke vrednosti.
60
30
20
nh = 0.0056Dr1.926
R² = 0.9976
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relativna zbijenost Dr (%)
Za praktičnu primenu, potrebno je odrediti relativnu zbijenost peska duž omotača šipa. U
tu svrhu se mogu iskoristi postojeće korelacije između relativne zbijenosti i rezultata
opita standardne (SPT) ili statičke penetracije (CPT). Relativna zbijenost peska (Gibbs i
Holtz, 1979)[4] u funkciji efektivnog vertikalnog napona p0 i broja udaraca N, glasi:
0 .5
N
D r 100 (3)
0 .23 p 0 16
Kada se jednačina (3) uvrsti u izraz za gradijent modula reakcije tla u funkciji relativne
zbijenosti (2), za pesak iznad i ispod nivoa podzemne vode, dobija se sledeći izraz:
0 .935 0 .0.96
N N
n h 61 .1 , n h 39 .8 (4)
0 .23 p 0 16 0 .23 p 0 16
50 50
Vertikalni efektivni napon p0' (kPa)
100 100
nh=60 MN/m3
nh=40 MN/m3
50
40 30
150 150
25
30
20
20
200 15 200 15
10
5 10
250 250 5
300 300
qc
D r 42 ln (5)
248 K p 0.55
0 0
Kada se jednačina (3) uvrsti u izraz za gradijent modula reakcije tla u funkciji relativne
zbijenosti (2), za pesak iznad i ispod nivoa podzemne vode i ako se pretpostavi
koeficijent bočnog pritiska K0 0.5 (nema efekta zbijanja ili prekonsolidacije), dobija se
sledeći izraz:
1.870 1.926
qc qc
n h 12.1ln , n h 7.5ln
(6)
0.55 0.55
169.4 p0 169.4p0
Jednačina (6) se može grafički prikazati u sledećem parametarskom obliku (Slika 3):
50 50
Vertikalni efektivni napon p0' (kPa)
100 100
150 150
nh=40 MN/m3
nh=60 MN/m3
200 200 30
50 25
40 20
15
30 10
20 5
250 15 250 2
5 10
300 300
Imajući u vidu uvedene pretpostavke i tačnost ulaznih podataka u jednačinama (4) i (6),
dijagrami na slici 2 i 3 se mogu koristiti za približnu procenu gradijenta modula reakcije
tla u funkciji rezultata penetracionih ispitivanja, a indirektno i modula reakcije tla duž
omotača šipa.
Na osnovu promene modula reakcije tla po dubini (Slika 5), interpolacijom je određen
prosečan gradijent modula reakcije tla, koji iznosi 37.3 MN/m3.
1200
1000
Modul reakcije kh (MNm3)
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Relativna dubina z/d
250
200
150
Sila (kN)
100 2-Mereno
2-Racunato
50 16-Mereno
16-Racunato
0
0 5 10 15 20
Pomeranje (mm)
200
150
100
Sila (kN)
5-Mereno
5-Racunato
50
14-Mereno
14-Linearno
0
0 5 10 15
Pomeranje (mm)
4. ZAKLJUČAK
Veličina horizontalnog pomeranja šipa u sloju krupnozrnog tla (čisti peskovi i peskovi sa
manjom primesom prašinaste i glinovite frakcije) može se relativno jednostavno odrediti
na osnovu rezultata opita standardne ili statičke penetracije. Ovi opiti su deo obaveznih i
standardnih ispitivanja peska u geomehanici. Treba imati u vidu da su prikazani rezultati
proračuna kao i kod drugih jednostavnih metoda vrlo približni, a pošto se ispitivanjem ne
mogu obuhvati kompleksne osobine tla, insistiranje na složenijim modelima je uglavnom
neopravdano. Autori su prikazanu metodu koristili više puta, pre svega pri fundiranju na
šipovima u jezerskim i rečnim sedimentima peska i muljevitog peska. Na žalost, probna
opterećenja na osnovu kojih bi se ocenila tačnost proračuna nisu vršena, pa je u ovom
radu ocena tačnosti prikazanog postupka izvršena na osnovu rezultata postojećih
publikovanih ispitivanja.
LITERATURA
[6] Barry J.Hezer and Lymon C. Reese, (1979). Analysis of single Piles under Lateral
Loading. Report No. FHWA/TX-79/38+244-1. Page 115-126.
[7] Barber, E.S. (1953). Discussion to paper by S.M. Gleser. ASTM, STP 154:96-99.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main task in the design process of the supporting structure of gantry crane is to
determine optimal cross-sectional dimensions of main girders. Choosing the optimal
shape and geometric parameters that affect costs is the subject of research of many
authors [1],[2]. Optimisation can be done by analytical methods or by finite elements
method. Finite elements method is more convenient method, because of the fact that
many parameters can be varied. Advantage of analytical methods is that they provide
functional relations of the optimisation results, so that by simple analysis influence of
each parameter on reducing the mass of used steel, can be obtained[3],[4],[5]. This paper
analyzes options for increasing the stability of main steel girders of modified gantry
crane structure owned by company Put Inženjering from Niš. Crane was originally
designed in 1975. for the needs of mining and construction company Knjaževac from
Knjaževac. Original geometry of crane (L=6+12+6m, figure 1 – left) was designed for
20t load bearing capacity. After purchasing the crane in 2013, company Put Inženjering
from Niš changed the purpose of the crane and modified the geometry (L=22.4m, figure
1
Milan Petrović, master’s engineer of civil engineering., Ph.D. student, University of Niš, The Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200,
e-mail: millan_petrovic@hotmail.com
2
Dragan Zlatkov Mr., University of Niš, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200, e – mail: dragan.zlatkov@gmail.com
3
Predrag Petronijević, graduate engineer of civil engineering, University of Niš, The Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Architecture in Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Niš, Serbia, tel: ++381 18 588 200,
e – mail: predrag.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
1 – right). The structure of the crane consists of supporting frames of squared, hollow
cross-section and main girders of I cross-section. Whole structure was formed by
welding, while all field splices are formed as bolted connection. Longitudinal movement
of the crane is by railway, and transverse movement is provided by the hoist and trolley
that move along the main girders. Crane mechanism is with electric drive.
Figure 1. Original state of the crane (left) and newly constructed state (right)
During the testing period of the crane, series of functional defects were detected. That
indicated on necessary expert's examination of the structure, conducting control designs
and taking reinforcement measures. By preliminary visual examination of the steel
structure state, some defects and lacks were determined. Compared to original structural
analysis, static scheme was changed. Originally designed static scheme was frame with
three pinned joints, i.e. connection between main girders and supporting frames was
predicted to be pinned on one side, and rigid on the other side. It was determined that
both connections were constructed in the same way, i.e. as rigid connections (figure 2 –
left), but with no specific construction details for strengthening the joint connection
which would provide more significant degree of rigidity. Connections were assembled
the same way when crane was originally constructed, contrary to model for structural
analysis. By increasing the span, bolted field splice, which is located in the middle of the
span, found itself in the critical section, i.e. in the least favorable place, and apart from
that, it was determined that web splice plates were constructed combining two different
methods, as bolted and as welded contrary to valid standards for steel structures figure 2.
Figure 2. Connection between main girder and supporting frame and field splice
Cross-section of main girders at the location of original supports now have different
stress state (bending moment altered its sign), so flange reinforcement for preventing
lateral buckling are no longer functional. Flanges remained with net area, i.e. area
reduced by holes for fasteners for connecting main and supporting girders. Inspection of
box girders of supporting frames indicated that they are filled with various steel waste
and cast with concrete up to approximate height from the base of 1-1,50m. This
modification indicates on bad dynamic response of the crane structure during the
previous exploitation. The most probable reason for that is concentrating the mass close
to supporting joints, in order to increase stability of crane subjected to dynamic actions.
All previously mentioned defects, although not negligible, do not significantly contribute
to decrease of bearing capacity. Increase of span is not limiting factor, considering
sufficient stress capacity in main girders. The main limiting factor is problem of lateral
torsional stability. Altering the sign of bending moment caused the necessity for lateral
stabilization of upper zone, because according to original static scheme stability of lower
zone was provided by the revision path structure.
2. STABILITY OF STRUCTURE
Main girders of I cross section are used for shorter spans and smaller loads of cranes.
For longer spans of cranes, with heavy operating mode, generally I cross sections should
be avoided. Priority should be given to box sections (squared, rectangular or trapezoidal)
due to the higher torsional stiffness. I cross sections require additional measures for
stabilization of compression zone for out-of-plane buckling. It is recommended that
compression zone is reinforced or combined with additional profile which carries the rail
[6]. Disadvantage of box profiles are high stress state due to welding (fixed joints,
accumulation of joints), which makes their forming more complicated. By original
configuration of construction elements for considered crane, very rigid and laterally
stable structure was achieved. Revision path was correctly placed in the lower zone of
main girders, providing that way lateral stability. By increasing the span and ratio span –
stiffness, revision path carriers lose capability of taking over design load. Revision paths
become ballast to main girders and apply additional torsional load (figure 3).
Figure 3. Disposition of crane, static schemes and load types of main girders
Figure 4. Stability check of compression zone for lateral buckling according to [10]
With the span increased, deflection capacity was completely exhausted as it reached the
value of L/1000. Increase of vertical displacement is more than ten times greater. Stress
state in critical cross section in the middle of the span is raised from 3.5kN/cm2 to 19.2
kN/cm2 and it is well over allowed values. Reinforcement measures are necessary and
would comprise adding the plate ≠500x20mm to the top flange and relocating the
revision path from lower zone to upper zone plane. With partial reinforcement, which
implies only adding the plates to the top flange, it is possible to achieve the maximum
span of 21.0m, reducing the vertical deflection for 47%.
Figure 5. Von Misses’ stresses for maximum loading (left); allowed and actual stresses
after (SRPS U.E7.101) with and without reinforcement (right)
Lateral displacement of upper zone is efficiently reduced by adding the bracing.
Simultaneous action of these measures provide completely satisfactory results. Lateral
buckling stability checking of girders was conducted according to Serbian standards.
Dependence of maximum possible span as a function of stress is presented on figure 5.
Stability of compression zone with and without reinforcement, i.e. allowed and actual
stresses for both cases are obtained after SRPS U.E7.101 [11].
4. CONCLUSION
All gantry and rotating cranes, apart from mechanical and electrical examinations require
periodic structural examinations. Considering low industrial and economic activity in
construction industry, heavy and steel industry, cranes are rarely being used in Serbia.
As a consequence, accidental situations are not common, which is not the case around
the world where collapses are more frequent because most of the cranes work in the
heavy operating mode. Actions on crane structures are mostly dynamic, so they are
subjected to more rigorous criteria when being designed and constructed, compared to
other structures. As for reinforcement measures, purpose was to obtain optimal solutions
considering mass of additional material and simplicity of constructing methods.
Advantage of the presented solution lies in simplicity, and disadvantage may represent
complex welding (because of the large thickness, preheating is necessary).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
frames and plates with semi-rigid connections from the view of the second order theory
and stability analysis” and TR36028 for project cycle 2011-2014, “Development and
improvement of methods for analyses of soil-structure interaction based on theoretical
and experimental research” of the research organization The faculty of civil engineering
and architecture of University of Nis.
REFERENCES
[1] Farkas J, Jármai K.: Analysis and optimum design of metal structures. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1997.
[2] Andjelić N, Milošević-Mitić V.: An approach to the optimization of thin-walled
cantilever open section beams. Theor Appl Mech, 2007., vol. 34, № 4, p.p. 323–340.
[3] Pavlović, G., Savković, M., Zdravković, N.: Optimizacija kutijastog poprečnog
preseka glavnog nosača mosne dizalice prema kriterijumu bočne stabilnosti, IMK-14
- Istraživanje i razvoj, 2011., vol. 17, №. 4, p.p. 1-8.
