1.

Introduction

Saline intrusion is the movement of sea water into freshwater regions in coastal aquifer
settings. Saltwater is denser and has higher water pressure than freshwater due to its higher
mineral content. As a result of reduction in the freshwater head and flow at the sea water
interface, saline water can migrate inland underneath the freshwater. Seawater intrusion can
be caused by intensive pumping of freshwater in coastal zones. Saline groundwater has high
concentrations of dissolved solids greater than 1,000 mg/L, and a concentration of chloride
exceeding 250 mg/l, making it unsuitable for human consumption, leading to contamination
of freshwater sources. Currently above 40% of human population lives within 150 km of the
sea, relying mostly on groundwater as a primary source of drinking-water supply. Coastal
aquifers affected by saline intrusion are no longer sustainable and in rare circumstances
abandoned due to inadequate drinking-water standards.

2. Origins of Saline Intrusion

2.1 Groundwater Extraction

Excessive groundwater pumping, especially during the summer months, is one of the main
anthropogenic causes of saline intrusion. Inappropriate water management in coastal
aquifers cause contamination and degradation of freshwater aquifers. Extreme water
exploitation, including industry and agriculture, reverses the natural hydraulic gradient
and seawater can reach the catchment points, resulting in water development and
salinization. The most affected areas in the world are the North of the Pacific and Atlantic
coastlines, Chile, Mexico, Peru and Australia, where saline intrusion is the effect of
uncontrolled or deficient management of coastal aquifers. In Britain, seawater intrusion
has occurred at limited number of locations where the Chalk and Sandstones have been
extensively exploited, mostly caused by industrial water abstractions in coastal areas of
large towns.

The seawater has higher pressure, specific gravity and density than freshwater, causing it
to intrude the coastal aquifers, forming a saline wedge beneath the fresh water. The
transition from fresh to salt water; a diffuse zone of mixing, is defined as saltwater
freshwater interface. Water supply boreholes located near the saline wedge can disturb
the equilibrium between freshwater and saltwater by high pumping rates, creating a cone
of depression, lowering the depth of saltwater freshwater interface, leading to saline
intrusion and well contamination (Figure X).

Figure X – Effect of groundwater extraction on saltwater freshwater interface

(Groundwater Geophysics).

Ghyben and Herzberg Equation

In order to provide a sustainable management of coastal aquifers, two significant

questions must be answered first – how deep it is to saline groundwater and how to
estimate the thickness of freshwater supply? Two European scientists, W. Badon-Ghyben
and A. Herzberg, derived a simple equation in late 1800s, used to successfully estimate
depth to seawater and thickness of freshwater in unconfined aquifers.
 2.2 Climate and Sea-level Changes

3. Scientific Approach

4. Effects of Saline Intrusions on Coastal Aquifers

5. Case Studies

6. Conclusions

7. References