[4] Pavlović, G., Gašić, M., Savković, M.& Zdravković, N. Komprativna anliza lokalne
i bočne stabilnosti kao funkcije ograničenja pri optimizaciji kutijastog preseka
glavnog nosača mosne dizalice, IMK-14 - Istraživanje i razvoj, 2012., vol. 18, № 1,
p.p. 11-18.
[5] Anđelić, N.M., Tankozidi otvoreni poprečni preseci izloženi ograničenoj torziji,
FME Transactions, 2012., vol. 40, № 2, p.p. 93-98.
[6] Buđevac, D.: Metalne konstrukcije, Građevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1997. p.p. 498.
[7] Anđelić, N., Milošević-Mitić, V.: Jedan pristup optimizaciji tankozidih konzolnih
nosača otvorenih poprečnih preseka, Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 2007.,
vol. 34, № 4, p.p. 323-340.
[8] Anđelić, N.: Jedan pristup optimizaciji tankozidih otvorenih poprečnih preseka
izloženih ograničenoj torziji, FME Transactions, 2007., vol. 35, № 1, p.p. 23-28.
[9] Anđelić, N.:Složeno opterećeni tankozidi nosač I-profila - optimizacija pri
naponskom ograničenju, FME Transactions, 2003., vol. 31, № 2, p.p. 55-60.
[10] Mijajlović, R., Marinković, Z.,: Dinamika i optimizacija dizalica, monografija
katedre za transportnu tehniku i logistiku, Niš, 2002., p.p. 1-13.
[11] SRPS U.E7.101:1991
1. УВОД
Кратак опис рада ветро турбина
Концепт ветротурбина или ветрогенератора је ефикасно претварање кинетичке
енергије ветра у електричну енергију.
Модерне турбине се могу класификовати као турбине са пропелером од две или
три лопатице и хоризонталном осом.
Све у мрежи повезане турбине су данас пројектоване као ротори типа пропелера
монтиране на хоризонталну осу на врху вертикалне куле (стуба). Углавном се раде
„up wind“ ротори окренути према ветру и захтевају скретни механизам који држи
осу ротора у правцу ветра.
Турбине су пројековане да произведу што је могуће јефтинију електричну
енергију. У складу с тим турбине су пројектоване тако да се добија максимална
снага за ветар брзине око 15m/sec [1]. Постизање максималне снаге за веће брзине
није рационалан приступ јер су такви ветрови ретки.
Међутим, у случају јачих ветрова неопходно је изгубити део прекомерне енергије
да би се избегло оштећење на турбини.
Због тога је потребна нека врста контроле снаге: оптимизација снаге за мале
брзине и ограничење снаге за велике брзине.
Снага као и висина савремених ветротурбина се вишеструко повећала у последњих
25 година: од 30kW и висине 30м до 10МW и висине преко 100м [2].
1
Доц. др Мирјана Вукићевић, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар
краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3218 569, e – mail: mirav@grf.bg.ac.rs
Слика 1 Ветропарк
3. ТЕМЕЉИ
3.1 Геотехнички услови
3.2 Оптерећења
Случајеви оптерећења
Ветротурбине су динамички оптерећени објекти где главно динамичко оптерећење
настаје услед дејства ветра. Цео динамички систем ротор - генератор - кула -
Оптерећење темеља
За меродавне комбинације оптерећења, за прорачун темеља дају се следеће
компоненте оптерећења:
Мres - екстремни резултујући момент савијања
Мт - одговарајући момент торзије
Fres - одговарајућа резултујућа смичућа сила
Fz - одговарајућа вертикална сила
Комбинација релевантне за прорачун су:
1) Резултујуће екстремно оптерећење
Карактеристично екстремно оптерећење за нормалне случајева оптерећења
Карактеристично екстремно оптерећење за абнормалне случајеве
оптерећења
2) Екстремно оптерећење у току нормалних операција
Поред наведених комбинација темељи се димензионишу и према оптерећењу
замора, односно цикличном оптерећењу које изазива кумулативно оштећење
материјала. Обично се ово оптерећење дефинише као еквивалентно оптерећење за
одређени материјал и еквивалтни број циклуса [1].
Као улазне податке за прорачун темеља, релевантне комбинације и компоненте
оптерећења даје испоручилац турбина за одређени тип турбине и локацију
ветропарка.
Овај тип темеља захтева довољно носиве површинске слојеве тла и низак
максимални ниво подземне воде.
Када су носећи слојеви тла на већој дубини примењују се темељи на шиповима а
не ретко и плитки темељи на побољшаном тлу.
У случајевима када је стена близу површине терена могу се радити плитки
темељи мањих димензија у комбинацији са анкерима.
У раду је стављено тежиште на критеријуме и захтеве за плитко фундирање.
Стабилност
Прорачун стабилности се односи на поређење нефакторисаног момента претурања
и хоризонталне силе и отпорног момента и смичуће отпорности. Минимални
фактор сигурности износи Fs=1,5 [3], а у неким референцама Fs=2-3 [5].
Претурање се рачуна у односу на ивицу темеља. Стабилност на клизање је обично
задовољена уколико је задовољена за петурање.
Одизање темеља
У већини упустава произвођача турбина допушта се до 50% непритиснуте
површине при нефакторисаном резултујућем екстремном оптерећењу [6].
Слегање
Дозвољено слегање зависи од примењених прописа, а уобичајене су 5cm за
тотално слегање и 2,5cm за диференцијално слегање за оптерећења при нормалном
раду турбине.
Нагињање
Уобичајени услов према упуствима произвођача [6] је дозвољено максимално
нагињанује d=0,17о. Уколико је диференцијало слeгање у дозвољеним границама
овај услов је испуњен.
Одизање
За глиновита тла и тла подложна деградацији услед цикличног оптерећења се не
толерише одизање темеља при нормалном раду ветрогенератора (екстремно
оптерећење у току нормалних операција), док се за невезана тла одређено одизање
може допустити [6].
Трајност
Трајност темеља за предвиђени век трајања ветротурбина (20 год, око 109 циклуса)
се обезбеђује одговарајућом носивошћу на замор бетона и арматуре. Оптерећење
замора се дефинише преко средњег оптерећења у комбинацији са еквивалентним
оптерећењем или спектром оптерећења замора (преко Мarkov матрице) [1].
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines, 2nd Edition, Det Norske Veritas,
Copenhagen and Wind Energy Department, Risø National Laboratory, 2002.
[2] Faber, T., Steck, M.: Windenergieanlagen zu Wasser und zu Lande: Entwicklung
und Bautechnic der Windenergie, 2005, Germanicher Lloyd WindEnergie GmbH,
Hanburg
[3] Morgan, K., Ntambakwa E., Wind Turbine Foundation Behaviour and Design
Considerations, 2008, Proceeiding Awea Windpower Conference, Houston
[4] Pravilnik o tehničkim normativima za temeljenje građevinskih objekata, (Sl. l. SFRJ
015/1990)
[5] Das, B. M., Principles of Foundation Engineering, 2007, 6th ed. New Delhi:
Cengage Learning.
[6] Ben-Hassine, J. and Griffiths, D.V. Reliability Based Design of Foundations
Subjected to Combined Loading with Applications to Wind Turbine Foundations,
Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on Numerical Methods in
Engineering and Scientific Applications, 2012, CIMENICS 2012, (eds E. Davila et
al.), Pub. Sociedad Venezuela de Metodos Numericos en Ingenieria, pp. CI 17-23.
1
Факултет техничких наука Универзитета у Новом Саду, Трг Доситеја Обрадовића 6, e – mail:
stasha.jovanovic@gmail.com
2
Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, e – mail:
dragan.n.bozovic@gmail.com
Сл. 1 [1] приказује основне одлике концепта нивоа утицаја. Доњи део слике
представља упрошћен приказ, у форми хистограма, дужине времена током којег
свака од компонената РМС-а делује на конструкцију, током века трајања
конструкције. Горњи део слике приказује пораст трошкова и опадање утицаја, опет
током века трајања конструкције.
Пошто је пруга изграђена, пажња се даје очувању постојеће пруге, тј. свих ЕЖИ,
на задовољавајућем нивоу. Концепт нивоа утицаја се опет може применити на
компоненте система за управљање одржавањем. Трошкови за време фазе
планирања радова на ремонту су релативно мали у поређењу са укупим
трошковима одржавања. Међутим, одлуке, и обавезе, које се донесу током ране
фазе пројектовања ремонта, могу имати далеко већи утицај на то колики ће бити
даљи трошкови одржавања и кашњења у транспорту у будућности.
РМС системи се веома снажно ослањају на информације о стању, тј. мерења стања
разних ЕЖИ вршена адекватном опремом. Модерна мерна опрема је најчешће
инсталирана на специјалнм мерним колима, али постоји и ручна опрема. Током
процеса мерења сакупљају се различите врсте дијагностичких подата. Прикупљени
подаци се процесирају и анализирају ради иницијалног откривања дефеката и
њихове класификације. Најважнији дефекти откривени током ове фазе
представљају тзв. “критичне дефекте”, који захтевају хитну интервенцију. Они се
обично одмах шаљу, дакле у “реалном времену” (нпр. путем факса, е-маила, СМС
порука, итд.) одговорном персоналу железнице који брине о интервентном
одржавању ради правовременог заказивања одговарајућих “in-situ” инспекција
и/или корективних мера. У општем случају, сви прикупљени подаци се
привремено складиште у оквиру мерног система (или возила), да би се касније
трансмитовали у базу података РМС-а ради даље анализе.
Кључ успеха лежи у међусобним односима који би требало да владају између фазе
изградње и других фаза управљања ЕЖИ, и документационим подацима, које би
фаза изградње морала да остави за собом у разне сврхе.
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Haas R., Hudson W.R., Zaniewski J.P., Modern Pavement Management, Krieger
Press, Malamar, Florida, 1994.
[2] Јовановић С.: Прилог оптимизацији система одржавања пруга за велике
брзине, Магистарски Рад, Београд 1997.
[3] ERRI (Еuropean Rail Research Institute): D187/DT299: Decision Support System
for Track Maintenance and Renewal, Utrecht, April 1994
[4] Jovanovic S., Zaalberg H.: ECOTRACK: Two years of experience, Rail
International - Schienen der Welt, April 2000, ISSN 00208442
[5] Божовић, Д., Јовановић, С. Концепт и имплементација информационог
система за управљање одржавањем инфраструктуре на Железницама Србије,
V научно стручни скуп СГИТЈ: „Оцена стања, одржавање и санација
грађевинских објеката и насеља“, зборник радова с.1-8, Златибор, 2007.
[6] Јовановић, С., Божовић, Д.: Структура и састав базе података за потребе
информационог система за управљање одржавањем инфраструктуре на
Железницама Србије, VI научно стручни скуп СГИТЈ: „Оцена стања,
одржавање и санација грађевинских објеката и насеља“, зборник радова с.43-
50, Дивчибаре, 2009.
[7] Pace P., Jovanovic S.: Using measurement data for decision support, International
Railway Journal, July 2011 issue, Volume 51, Issue 7, p. 37-39, ISSN 0744-5326
1. УВОД
1
Доц. др Драган Божовић, дипл.инж.грађ, Грађевински факултет Универзитета у Београду, Булевар
Краља Александра 73, Београд тел: 063 245 545, e – mail: dragan.n.bozovic@gmail.com ;
2
Мр Бошко Чоко, дипл.инж. грађ., Саобраћајни институт- ЦИП, Немањина 6, Београд, тел. 063 370 403,
e – mail: boskocoko@gmail.com ;
3
Доц. др Станислав Јовановић Технички факултет Универзитета у Новом Саду, Трг Доситеја
Обрадовића 6, Нови Сад тел: 0642029977, e – mail: stasha.jovanovic@gmail.com
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА:
[6] UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE): TEM and TER revised Master
Plan, Geneva 2011.
[7] European Commission: Directive 96/448EC, Directive 2001/16EC, Directive
2004/49/EC (dopunjeno2008-2013.), Directive 2004/50/EC, Directive 2008/57/EC
[8] Commission of the European Comunites: Freight Transport Logistics Action Plan,
Brussels, 2007.
[9] Henckel, D.: Stadt und Bahnhof, Berlin, 2007.
[10] Град Суботица: Генерални план Суботица- Палић до 2020. године. Суботица,
2006.
[11] SEECP (South East Europe Coopetation Process), sporazum, Solun, 2006.
(Напомена: Ратификовала Скупштина Р. Србије 2007.. године.)
[12] DB: DB Station&Service: Planungshandbuch Bau und Technik, Frankfurt am Main,
2006.
[13] European Commission: Towards Passenger Intermodality, Dortmund, 2004.
[14] UN Economic Commission for Europe: Recommendation concerning the System of
Marshaling Yards of Major European Importance, Geneva, 2000.
[15] Bertolini, L., Spit ,T.: Cities on Rails,Utrecht University, Utrecht, 1998.
[16] UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE): - AGTC European Agreement
on Important International Combined Transport Ines and Related Instalations,
Geneva, 1991.
[17] UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE): European Agreement on Main
International Railway Lines (AGC) , Geneva, 1985. (Напомена: Ратификовала
скупштина СФРЈ 1989. године.)
[18] Јањић, С., Божовић, Д.:Суботички железнички чвор, Институт за
саобраћајнице и геотехнику, Грађевинског факултета Универзитета у
Београду, Београд, 1992.
1. UVOD
1
Institut za građevinarstvo, građevinske materijale i nemetale d.o.o Tuzla, RBiH, amir.dzana@gmail.com
max. max.
Otpornost na
a) - (18) a) 25
drobljenje
b) - (18) b) 25
B.B8.045 %
13. (1978) m/m’ LA test gradacija A 16,73
c) - (18) c) 28
d) 25(22) d) 30
e) 28(22) e) 35
LA test gradacija B 15,17
f) 30(22) f) 35
Zapreminska masa u
B.B8.030 rastresitom stanju 1.86 1.92 1.85 1.716 1.867 1.773 1.705
14. kg/m3 -
(1986) Zapreminska masa u 2.13 2.20 2.06 1.943 2.124 1.962 1.910
zbijenom stanju
B.B8.029 % Nadmjerna zrna - 0,91 0,15 0,890 0,40 1,29 28,80 max.10 max.10
15. (1982) m/m’ Podmjerna zrna - 62,1 56,1 20,46 88,47 67,52 18,21 max.15 max.15
P...max.5 %
(max.10 % za
EP >70 %)
Sadržaj sitnih čestica
E...max.5 %
B.B8.036 % - mokro prosijavanje –
16. (1982) m/m’ prolaz kroz sito 0,09 3,86 2,72 1,54 0,52 2,57 2,88 0,39
(max.10 % za
EP > 60 %)
prolaz kroz sito 0,063 3,40 2,19 1,21 0,39 2,09 2,45 0,33
K...max.10
(>10 % za
EP>60%)
Granulometrijski sastav agregata Prolaz kroz sito
Sito: za sitni agregat
45 mm - - - 100 - - 100 -
31,5 mm - - - 99 - - 98 -
22,4 mm - - 100 70 - 100 70 -
16,0 mm - - 100 20 100 99 18 -
11,2 mm 100 100 91 2 100 68 1 -
B.B8.029 % 8,0 mm 99 99 56 1 88 18 - 100 %
17. (1982) m/m’ 4,0 mm 95 62 13 - 30 - - 90-100
2,0 mm 65 22 - - - - - 65-100 %
1,0 mm 23 - - - - - - 40-80 %
0,5 mm 7 - - - - - - 20-50 %
0,25 mm 4 - - - - - - 8-30 %
0,125 mm 3 - - - - - - 2-13 %
0,09 mm 2 - - - - - - -
0,063 mm 1 - - - - - - -
B.B2.010 Modul zrnavosti
18. (1986) sitnog agregata 4,04 - - - - - - 2.3 - 3.6
B.B8.035 %
19. (1984) m/m’
Određivanje vlažnosti 3,53 3,28 0,27 0,137 2,538 1,621 0,849 - -
LEGENDA UZ TABELU :
- SLOJ KOLOVOZNE KONSTRUKCIJE : AB- asfaltni beton ; BNS-gornji bitumenski nosivi sloj;
BNHS - bitumenski noseći - habajući sloj
- SAOBRAĆAJNO OPTEREĆENJE : a) autoput; b) vrlo teško; c) teško;
d) srednje; e) lako opterećenje
Zbog velikog obima ispitivanja prethodno su date samo najvažnije osobine granulirane
troske i mljevene troske koja se dobiva naglim hlađenjem pri izlasku iz visoke peći
željezare.
3. RECEPTURE ZA ASFALT
4. ZAKLJUČAK
LITERATURA
1. УВОД
2. МИКРОТЕКСТУРА
1
Асистент Филип Трпчевски, мастер инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет,
Булевар краља Александра 73, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 3218 561, e – mail: ftrpcevski@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Асистент Сања Фриц, дипл. инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет
3
Асистент Владан Илић, мастер инж. грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет
3. МЕРНИ УРЕЂАЈИ
где је:
Wf - рад који врши трење [Nm]
Epot - потенцијална енергија [Nm]
Ff - сила трења [N]
s - растојање [m]
m - маса клипа [kg]
g - убрзање земљине теже [m/s2]
h - висина клипа [m]
µtheo - теоретска вредност коефицијента трења [/]
Fn - нормална сила [N]
SRT
Аутопут [%] Магистрални [%] Регионални [%]
вредности
SRT >= 45 34 2.61 263 7.78 454 5.62
SRT >= 50 268 20.54 693 20.51 1604 19.84
SRT >= 55 544 41.69 867 25.66 2132 26.38
SRT >= 60 326 24.98 824 24.39 1837 22.73
SRT >= 65 133 10.19 732 21.66 2056 25.44
Укупно[km]: 1305 100.00 3379 100.00 8083 100.00 12767
Табела 1. Стање путне мреже за различите рангове пута
5. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
Услед развоја привреде у Србији (мерено према порасту БДП-а од 5,6% у 2006.,
7,1% у 2007. и 5,6% у 2008. години [1]) интензитет саобраћаја значајно се увећао.
То jе довело до интензивнијег пораста нивоа буке, нарочито у близини аутопутева.
Саобраћајна бука је, отуда, најраспрострањенији извор буке у животној средини.
Више од 60% градског становништва у Србији изложено је нивоима саобраћајне
буке за које се сматра да озбиљно угрожавају квалитет живота. Приближно 25%
становништва изложено је толиким нивоима буке да је дошло до појаве
негативних последица по здравље, што је и потврђено од стране Института за
хигијену и медицинску екологију из Београда.
Мерења нивоа буке обављају се у Београду од 70-их година прошлог века.
Извршена мерења (Дирекција за грађевинско земљиште и изградњу Београда,
2003.) показала су да је више од 1.500.000 становника у Београду, 100.000 у
Крагујевцу и 25.000 у Параћину изложено превисоким нивоима буке [2].
Услед повећања саобраћаја узрокованог развојем привреде, за очекивати је да ће
ове бројке у блиској будућности бити још више. Негативне аспекте утицаја
транспортне инфраструктуре на животну средину неопходно је смањити, како би
нивои буке били испод дозвољених, а да би се то постигло, неопходно је да се
спроведе низ координираних поступака, почевши од саме регулативе.
1
Владан Илић, мастер инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља
Александра 73, Београд, Србија, e-mail: vilic@grf.bg.ac.rs
2
Марко Орешковић, мастер инж.грађ., Универзитет у Београду, Грађевински факултет, Булевар краља
Александра 73, Београд, Србија, e-mail: moreskovic@grf.bg.ac.rs
2. ЕУ ДИРЕКТИВА
Законска основа која се код нас примењује, а којом се уређују: субјекти заштите
животне средине од буке, дозвољени нивои буке у средини у којој човек борави,
методе мерења буке, мере и услови заштите од буке, акустичко зонирање, приступ
информацијама о буци, надзор и друга питања од значаја за заштиту животне
средине и здравље људи, обухвата:
- Закон о заштити од буке у животној средини (Сл. гласник РС 36/2009 и
88/2010);
- Правилник о дозвољеном нивоу буке у животној средини (Сл. гласник
РС 54/1992);
- Акустичко зонирање простора (СРПС U.J6.205:2007);
- Опис и мерење буке животне средине (СРПС ISO 1996-1,2:2010).
Све до усвајања Закона о заштити од буке у животној средини, у Србији није било
активности везаних за успостављање информационог система о буци, који би
обухватио све аспекте од планирања, преко развоја до реализације система за
редукцију саобраћајне буке. Према овом закону Агенција за заштиту животне
средине има одређене надлежности у његовом спровођењу, које се односе на:
- израду стратешких карата буке на територији Републике Србије и
- вођење и ажурирање базе података из мониторинга буке у информационом
систему животне средине.
4. МОНИТОРИНГ БУКЕ
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently designed road A1e Gradsko-Prilep will be very frequent road as it will serve as
a communication route between municipalities in Central and South-West Macedonia
and Skopje. This road is also an appropriate East-West corridor in R. Macedonia.
Regarding its frequency and direction, it is classified as a trunk road for vehicular
circulation only, with speed of 100 km/h. Its length is about 53 km.
The route road corridor is characterized with various topographic features. Most specific
is the section from the River Raec to the road interchange Drenovo, in length of 9 km,
which varies from hill to mountain height. Distinctive areas are canyons of Fariska and
Drenovska rivers, where the road mainly follows the bed of River Raec. The
configuration of a ground in canyons, proximity of the river and the proposed speed
1
BSc. C. E., Prostor АD, Mosa Pijade 2, Kumanovo, R. Macedonia, phone: +389 31 475 515,
riste.ristov@prostor.mk
2
BSc. C. E., University "Ss. Cyril and Methodius", Faculty of Civil Engineering, Partizanski odredi 24,
Skopje, R. Macedonia, phone: +389 2 3116 066, papic@gf.ukim.edu.mk
3
BSc. C. E., ditto, zafirovski@gf.ukim.edu.mk
4
BSc. C. E., ditto, ognjenovic@gf.ukim.edu.mk
2. ROAD SECTION
For a section of the road elements of horizontal and vertical solution for design speed of
100 km/h were applied. During the route location it was taken into account that the
horizontal and vertical solutions are adapted to the basic design rules and conditions of
the ground, even though the canyons of Drenovska and Fariska rivers are very hard to
meet those principles. Additional obstacle while determining the final route of the
expressway was the demand that the newly designed route and the route of existing
regional road P-106 shall not intersect, in order to maintain the existing road as a
parallel. These intersection points also affect the determination of a grade line.
Poor ground configuration, nearby location of the Raec river bed, and the location of P-
106 do not allow opportunity for greater application of other values of elements of
horizontal solution in order to enlarge or reduce the directions to their allowable limits.
Namely, if other elements of horizontal solution are applied - i.e., relocation of points to
meet requirement - the centre road line would be radically changed, thus demanding new
structures to be built in some places, enlargement of planned structures and extended
earthworks [1].
Such limiting elements require larger number of structures. At some parts of the route,
especially in canyons where the clearance is wider, guardrails of the New Jersey type are
installed in order to separate roadway lanes.
Walls of 1.5 m are placed near the gutter to protect the roadway from rockfalls in a case
of cuts higher than 5 m.
Type 3 - systematic anchoring of fractured blocks and protection of slopes with passive
SN anchors;
Type 4 - systematic protection of slopes with passive SN anchors and placing of
reinforcement net;
Type 5 - anchoring of potentially unstable zones in combination with sprayed concrete,
reinforcement net and SN anchors [3].
Starting from km 0+706.06 to km 1+311.26, namely in the area of Fariska River canyon,
there is a need to build several bridge and half-bridge structures. Because of the unique
ground conditions, all of the structures mentioned above are attached one to another
representing a single complex, so they are analyzed at once [4].
4.3. Tunnel
The tunnel is planned with two openings, since this part of the road has the wider
clearance. According to the construction of tunnel openings, it is necessary to provide at
least 8m spacing between them [5].
4.4. Gallery
The expressway route cuts across the ground forming slope higher than 45 m. A study
was conducted concerning the risk assessment for that slope including analysis of a free
fall of a stone with weight of 0.1 kg. The study elaborates several scenarios for
protection from a rockfall [6].
5. CONCLUSIONS
During the route location process, several approaches for finding the most appropriate
position and shape of the road were conducted, i.e., the spatial line comprised of separate
and mutually connected and completely defined elements was determined and defined.
The one with the smallest costs of construction, maintenance and exploitation was
adopted as the most favourable route. Adaptation of the route to the ground
configuration in situation and longitudinal section decreases the construction costs.
Regarding the exploitation, larger radius and smaller longitudinal inclinations are more
favourable, although the construction costs are larger. When selecting the design
elements, attention was paid to the significance of the road, traffic load, structure of
vehicles and ground configuration.
Since this trunk road is planned for a larger traffic density, inclinations of the grade line
have to be smaller, because the bigger inclinations would lead to a slower traffic flow.
However, decrease of inclinations of the grade line for unfavourable terrains would
extend the length of a route and increase the size of the structures. Planned structures are
analyzed for their cost-effectiveness, after which their adequacy was confirmed.
REFERENCES
[1] Base design for route Prilep-Gradsko, section r. Raec – DI Drenovo, Civil
Engineering part (route), Book No.3, 2013.
[2] Rulebook for technical elements for building and re-construction of public roads and
structures at roads, Ministry of transport and communications of R. Macedonia,
2009.
[3] Base design for route Prilep-Gradsko, section r. Raec – DI Drenovo, Geotechnical
Elaborate, Book No.2, 2013.
[4] Base design for route Prilep-Gradsko, section r. Raec – DI Drenovo, RC bridge
structures, Book No.9, 2013.
[5] Base design for route Prilep-Gradsko, section r. Raec – DI Drenovo, Tunnel at
km 0+630.00, Book No.10, 2013.
[6] Base design for route Prilep-Gradsko, section r. Raec – DI Drenovo, RC gallery,
Book No.11, 2013.
1. УВОД
а) б) ц) д)
Слика 1. Различити типови оштећења бетонских коловоза
Figure 1. Distress types of concrete pavements
Рехабилитација коловоза може бити успешна и економски ефикасна познавајући
специфичности различитих оштећења, механизма насталих појава и њихових
узрока, на основу адекватних података теренских испитивања. У случају
армираних и неармираних бетонских коловоза рехабилитација значи структурално
и функционално побољшање у циљу значајног продужења експлоатационог века
коловоза, при побољшању квалитета конструкције, а и квалитета удобности
вожње. Састоји се од различитих метода санације: наношења нових слојева
(везаних или невезаних) или евентуално од реконструкције коловоза, у функцији
степена оштећења или дотрајалости. (Слика.2)
3.2 km
8.0 km
1.4 km
6.1 km
Легенда:
Бетонска коловозна конструкција
Асфалтна коловозна конструкција
Слика 6. Ситуациони приказ пројектоване деонице Сремски Карловци -
Инђија са дужинама бетонског коловоза
Figure 6. Road plan of projected section Srem Karlovci - Indjija with the length of
concrete pavement
redni
Sila l u LT ocena prenosa
broj
(kN) (10-3mm) (10-3mm) (%) opterećenja
spojnice
1 69.47 345 99 28.69 loš
2 70.26 333 180 54.05 osrednji
3 66.94 447 146 32.66 loš
4 69.70 778 131 16.84 loš
5 69.84 362 146 40.33 loš
6 70.18 394 127 32.22 loš
7 69.82 529 196 37.05 loš
8 69.94 314 111 35.35 loš
9 70.57 246 63 25.61 loš
10 69.89 215 118 54.88 osrednji
11 69.93 221 51 23.07 loš
12 69.87 331 197 59.51 osrednji
13 69.75 259 77 29.73 loš
14 69.89 296 71 23.99 loš
15 69.96 255 55 21.56 loš
16 69.41 289 84 29.06 loš
17 69.77 256 97 37.89 loš
18 70.00 330 132 40.00 loš
19 70.05 360 145 40.28 loš
20 70.23 339 108 31.85 loš
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Значајан део путне мреже у Републици Србијије je дотрајао и захтева неку врсту
интервенције. Нису ретке деонице (поготово у Војводини) где је коловозна
конструкција од бетона. Санација ових деоница је могућа још извесно време, али
је реконструкција неизбежна. Метода резонантног разбијања је веома ефикасна
при рехабилитацији бетонских коловоза, која је примењена у Србији са одличним
резултатима и доказана је још једном ефикасна примена (барем 3 пута бржa од
ломљења “гиљотином”), као и економска оправданост овог начина претварања
старих бетонских коловоза у подлогу нових.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
Задњих 20г у Србији је уочена веома лоша пракса, када су у питању обим и врста
инжењерскогеолошких и геотехничких истраживања за потребе пројектовања и
изградње грађевинских објеката. Пре свега због релативно високе цене ових
радова, Инвеститори их избегавају или изводе у минималном обиму. Иако је ова
област регулисана законом о рударству и геологији (где се ,,пројектом детаљних
геолошких истраживања...,, предвиђају обим и врста истраживања) у пракси је
сасвим другачије. Наиме највећи део инвеститора се придржавају само ,,закона о
изградњи објеката,, где ова област није јасно дефинисана па самим тим и
обавезујућа. Из тог разлога било би добро да се и у закону о планирању и
изградњи прецизније дефинише ова област, уз обавезу заједничког учешћа
инжењера геотехнике, грађевинске и геолошке струке. Напомињем још једном да
циљ рада нису резултати истраживања, већ врста и обим изведених истраживања
као редак пример у пракси.
1
Јовица Шијаковић дипл.инж.геол.Геопут доо Београд
динамички (DPLT)
статички опит плочом (SPLT)
геофизичка мерења, електрична проводљивост (EC) брзина Vp и Vs таласа
топлотна проводљивост тла (TC).
На примеру једног ветрогенератора дајемо резултате тих испитивања у виду
табела, дијаграма и геотехничког модела.
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
1
Јовица Шијаковић дипл.инж.геол.Геопут доо Београд
2
Мирослав Бурзановић дипл.инж.грађ. Геопут доо Београд
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. UVOD
Usled opterećenja temelja silom izvan jezgra preseka temeljne spojnice, pojavljuju se
negativni kontaktni naponi – naponi zatezanja, koji su fizički nemogući. Ako se sila
nalazi u jezgru preseka, uz uprošćenu pretpostavku da je dijagram kontaknih napona
linearno promenljiv, intenzitet u proizvoljnoj tački se može odrediti na osnovu izraza:
i P BL 1 6e x B 6e y L i 1,2,3,4. (1)
Kada je sila izvan jegra preseka, jednačina (1) ne daje fizički korektan rezultat. Za
ovakav slučaj, u literaturi se mogu naći približni analitički i grafički (Hülsdünker 1964)
postupci za proračun maksimalnog ugaonog napona. U radu je prikazana iterativna
metoda za proračun kontaktnih napona ispod pravougaonog temelja opterećenog silom
izvan jezgra preseka, pri čemu je pretpostavljeno da je promena napona linearna.
Napadna tačka sile, kako je kasnije pokazano, može se naći u jednoj od tri
karakteristične zone, od koje zavisi položaj neutralne linije (Slika 1). Zone su sledeće:
1) Neutralna linija seče dve susedne stranice (tri ugla su pritisnuta)
1
Илија Самарџија, Студент, Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица, Козарачка
2а, Суботица, Србија, email: ilijasamardzija91@gmail.com
2
Проф др Петар Сантрач, дипл.грађ.инж., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: +381 24 554 300, email: santrac@gf.uns.ac.rs
1) 2a)
2b) 3)
Slika 1. Karakteristični slučajevi pritisnutih zona (šrafirano)
Rezultujuća sila koja deluje na temelj mora biti u ravnoteži sa reaktivnim opterećenjem
tla, odnosno mora zadovoljiti tri uslova ravnoteže (Z=0, Mx=0 i My=0). Jednačine
koje slede iz ova tri uslova glase:
p x, y dx dy P (2a)
S
p x, y x dx dy P e x (2b)
S
p x, y y dx dy P e y (2c)
S
Integracija se vrši po površini pritisnutog dela (S) temeljne spojnice. Predpostavljajući da
linearnu promenu kontaktnog napona p(x,y) u pritisnutoj zoni, važi sledeća jednačina:
p x, y a x b y C (3)
a x b y C dx dy P (4a)
S
a x b y C x dx dy P e x (4b)
S
a x b y C y dx dy P e y (4c)
S
a nC 0 bm C 0 (4d,e)
P
m
ey
n x
ex
Slika 2. Neutralna linija seče dve susedne stranice (tri ugla su pritisnuta)
Pošto se za dat položaj opterećenja, ne može unapred odrediti slučaj pritisnute zone,
polazi se od pretpostavke da je u pitanju slučaj 1), a nakon dobijenog rešenja se
proverava da li je uslov ispunjen ili ne. Na osnovu oznaka na slici 2. jednačina neutralne
linije glasi:
n x m 1 n x (5)
Na osnovu jednačine (5), granice integracije i izraz (4a) glasi:
m
L B n m x
0 0 a x b y C dy dx 0 0 n a x b y C dy dx P (6)
Na sličan način se mogu prikazati izrazi (4b) i (4c). Nakon integracije, dobija se:
B L2 B L2 mn mn mn
a b a n b m CB LC P (7a)
2 2 6 6 2
B L3 B 2 L2 m n2 m n2 m n2 B L2
a b a n b m C C P ex (7b)
3 4 12 24 6 2
B 2 L2 B3 L m2 n m2 n m2 n B2 L
a b a n b m C C P ey (7c)
4 3 24 12 6 2
a n C bm C (8a,b)
B L2 B2 L mn
a b B L C P (9a)
2 2 6
3 2 2 2
BL B L mn B L2
a b C P ex (9b)
3 4 24 2
B 2 L2 B3 L m2 n B2 L
a b C P ey (9c)
4 3 24 2
x
n
x
ey
P
m
y
Slika 3. Neutralna linija seče dve naspramne stranice (dva ugla su pritisnuta)
n y n1 y m (10)
n
B n y
0 0 m a x b y C dx dy P (11)
Na sličan način se mogu prikazati izrazi (4b) i (4c). Nakon integracije, dobija se:
B 2n C B2 6 m B 3 m2 6 m2 P (12a)
B n 2 C B 3 6 B m 2 4 m 3 4 B 2 m 24m 3 P e x (12b)
B 2 n C 3 B 2 6 m 2 8 B m 24m 2 P e y (12c)
2
B ( 2 B 2 12 B e y 12 e y 6 e y 4 B)
m (13a)
12 e y 6 B
n
4 m B2 3 B m 3 m2
ex
(13b)
B 4 B m 6 B m 4 m3
3 2 2
24 m 2 P e y
C (13c)
B2n 3 B2 6 m2 8 B m
Na osnovu izraza (4d) i (4e), mogu se odrediti nepoznate a i b, čime je rešen slučaj 2a).
Rešenje slučaja 2a), principijeno je rešen i slučaj 2b) kada neutralna linija seče vertikalne
stranice, s tim da bi treba zameniti x i y osu i voditi računa o oznakama.
ey
P
m
y
Slika 4. Neutralna linija seče dve susedne stranice (pritisnut je samo jedan ugao)
n
m n y
0 0 m a x b y C dx dy P (14)
Na sličan način se mogu prikazati izrazi (4b) i (4c). Nakon integracije, dobija se:
m n (3C b m a n) 6 P (15a)
m n 2 (4C b m 2a n) 24 P ex (15b)
m 2 n (4C 2b m a n 24 P e y (15c)
Na osnovu izraza (4d) i (4e), mogu se odrediti i nepoznate veličine a i b, čime je slučaj
3) praktično rešen.
Pre svega, da bi neutralna linija sekla presek temeljne površine napadna tačka
opterećenja treba da se bude izvan jezgra preseka. Zona u kojoj treba da se nalazi
napadna tačka rezultujućeg opterećenja kako bi neutralna linija sekla dve susedne
stranice – 1) slučaj, ograničena je krivama g1 i g2 na slici 5.
g1
B/4 B/4 B/4 B/4
2b) 3)
1) 2a)
g2
L m2 4 B m 6 B 2
x ex m 0 .. B (17a)
4 m2 3 B m 3 B2
1 m3 6 B 2 m 8 B 3
y ey m 0 .. B (17b)
4 m2 3 B m 3 B 2
1 n 3 6 L2 n 8 L3
x ex n 0 .. L (18a)
4 n 2 3 L n 3 L2
B n 2 4 L n 6 L2
y ey n 0 .. L (18b)
4 n 2 3 L n 3 L2
kvadratnim polinomom koji se može dobiti na osnovu poznatih nagiba krive u graničnim
uslovima i/ili poznatih tačaka. Pomoću ove funkcije se može odrediti zona u kojoj je
napadna tačka opterećenja i izabrati odgovarajuća jednačina za slučaj 1), 2) ili 3). Ako je
napadna tačka na granici dve zone, mogu se ravnopravno koristiti obe jednačine.
Da bi se odredila oblast napadne tačke opterećenja za koju neutralna linija seče dve
susedne strane temelja, slučaj 1), postavlja se sledeći uslov:
ex L 4 ey B 4 (20a,b)
Ovim je definisana pravougaona oblast u uglu temelja dimenzija B/4 i L/4, u kojoj treba
da je napadna tačka opterećenja da bi neutralna linija sekla dve susedne strane – 3)
slučaj.
Na osnovu dobijenog dijagrama kontaktnih napona, uvodeći modul reakcije tla (k), može
se izračunati sleganje i obrtanje krutog temelja oko težišnih osa. Na osnovu definicije
modula reakcije tla, sleganje kontaktne površine krutog temelja iznosi:
5. ZAKLJUČAK
LITERATURA
[1] Irles, R., Irles F.: Explicit stresses under rectangular footings. Journal of
geotechnical engineering, 1994., Vol. 120.2: Page 444-450.
[2] Wilson, K. E.: Bearing pressures for rectangular footings with biaxial uplift. Journal
of Bridge Engineering, 1997., Vol. 2.1: Page 27-33.
[3] Hülsdünker, A.: Maximale Bodenpressung unter rechteckigen Fundamenten bei
Belastung mit Momentenin beiden Achsrichtungen. Bautechnik 41, 1964., Vol.
8/269.
[4] Nonveiller, E.: Mehanika tla i temeljenje građevina, Školska knjiga, 1990.
1. UVOD
1.1. POSTOJEĆA ŽELJEZNIČKA MREŽA U CRNOJ GORI
Postojeću željezničku mrežu u Crnoj Gori čine jednokolosječne pruge normalne širine.
Glavne dionice ove mreže su:
Vrbnica-Bar, dio pruge Beograd – Bar koji prolazi kroz Crnu Goru,
Podgorica – Tuzi – državna granica (dio pruge Podgorica-Skadar),
Podgorica – Nikšić.
Ukupna dužina pruga iznosi 249,3km, a zajedno sa staničnim kolosjecima dužina je
335,46km. Pruga Vrbnica-Bar u cijelosti je elektrificirana monofaznim sistemom 25 kV
1
Prof.dr Miloš Knežević, dipl.inž.građ. Univerzitet Crne Gore, Građevinski fakultet Podgorica, Džordža
Vašingtona bb, Podgorica, Crna Gora, e-mail: knezevicmilos@yahoo.com
2
Prof.dr Živojin Praščević, dipl.inž.građ. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Građevinski fakultet Beograd, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, Beograd, Srbija, e-mail: zika@grf.bg.ac.rs
3
Doc.dr Snežana Rutešić, dipl.inž.građ. Univerzitet Crne Gore, Građevinski fakultet Podgorica, Džordža
Vašingtona bb, Podgorica, Crna Gora, e-mail: snezana.r@ac.me
4
Mr Vlatko Radović, dipl.inž.građ. Univerzitet Crne Gore, Građevinski fakultet Podgorica, Džordža
Vašingtona bb, Podgorica, Crna Gora, tel: +382 67 500 301, e-mail: vlatko.r@ac.me
5
Mr Mladen Gogić, dipl.inž.građ. Univerzitet Crne Gore, Građevinski fakultet Podgorica, Džordža Vašingtona
bb, Podgorica, Crna Gora, tel: +382 67 832 192, e-mail: mladjogogic@yahoo.com
50Hz, kao i pruga Nikšić – Podgorica. Pruga Podgorica – Tuzi – državna granica nije
elektrificirana. Sve pruge su kategorisane kao pruge D4 (najveće dopušteno opterećenje
22,5 t/osovini ili 8 t/m'). Projektovane brzine, uslovljene minimalnim radijusom krivine i
maksimalnim nagibom nivelete, kreću se od 50-80 km/h na pruzi Vrbnica - Bar, 70 km/h
na pruzi Podgorica-Skadar i 60 km/h na pruzi Nikšić-Podgorica [1].
Trase pruga na željezničkoj mreži obiluju velikim brojem vještačkih objekata (120
mostova, 121 tunel, 441 propust). Željeznička mreža obuhvata veliki broj staničnih i
poslovnih objekata. Industrijskim kolosjecima u Baru, Podgorici, Spužu, Danilovgradu,
Kruševu i Bijelom Polju, povezani su na željezničku mrežu značajni privredni subjekti.
Prostorni plan Crne Gore, koji je usvojen 2008. godine, definiše opšte ciljeve prostornog
i društvenog razvoja države za period do 2020. godine. U dijelu specifičnih principa i
ciljeva Prostornog plana po sektorima, u prostornom konceptu saobraćajne
infrastrukture, posebno željezničke mreže, kao jedan od ciljeva predlažu se koridori
sekundarne mreže:
- Pljevlja – Bijelo Polje i
- Bijelo Polje – Berane – Kosovo (Peć).
U pomenutom dokumentu posebno su razmatrane mogućnosti razvoja Sjevernog regiona
Crne Gore. Pljevlja su prepoznata kao grad koji treba da postane rudarski i industrijski
centar regiona, pa je izgradnja pruga prema Bijelom Polju i Žabljaku, odnosno Nikšiću
od posebne važnosti u njegovom daljem razvoju. Strateški gledano, ovim prugama bi se
obezbijedili i uslovi za unapređenje saobraćajnih veza sa zemljama regiona.
Projektnim zadatakom za idejno rješenje je predviđeno da “predmetna pruga treba da se
rangira kao magistralna za međunarodni mješoviti saobraćaj i da ispuni uslove u skladu
sa međunarodnim dogovorima”. Usvojeno idejno rješenje trase novopredviđene pruge
treba da predstavlja optimalno rješenje dobijeno u nizu iterativnih koraka, što
podrazumijeva da je neophodno primjeniti multidisiplinarni pristup u ocjeni i usvajanju
varijante trase. Projektni zadatak zahtijeva da se izradi najmanje pet idejnih rješenja trase
kao osnova za multikriterijumsko vrednovanje i izbor koridora nove pruge. U idejnom
rješenju treba razmotriti potrebu uvođenja intermodalnog transporta [2].
Slika 1.2. Pregledna karta trase razmatrane dionice (Projektni zadatak– ŽICG AD-
Podgorica)
Zadatak vrednovanja varijantnih rješenja i izbora varijante trase nove željezničke pruge
Pljevlja – Bijelo Polje (Ravna rijeka) – Berane – Granica sa Kosovom (u daljem tekstu
Analiza) je da se na osnovu raspoložive planske, tehničke i druge dokumentacije i
odgovarajućih ekspertskih ocjena, kao i ranije izvršenih ocjena i analiza, izvrši
povezivanja ove zone sa željeznicom. Stanični plato je lociran odmah poslije izlaska
trase iz Tivranske klisure na stacionaži 33+650 i na koti 697m. Druga lokacija je na
suprotnoj strani grada u podnožju brda Kalenica na stacionaži 29+650 i na koti 740m.
4. POSTUPAK VREDNOVANJA
5. REZULTATI VREDNOVANJA
se nije mogao dati tabelarno, već su u nastavku dati samo konačni rezultati vrednovanja
po različitim metodama i izabrane varijante
5.1. RANGIRANJE PREMA SAW METODI
Metoda SAW kao najbolje varijante dionice 1 daje varijantu V1.7 Pljevlja – Bijelo Polje
i dionice 2 varijante V2.3 i V2.5. Ravna Rijeka – Kosovo.
6. ZAKLJUČAK
Za dionicu 1 varijanta V 1.7 Pljevlja – Bijelo Polje ima prednost u odnosu na sve ostale
varijante i po metodi SAW i po metodi VIKOR, MONTE CARLO TOPSIS metodi,
TOPSIS metodi sa trouglastim fuzzy brojevima i AHP metodi.
Za dionicu 2 metode predlažu skup rješenja, varijantu V 2.2, varijantu V 2.3 i varijantu
V 2.5 sa različitim rangiranjem u zavisnosti od scenarija. Varijanta V 2.5, iako se javlja
kao jedno od mogućih rješenja, ne prolazi pored aerodroma Berane i buduće trase
autoputa, što pruža idealne mogućnosti za izgradnju intermodalnog terminala
povezivanjem tri transportna sistema (vazdušni, drumski i željeznički), tako da je
predlog da se isključi iz dalje analize. Predlaže se da se u narednoj fazi projektovanja
pod istim uslovima tretiraju predložene varijante:
Za dionicu 1
- Varijanta V 1.7 Pljevlja – Bijelo Polje;
Za dionicu 2
- Varijanta V 2.2 Ravna Rijeka – Kosovo i
- Varijanta V 2.3 Ravna Rijeka – Kosovo.
LITERATURA
1. УВОД
1
Доц. др Мирослав Кубурић, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет
Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: mkuburic@gf.uns.ac.rs
2. ДЕФИНИСАЊЕ ПРОБЛЕМА
Иако данас постоји велики број пројеката који у свом исходишту у функционаном
или логичком смислу имају имплементирану ГИС логику или технологију, број
успешних покушаја због своје реткости по правилу се сматра пословним успехом.
Геоинформациони системи (ГИС) су на свом развојном путу претрпели извесну
штету као последицу своје популарности и потребе различитих аутора да све
информационе системе који имају било какву везу са просторним подацима, или
бар немају везу ни са једним од оних из познате номенклатуре, сврстају у ГИС.
Често је та злоупотреба представљала и непремостиву препреку у започињању и
имплементацији квалитетних пројектних решења.
Једна од класичних грешака која за последицу има неславну судбину великог броја
ГИС пројеката је и жеља инвеститора за свеобухватним системом, који у једној
генерацији има за циљ да премости јаз између потпуног одсуства систематског
приступа управљању просторним подацима па све до жеље за интегралним,
функционалним газдовањем на бази свих расположивих просторних информација.
Скоро по правилу информатичка компонента (хардвер) у данашњем времену не
представљаја ограничење система.
Такође и имплементација неких од комерцијално доступних ГИС апликација
најчешће задовољава и најзахтевније кориснике. У исто време генерисање,
моделирање, обрада, коришћење, презентација и дистрибуција просторних
података чине компоненту ГИС-а која најчешће опредељује судбину успешности
корићења система.
Развој геодетских метода и инструмената за прикупљање просторних података у
данашњем времену стварају предуслове успешног коришћења просторних
информација.
Даљинска детекција, аерофотограметрија, алтиметрија, системи перманентног
праћења, ласерски скенери а у новије време и MMS уз софтверске алате за
аутоматску обраду и анализу података могу да одговоре потребама најзахтевнијих
корисника којима просторне информације требају готово у реалном времену.
Дакле употреба ефикасног система за прикупљање просторних података какав је
MMS омогућава широк спектар примене за потребе:
Картирања елемената уличне инфраструктуре (хоризонтална и вертикална
сигнализација, ивичњаци, стубови, лампе, комплетне надземне
инфраструктуре);
Прикупљања података о фасадама објеката;
Визуелизације планских докумената;
Пружање економичне основе за израду SWOT анализа;
Аквизицију података за пуњење просторних база података;
Интегрисања постојећих просторних подлога са MMS снимцима и
упоређивања старог стања са постојећим;
Прикупљања интегралних просторних информација зоне путног појаса;
Картирања водених путева;
Картирања жалезнице;
5.2. Подаци
Као што је предходно речено основну групу коришћених података чинили су
просторни подаци и то: скенирани и геореференцирани катастарски планови,
подаци дигиталног катастарског плана, дигиталне ортофото подлоге као и
расположиве топографске подлоге. Основни задатак припреме просторних
информација се састојао у томе да је исте требало из различитих извора прикупити
и превести у јединствен координатни систем, те омогућити њихову међусобну
интеграцију. Подаци добијени коришћењем MMS-а коришћени су као просторна
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Dr. Rongxing, L. ,“Mobile Mapping - An Emerging Technology For Spatial Data
Acquisition“, Ohio: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
Geodetic Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 2000.
[2] GEODIS BRNO. IP-S2 TOPCON Technical Documentation.
[3] Karel, S., & Sukup, J.,“ OPTIONS FOR USING IP-S2 TOPCON FOR MOBILE
MAPPING NEEDS“,3rd ISDE DIGITAL EARTH SUMMIT, Nessebar, 2010
[4] Tao, C. V.,“ Mobile Mapping Technology for Road Network Data Acquisition“,
Tokyo, Japan: Department of Geomatics Engineering,Department of Geomatics
Engineering,Canada, 1998.
[5] Миладиновић, М., & Михајловић, Р.,:“ ГЕОДЕЗИЈА У ПЛАНИРАЊУ И
УРЕДЈЕЊУ ПРОСТОРА И НАСЕЉ“,. Београд, Универзитет у Београд,
Грађевински факултет, Катедра за геодезију и геоинформатику,2006.
[6] URL 1: http://www.topconpositioning.com/products/mobile-mapping/ip-s2
[7] URL 2: http://www.geodis.cz/services/mobile-mapping
1. INTRODUCTION
Geographic maps exist for many centuries in the same or less the same, the classical
(analogical) form. Such, they have many drawbacks. Firstly, they represent a “frozen”
data state, and therefore are unsuitable for wider usage and expensive for maintenance.
At the same time, during the usage of those maps is almost impossible to transform from
one coordinate system or projection into another, from one scale to other, or to change
any content on the map. Third, geographic maps exist as separate sheets, which
complicates their conjunction and usage, especially at the corners, where are mutually
interrelated. Namely, geographic maps represent cartographic images overviews,
allowing simple browsing but not more efficient analysis and changing spatial data that
refers to (Robinson et al., 1995).
1
The Faculty of Technical Sciences - University of Novi Sad, Square of Dositej Obradović 6, Novi Sad, Serbia
2
The Faculty of Civil Engineering - University of Novi Sad, Kozaračka 2a, Subotica, Serbia
The main problem of this paper is just on the effects of new technologies and its impact
on dynamics and content of cartographic representations. One of the most important
requirements for successful and efficient usage of cartographic information and,
generally, geospatial information distribution, is just their digital form availability.
However, the more current and interesting global information system is called the World
Wide Web (web). This system uses standard techniques and procedures, which
substantially facilitates access to end users. It also allows anyone with network access to
represent own data to others or to easily access geodata that someone else creates and
delivers.
Through the development of cartography and science and technology in general, there
was a constant need for foreseeing and describing near by and further geospatial
environment. At the beginning, there were only simple sketches and drawings that
reflected the spatial reality, as they were experienced by the individuals themselves and
drawers.
Exemplars were drawn by freehand and on a solid material (stone, slab, paper). Later,
with the development of science, geodesy and cartography in particular, there were the
first scientifically-based approaches and techniques of cartographic representation of
state territory. Therefore, those were the first geographic and topographic maps that
appeared and were rare specimens at the beginning, too. However, with the advent of
reproductive technology and the press, there was a duplication possibility in large
number of copies. This was the era of classical (analogical) cartography and it had had
the longest history, but also the least effectiveness in the production and usage of
geographic maps. Namely, geospatial data frame is contained mainly in cartographic
materials and geographical maps. There are some different levels of data and it depends
of scale and data content which are required for specific consideration levels, analisys i
decision making. In our national cartography is common information pyramid, or
standard spatial cartographic representations levels which are published and looks like it
is shown in Figure 1.
However, at the end of the last century there were great technological innovations and
those changes had a significant influence on the further development and status of
cartography. Novelties are primarily reflected in the methods of collection, visualization
and distribution of geospatial data. Namely, cartographic activity has a new assignment
to create amount of digital data regarding facilities and conditions at the Earth's surface
and the shape of its relief, and that this information is maintained and make available to
interested users. This is the era of digital cartography. One way to understand the
technological and chronological order of all the previous changes in cartography, is
shown in Figure 2, where could be seen three major epochs and two transitional periods.
Thus, the first fundamental transition in cartography relates to the transition from analog
to digital cartography. It was occurred in our cartography in 1995., when the first digital
geographical map at scale 1:1000 000 (DGM1000) was made in Military Geographical
Institute, Belgrade (Figure 2).
With the advent of digital cartography and technology, there has been a desire and a
constant challenge of finding and applying new methods and techniques of rapid sending
and faster delivering with the diverse content as much as possible. Nowadays this
challenge is still ongoing, but with a different approach and technologies that
substantially are altering the basic concept and philosophy of cartography. Specifically,
it reduces the subjectivity and participation of experts for the final mapping product, and
increasingly affecting the computer technology and created software solutions. Recently,
a new system for distributing and visualizing geospatial reality is developing web
cartography as a service system for producing cartographic representations (Figure 2).
It is a modern web service surroundings used for representation and distribution of
geospatial data. Distributable because the files that are invoked do not have to be on the
same server where is located the file from which is being invoked. Transfer to new
technology is the second transition in cartography and it is transfer from digital to web
cartography.
Digital geographical maps can be represented in two ways: as raster and vector data.
With distinction to vector maps, where graphic representation is consist of points, lines
and mathematical curves which are very flexible for shape changing without loosing its
quality, raster or scanned maps are based on pixels and have fixed content and
resolution. They are limited with capacity and can have good representation usually
when raster type obtained by geographic maps scanning or with formation of raster files
using tools for processing cartographic materials. In the other words, scanned maps have
the best appearance if represented or printed with original size.
Those are maps where there is no possibility of obtaining additional information and
content cannot be changed, but only for viewing. The amount and content of data which
are represented on conventional geographic maps primarily depends on the chosen scale.
However, scanned maps are one of the most dominant cartographic representations on
the web. Especially are interesting those geographic maps which are old and unavailable,
but using this principle become available to many users. Moreover, it can be applied two
representation methods. Firstly, during the static continuous zooming cartographic
representation is linearly increased, but the content remains the same (Figure 3).
Secondly, during the static discretized (gradual) zooming process there is available a
series of maps of the same area, but each designed for different scales (Figure 4).
When zooming in, software automatically selects the most appropriate map for the
required scale. Thereat, this option is widely used either for displaying the multi-layer
data structure, or for displaying the content according to scale, where static
representation and a raster format is basis. Therefore, this kind of static representation
defines the possibility of a pyramid representation of cartographic data and content
which is preliminary cartographically generalized and shaped.
Therefore, during a dynamic zooming process there is adjusted relationship between the
mapping scale and map content. The larger scale, the more details will appear on a map
and vice versa. Particularly, a direct link between representation and database is
necessary. Also, vector data can be selected, moved, modified and cartographically
processed without loosing quality. Dynamic purview represents content changing
derivation of one or more map thematic layers which represent generalized content
according to certain automated procedures, apropos express cartographic representation
in accordance with a scale and purpose of visualisation.
Also, new cartographic visualisations become multimedia, where maps, images, text, etc
(Figure 6). It can be structured and descripted by some of meta languages (Unified
Modeling Language - UML, eXtensible Markup Language - XML, Geography Markup
Language - GML).
In cartographic animation of the same area but with the change of attributes, according
to the given parameters (for example, changing a density of the population or growing in
some period of history) is obtained new representation at the same location (Figure 8). In
this type of animation, the spatial component is fixed, while changing attributes
(Cartwright, 2007). Namely, data cartographic representation animation takes place
through selection processes, filtering, generalizing and data visualization in a specific
geospatial environment or to a selected object system.
Likewise, animation can be achieved by using video and changing the position and
movement in space. With this type of animation, attribute and time are fixed, and
position changes are achieved by video motion (Cartwright et al., 2007). Apllaying of
some software (ArcGIS-ArcScene), it can be linked of many pictures in very short
interval time, and in this way we can get effect of movement in space. Here are
interactivity obtained through possibility to stop at a particular video sequence, reversing
or switching reversals ahead against to the current sequence. Many of created animations
give a free choice movement through an open virtual world, or approaching, rambling, as
example of moving to Avala tower (Figure 9).
It is obvious that animations are trend in cartography, which allow user changing a
content, symbology, or what is especially important degree of detail and movement
through space and time. Cartographic animations are, moreover, more meaningful and
more dynamic than interactive cartographic representations. For example, weather maps
change every few hours. Also, map user is no longer limited to only one “view” that
offers a classic example, but it can be tried a variety of alternative representations which
may create a better environment purview, state and a process. Thus cartographic data
more efficiently are routed to as many interested people.
Web cartography and web maps have characteristics that make them different from print
maps or other on-screen maps. Further to many maps, a web map is a map and related
content presented in an online environment with an appropriate interface and optional
functionality for queries and reports. Also, a web mapping application refers to both the
script that is created to define the interface and the elements and functions provided
through the interface. Since the web environment is well suited for interaction, more
information can be immediately shared using mouse-overs, tooltips, information boxes,
labels and hyperlink (Buckley, 2012).
The map can be linked to databases that report attribute information, display images,
play sounds when users clic related map features or perform analyses by accessing
geoprocessing functionality. Web maps can also be portals for downloading or uploading
content. Users expect current data and sometimes continuously updated data. They also
expect interactive maps that support zooming at a minimum but also potentially support
query, analysis and customization. For larger scale maps, users expect detail and realism.
It can see on the site www.geosrbija.rs. They may even expect the data used to make the
map to be downloadable and free. As with print maps, data should be complete,
consistent and authoritative.
Modern society requires high quality geospatial data for optimal resource management,
efficient determination of adequate solutions and continuous development. Spatial data
today represents a key element in decision making processes, for optimal resource
management, data exchange and communication and sustainable development.
Development of technology contributed in making geoinformation compulsory elements
of a modern society. This technology will only reach its full potential when governments
decide to maximize access to geospatial information through spatial data infrastructure
(SDI). Geospatial information unified within a common infrastructure provides a
multitude of possibilities for upgrading public services, while disabling data duplication
and data inconsistency.
Directive’s purposes is definition of the basic regulations aimed at implementing spatial
information infrastructure in the European Union (INSPIRE), for the purposes of
Union’s ecological policies and policies that may affect the environment (Figure 10).
The INSPIRE directive is aimed at implementing infrastructure for European spatial
information, offering an integrated spatial information service to final users. This service
should enable users to identify and access spatial or geographic information from a
variety of sources, from local to global level, in an inter-functional manner used by a
myriad of clients. The aim is to make relevant quality geospatial data accessible, making
a basis for gradual implementation of a harmonized spatial data structure, aimed at
formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation during decision making
processes on EU level, from a territorial influence aspect. The INSPIRE is an interesting
model for developing not only a technological infrastructure, but also shared practices
and working methods, through collaboration and partnership. Geospatial data
infrastructure should be established with respect of following INSPIRE principles
(www.geosrbija.rs):
- Data should be gathered once (from single source) and maintained at level where
this can be done most effectively;
- Combination of seamless spatial data from different European sources should be
enabled, distributed between users and applications;
- Information should be gathered at one level of government and shared between
all levels;
- Spatial data necessary for efficient administration should not be made available
only if their mass use is limited;
- It is necessary to enable easy access to available spatial data, assessment of
whether they are appropriate for use and goal achievement, together with
facilitating conditions for their acquisition and further use;
- Geospatial data should be simple to understand and interpret since they will be
combined in an appropriate manner, allowing visualization in certain contexts,
adjusted to suit the users.
Republic Geodetic Authority has started initial activity to establish SDI in Serbia in
compliance with the European initiatives and trends. Also, National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI) represents an integrated geospatial data system, enabling users to
identify and access spatial information acquired from different sources, from local, via
national to global level, in a comprehensive manner. Aim of the strategy is to establish
an infrastructure, providing support to a high-quality and stable environmental
development, coupled with economic growth, through efficient services, fulfilling the
needs and demands of the public and private sectors, as well as citizens at large. The
strategy presents a framework within which detailed policies can develop to ensure wide
use of geoinformation to avoid duplicated effort and reduce administrative burden
(www.geosrbija.rs).
5. CONCLUSION
Today, many geospatial data sets are increasingly available to a wider audience, and
cartographic representations become more dynamic and can be changed at the user's
request. For these reasons, it is essential to understand and accept new processes and
concepts in cartography, apropos, interactive, dynamic, multimedia and animation
images in cartography, which include:
- Static and dynamic interactive cartographic representations;
- Visualisations of cartographic data in accordance with the user’s
requirements; and
- Cartographic animations, apropos different criterions of practice
visualisations.
REFERENCES
[1] Borisov, M. (2010): Problems of the Scale and Building of Topographical Data
Infrastructure, Pregledni znanstveni članak, Geodetski list, br. 2, str. 109-116.,
Zagreb, Croatia.
[2] Borisov, M., Trifković, M., Nestorović, Ž., Marinković, G., Pejičić, G. (2012):
Creating the digital key of topographic-cartographic symbols in ArcGIS and web
map server environments, Original scientific article, TTEM, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 1575-
1579., Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
[3] Buckley, A. (2012): Designing Great Web Maps, Esri Mapping Center Lead,
Redlands, USA.
[4] Cartwright, W., Peterson, M., Gartner, G. (2007): Multimedia Cartography, Second
edition, Berlin, Germany.
[5] ESRI (2010): ArcGIS, User Guide, Redlands, USA.
[6] Frangeš, S., Frančula, N., Lapaine, M. (2002): Budućnost kartografije, Kartografija i
geoinformacije, Časopis Hrvatskoga kartografskog društva, , str. 7-19., Zagreb,
Croatia.
[7] ISO/TC (2009): Standards Guide ISO/TC 211 Geographic.
[8] Javno urbanističko preduzeće/Urbanistički zavod Beograd (2008): Beograd u
mapama i planovima od XVIII do XXI veka, Monografija, Beograd, Srbija.
[9] Robinson, A., Morrison, J., Muehrcke P., Kimerling J., Guptill S. (1995): Elements
of Cartography, USA.
[10] Vojnogeografski institut /VGI (2010): Informator o kartografskim publikacijama br.
11, Beograd, Srbija.
[11] VGI: Preglednotopografska karta, 1:300 000, List Beograd, Beograd, Srbija.
[12] VGI: Saobraćajna karta i Preglednotopografska karta, 1:500 000, List Beograd,
Beograd., Srbija.
http: //www.vgi.mod.gov.rs/proizvodi/digitalni/dogk1000/dogk1000.html
http: //www.vgi.mod.gov.rs
http: //www.geosrbija.rs
1. УВОД
1
Доц. др Мирослав Кубурић, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет
Суботица, Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: mkuburic@gf.uns.ac.rs
2.1. Геоделта
Софтверско решење “Геоделта” оригинално је развијано од стране аутора, а у
функционалном смислу злужи за обраду мерних података прикупљених
аутоматском регистрацијом тоталним станицама. Функционалност самог софтвера
је замишљена тако да се кориснику обезбеди потпуна аутоматизација од трансфера
2.2. Геоскица
Геоскица је апликативно решење прилагођено концепту масовног прикупљања
теренских геодетских података у дигиталном облику и стандардизованом формату.
Апликација је развијена у софтверу Eclipse, а развојно окружење је Java. Као
хардверска основа користе се таблет рачунари са Андроид оперативним системом.
Прикупљање теренских података у досадашњој пракси је поступак који се радио
на папирној подлози која представља основу за канцеларијску обраду података.
Искуство је показало, да време потребно за прикупљање теренских података на
традиционални начин, захтева исто толико времена у канцеларији за превођење
прикупљених података у дигитални облик.
Из наведених разлога предметна апликација реализована је на идеји о
електронском запису теренских података. У њој су сажети различити концепти
досадашње праксе: поузданост теренског податка, употреба важећих правилника,
брзина израде геодетског плана, једноставност у раду, могућност проширења
захтева.
2.3. GNSS
Системи за глобално позиционирање, често називани заједничким именом ГПС,
одавно се не убрајају у технологију новије генерације. Међутим по својој
функционалности и поузданости сврставају се свакако у једне од најчешће
употребљаваних у свакодневној геодетској пракси.
Техничко технолошка решења која су формални предуслови њиховог
функционисања неретко представљају ограничења у њиховој примени те их из тог
разлога не разматрамо у овом раду као стандардну технологију у поступку израде
геодетских подлога за потребе пројектовања у нискогрдњи. Такође постоји
разлика да ли се ова технологија користи у статичком режиму рада или применом
кинематичке односно РТК методе прикупљања просторних података. У новије
време успостава мреже перманентних станица и стварања законских оквира и
правила примене GNSS технологије у пословима геодетског премера, значајно су
олакшали, поједноставили, убрзали и појефтинили рад на изради геодетских
подлога.
2
1Д теренска мерења подразумевају поступак геометријског нивелмана без обзира да ли се ради о
класичним или GPS мерењима
3
Под аутоматизацијом у поступку 1Д теренских мерња подразумева се да се у току рада користи
дигитални нивелир одговарајуће тачности са могућношћу аутоматске регистрације података
4
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
5
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
6
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
7
Приликом снимања се примењује кодирано регистровање података
8
Приликом снимања се примењује кодирано регистровање података
9
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
10
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
4. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
11
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
12
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
13
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
14
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
15
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
16
Применом софтверског решења „Геоскица“
17
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
18
Применом софтверског решења „Геоделта“
1. УВОД
Приликом доласка у страну земљу, где жели да послује и уложи своја средства,
сваки инвеститор по природи свога посла жели да упозна правила тржишта земље
у коју је дошао, посебно која се односе на његову инвестицију, а и шире. Самим
тим, инвеститор који жели да изгради свој објекат који ће му служити за обављање
планиране делатности, поставља питање како се у земљи у коју је дошао са
намером да уложи своја средства, купује земљиште (непокретност), заправо, каква
је комплетна процедура - од куповине земљишта (непокретности) до укњижбе
готовог објекта?
Другим речима, интересује га комплетна правна, урбанистичка и грађевинска
процедура изградње објеката у земљи у коју је дошао. Добро разумевање и
правилно решавање ове проблематике омогућава инвеститору лакшу реализацију,
помоћ у свакодневном раду и потпуну заштиту његове инвестиције у целости, а не
само у делу изграђеног објекта.
Решавање наведених питања захтева комплексан приступ проблему са циљем да
из решења овог проблема проистекне одговор који ће инвеститорима, како
страним тако и домаћим, омогућити на једном месту свеобухватно сагледавање,
разумевање и решавање комплетне проблематике. У Републици Србији, у циљу
1
Борислав Т. Томашевић, дипл.инж.грађ., директор Предузећа за пројектовање, консалтинг и
инжењеринг SABLE TRADING DOO, Страхињића бана 13, Београд, Србија, тел.: +381 63 202 755,
e-mail: sable.llc@mail.ru, web: www.vodiczainvestitore.com
2
Борислав Т. Томашевић, дипл.инж.грађ., http://www.vodiczainvestitore.com/o_autoru
„Водич“, који се формира током трајања курса, састоји од цца 300 слајдова и
многобројних прилога сложених у регистратор који потом служи као приручник
инвеститорима у свакодневном послу. Презентација и формирање „Водича“ је
платна интелектуална услуга коју инвеститор и давалац услуге регулишу
међусобним уговором. Сви заинтересовани, од инвеститора, преко стручне
јавности, до радозналаца, више података о „Водичу“ могу сазнати на сајту који је
постављен на неколико интернет адреса3 Сајт нуди основне податке о „Водичу“ на
српском, енглеском и руском језику, што довољно говори о његовим намерама да
циљној групи-инвеститорима, посебно страним, свестрано представи и препоручи
да детаљно, путем наведене презентације, упознају „Водич...“ као и врсте услуга
које нуди предузеће SABLE TRADING DOO. Поред наведенога, као мотив за
посету сајту прилажу се Слика 1 - свеобухватна шема4 процеса које треба обавити
како би се стигло до готовог и легално изграђеног- укњиженог објекта у
Републици Србији.
3
http://www.vodiczainvestitore.com/; http://www.investorsguide.rs/; http://www.справочникинвестора.срб/
4
http://www.vodiczainvestitore.com/vodic
5. РЕФЕРЕНЦЕ- КОРИСНИЦИ
6. ЗАКЉУЧАК
5
http://www.ingkomora.rs/glasnik/31/download/Glasnik_br_31.pdf
6
https://www.ingkomora.rs/video/index.php?id=221113
7
www.tikrf.org
8
http://www.tikrf.org/vodic-za-investitore-kako-izgraditi-objekat-u-republici-srbiji/
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. УВОД
1
Проф. др Велимир Шећеров, д.п.п. Универзитет у Београду, Географски факултет, Студентски трг
3/3, Београд, Србија, тел: 011 2637 421, e – mail: vsecerov@gef.bg.ac.rs
2
Проф. др Дејан Филиповић, д.п.п. Универзитет у Београду, Географски факултет, Студентски трг 3/3,
Београд, Србија, тел: 011 2637 421, e – mail: dejanf@EUnet.rs
Број туриста и број ноћења у општини Сопт је у складу са капацитетима (око 7.000
туриста, од тога 1.000 страних). У укупном броју туриста на простору Београдског
метрополитена, Сопот учествује са малих 0,90% и још сличним уделом у броју
ноћења 0,85%. У структури гостију доминирају домаћи гости са готово петоструко
већим учешћем. Просечан боравак туриста је око 1,8 ноћи превасходно као
последица близине Београда уз доминантно излетнички карактер туристичке
понуде без дужег задржавања на месту и малим бројем смештајних објеката.
Природни:
Очувана природна средина:
доминантно шумовити пејсаж (4.434ха шума) и очувана природна и
животна средина. Ловно и излетничко подручје.
Шумски комплекс са ловиштем „Излетиште Трешња“ и вештачким језером.
Локалитет у коме доминира (запуштено) вештачко језеро дуго 160 м а
широко 25м, дубине 4м.
Губеревачке шуме - Заједно са Космајем и Липовицом.
Планина Космај (628м)
Квалитетно пољопривредно земљиште – погодно за воћарство и узгој
аутохтоних врста које се налазе на овом подручју.
Повољни климатски услови
Антропогени:
Манастири и сакрални објекти – богатство манастирима датира још из
времена Краља Драгутина а нарочито у доба Деспота Стефана Лазаревића. Од
некадашњих 7 манастира данас на подручју Општине постоје само четири.
Културно-историјски споменици – категорисани у односу на значај су основ
за могуће регионалне и локалне туристичке итинерере. Најважнији су:
споменик војводи Јанку Катићу у Рогачи, костурница у истом месту, споменик
страдалим у Другом светском рату и др. Веома значајан локалитет је и
воденица Борикић у Неменикућама из 1884. године.
Градско насеље Сопот – настало спајањем околних села, посебно са
Ропчевом
Аутопут, железница и остали путни правци – мањим делом (код Малог
Пожаревца) аутопут пролазу кроз општину Сопот, док железничка пруга
пресеца њену територију са нарочито значајним станицама у Раљи и
Ђуринцима.
Викенд насеља – место повременог боравка излетника из Београда и околних
општина. Такође и могући смештајни потенцијал за будућу туристичку
понуду.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Регионални просторни план АП града Београда Сл. лист града Београда, бр.
38/2011, Београд, 2011.
[2] Просторни план градске општине Сопот, Сл. лист града Београда, бр. 54/2012,
Београд, 2012.
[3] Шећеров, В.: Планирање просторног развоја туризма на примеру ППО
Суботица, Гласник СГД, 2008, LXXXVIII бр. 3, 78-92
[4] Филиповић, Д., Обрадовић Арсић, Д.: Оцена стања животне средине у
општини Сопот као услов одрживог развоја подручја општине, Гласник СГД,
2011, XCI бр. 4, 27-41
of its several specific caracteristics. Besides its natural and anthropogenic resources
that can be divided into several levels (ranges), the municipality of Sopot is an integral
part of the largest tourism market in Serbia (Belgrade AT) and it has a favorable
geographical location and exceptional political and managerial stability ( over 25 years
). Its territory comprises several different levels of plans (RSP AT Belgrade, SPSP
Avala-Kosmaj, SPSP Corridor X ). This area is also a subject of numerous analyses in
many sectoral strategies, which treat it in a direct and indirect way. Based on thorough
analysis, using a clear methodological framework and indicators, the authors provide
suggestions for the spatial organization of tourism in the territory of the municipality,
the planning concept and the types of tourism, aiming to improve the economic balance
of the local government and therefore its overall development potential and perspective.
Keywords: Sustainable development, tourism, spatial planning, local government,
integration
Krajem 19. veka u Beču se formira škola „Jugendstil” sa poznatim predstavnicima kao
što je pisac Schnitzler, slikari Schiele, Klimt i Kokoschka. Siegmund Freud [1] poznati
lekar neurolog je osnivač psihoanalize.
1
Prof.dr habil. Major Janoš, dipl.inž.građ., Debreceni Egyetem Műszaki Kar, Debrecen, Hungary,
drmajorjanos@eng.unideb.hu
Maria Montesori [2] je verovala, da u svakom detetu postoji interes upoznavanja sveta,
taj motor koji pokreće omladinu da savlada nova znanja (Slika 4.).
Na njenoj nadgrobnoj ploči piše: „Molim decu koja su puna snage da se ujedine sa
mnom kako bi se uspostavio mir u čoveku i u svetu.“
Frederik Vester [4] je svojim radom razjasnio uticaj stresa na obrazovanje, posle teoriju
proširio na celo ljudsko društvo. On je tvrdio da svaka organizacija može se
kompleksnije opisati sa svojim relacijama (međusobnim odnosima). Na osnovu svoje
teorije sastavio „Ecopolicy“ igru koja razvija kompleksne strategijske osobine učenika.
Ta igra je tolikoj meri uzbudila kibernetički svet da se organizuje međunarodno
takmičenje od 2005. godine pod imenom „Ecopolicyade“ management for a functioning
society.
„Flow“ teorija prof. Csikszentmalyi-a [6] predviđa kako će iskustvo pojedinca biti
mnogo pozitivnije, ako je zadatak velik, ne samo što uživa svaki trenutak, nego
proširuje svoje sposobnosti - uči nove veštine – taj osečaj uspeha pojačava
samopoštovanje. Taj osečaj „toka“ (flow) je optimalno stanje.
„ Kad svi spavaju i Neko govori, onda se to stanje naziva obrazovanje.“ (Wilhelm
Busch)
Mogući uzroci:
Prikladni ciljevi:
LITERATURА
[1] Siegmund Freud: The Anatomy of the Mental Personality, Lecture XXXI, 1932
[2] Maria Montesori:
http://www.montessoritraining.net/what_is_montessori/history.htm , 25.02.2014
[3] Richard Dawkins: http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins, 25.02.2014
[4] Frederik Vester: Denken, Lernen, Vergessen, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH
and Co. KG, München, 1978
[5] Vera F. Birkenbihl: Stroh im Kopf, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH and Co.
KG, München, 1969
[6] Mihály Csíkszentmihályi: Flow, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1991
[7] Robert F. Mager: Preparing Instructional Objectives, Fearon Publishers, Inc,.
Belmont, California, 1962
[8] Ingemar Svantesson: Mind Mapping and Memory, SWAN Communications, New
Zealand, 1989
1. УВОД
Слика 1. Ситуација
1
Ленарт Ђерђ, дипл.инж. грађ., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Грађевински факултет Суботица,
Козарачка 2а, Суботица, Србија, тел: 024 554 300, e – mail: lenart.gyorgy@yahoo.com
2. ОПЛАТНИ СИСТЕМ
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
Овакав начин грађења има низ предности као што су економична организација
простора за грађење који нам стоји на располагању, ефикасно коришћење оплате
за плочу итд. Недостатак му је да захтева изузетно тачну логистичку подршку код
снабдевања са материјалом.
Ово је основна идеја, она је реална и остварљива. Потребно је да се уз тимски рад
реше сви потребни детаљи, као што је прорачун челичних стубова, плоча,
просторне решетке, блажуј оплате, хидрауличних цилиндара и свих осталих
елемената који се јављају на објекту.
Ова идеја је идеја аутора, овакав начин грађења као аутор нисам видео ни у
литератури ни у пракси.
1. УВОД
1
Проф. др Тоша Нинков, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 021 450 810, e – mail: ninkov.tosa@gmail.com
2
Др Владимир Булатовић, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 021 450 810, e – mail: vbulat2003@yahoo.com
3
Асистент Зоран Сушић, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 021 450 810, e – mail: zsusic@uns.ac.rs
4
Асистент Дејан Васић, дипл.инж. геод., Универзитет у Новом Саду, Факултет техничких наука, Трг
Доситеја Обрадовића, Нови Сад, Србија, тел: 021 450 810, e – mail: vasic.dejan@gmail.com
При брзини лета од око 250 км/х и висини од око 1000м са стандардним
карактеристикама сензора (130000 емисија/секунди), прикупљају се подаци о
положају тачака на земљи са густином и до 100 тачака/м2.
Уобичајена релативна тачност модела са урачунатом грешком ГПС-а и
инерцијалног система износи 5-7цм. Апсолутна грешка је увек боља од 15цм и
може се значајно умањити коришћењем контролних тачака на земљи. [3]
Главни проблем који се јавља код обраде великог броја тачака (PointCloud) јесте
поступак класификације. Класификацијом тачака терена постиже се разврставање
тачака по класама, чиме је створена претпоставка за генерисање високо
квалитетног и прецизног дигиталног модела терена, у оквиру кога ће бити
имплементиране све структурне линије терена с обзиром на високу просторну
реѕолуцију података ласерског скенурања. Дигитални модел терена изванредна је
основа за све врсте 3Д приказа. Његова значајна предност је што омогућава 3Д
визуализацију свих 2Д подлога, израду геостатистичких прорачуна и анализа и
комплексног просторног моделирања. На пример, из дигиталног модела терена
директно се добијају информације као што су: висина, аспект и нагиб терена; чак
шта више, сви савремени софтвери омогућавају аутоматско генерисање изолинија
као и њима одговарајућих тематских карата. Једна од значајних предности
3. ЗАКЉУЧАК
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
[1] Нинков, Т., Булатовић, В., Сушић, З., Примена ласерског скенирања код
пројектовања линијских структура и објеката, Грађевинарство, наука, пракса,
Жабљак, 2008.
[2] Нинков,Т., Булатовић, В., Сушић, З., Васић, Д. (2010): Application of laser
scanning technology for civil engineering projects in Serbia, FIG International
Congress 2010, Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010.
[3] Васић, Д., Нинков,Т., Булатовић, В., Сушић, З. (2011): Development of 3d
topographic layouts for the Design of rain sewerage for the city of Damatur in
Nigeria, Iinternational scientific conference and XXIV meeting of serbian surveyors:
Professional practice and education in geodesy and related fields, Proceedings,
Kladovo, 2011.
1. UVOD
Ploče su tijela kod kojih je debljina mala veličina u odnosu na ostale dvije dimenzije
zbog čega se deformacija ploče može opisati preko deformacije srednje ravni ploče. Ova
pretpostavka omogućava da se naponsko-deformacijska analiza ploče tretira kao 2D
problem mehanike kontinuma. Pored ove pretpostavke uvode se dopunske pretpostavke
za deformaciju po visini ploče. Primjenom teorija koje se zasnivaju na navedenoj
pretpostavci dobijaju se rezultati čija tačnost zavisi od odnosa debljine ploče i kraće
strane ploče. U zavisnosti od dopunskih pretpostavki razvijene su sljedeće opšte poznate
teorije ploča: teorija tankih ploča, strožija teorija ploča i teorija ploča višeg reda.
Primjena navedenih teorija za debele i umjereno debele ploče je ograničena. Ograničenje
se posebno odnosi za slučaj kada treba analizira veliki spektar problema ploča koje
posjeduju anizotropne karakteristike, kao što su slojevite kompozitne ploče napravljene
od slojeva koji nose u različitim pravcima, Slika 1.. Za proračun ploča anizotropnih
karakteristika razvijene su savremenije teorije.
1
Marina Rakočević, Prof.dr., dipl.inž.građ., Univerzitet Crne gore, Građevinski fakultet Podgorica, Džordža
Vašingtona bb, Podgorica, Crna Gora, tel: +382 20 244 905, e – mail: marinara@ac.me
gdje su: u(x,y), v(x,y), w(x,y) pomjeranja srednje ravni ploče, a U(x,y,z) i V(x,y,z) dodatna
pomjeranja po debljini ploče.
Za svaki sloj koji se tretira kao 1D element po debljini ploče usvajaju se linearne
interpolacione funkcije. Na Slici 6. prikazane su usvojene interpolacione funkcije za
slučaj kada je broj slojeva N=6 i broj čvorova n=7.
Rješenja uslovnih jednačina problema (2) mogu se dobiti u zatvorenom obliku ili
numerički.
oslonjena duž sve četivi konture na Slikama 7. i 8. dati su normalni i smičući naponi u
bezdimenzionom obliku za slučaj dejstva ravnomjerno raspodijeljenog opterećenja.
Sistem jednačina (2) numerički se rješava primjenom Metode konačnih elemenata [3] pri
čemu se uvode dva tipa interpolacionih funkcija. Prvi tip su interpolacione funkcije u
ravni, a drugi tip su interpolacione funkcije po debljini ploče koje su funkcije jedne
promjenljive z. Interpolacione funkcije u ravni mogu biti funkcije odabrane iz širokog
spektra standardnih interpolacionih funkcija za 2D problem. Interpolacione funkcije po
debljini ploče mogu biti linijske, kvadratne ili funkcije većeg reda. Na Slici 9. dati su
naponi u bezdimenzionom obliku dobijeni primjenom MKE za slobodno oslonjenu
pravougaonu četvoroslojnu ploču simetričnog rasporeda slojeva 45o/-45o/-45o/45o i
usvojeni E4-L4 konačni element.
4. ZAKLJUČAK