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A Practical Guide - Met (Nautical Institute)
A Practical Guide - Met (Nautical Institute)
A Practical Guide - Met (Nautical Institute)
EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
A Practical Guide
MARITIME
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publishers, except for the quotation of brief passages in
reviews.
Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither The
Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or their
consequences.
Printed in England by
The Repro Company, Hayes Road, Southall, Middlesex UB2 5NB
Frontispiece: JiI70rk at Sea by Captain D.A. Hawker, taken from a study undertaken when working as an artist tutor for
The Marine Society. The artist lives near Northampton.
CONTENTS
5 Factors to be considered when developing a curriculum for maritime education and training ......... 38
by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University
6 Training in the Royal Navy - its management and methodology .......... ,............................................. .45
by Rear AdmiralJ.H.S. McAnally LVO MNI
8 Electronic and multi-media systems and their value in education and training programmes ........... 62
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd.
10 The use of simulators as tools for training and examining seafarers ..................................................... 76
by Dr. Michael L. Barnett PhD BSc MNI, Warsash Maritime Centre
11 The role of the simulator instructor and the need for instructor qualifications .................................... 85
by Captain Roger Syms BSc (Nautical Studies) MRIN FNI, Australian Maritime College
13 The role and use of simulators for bridge resource management training ........................................... 99
by Captain Piet Pols, MarineSafety International, Rotterdam
14 Training in shiphandling skills - optimising experience, simulation and time on manned models ....... 107
by Captain Nigel W Hunt BSc FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre
15 The use of tactical warfare simulation for naval training ...................................................................... 113
by Lt. Cdr. Andrew C.Y. Prince RN, Royal Navy School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD
18 Developing company based training and the training of trainers ........................................................ 132
by Mr. Glyn Cunnah BSc MNI, BP Shipping Ltd.
21 The development and implementation of the 1995 STCW Convention ............................................ 154
by Mr. Stephen E. Chapman BSc FNI
22 Translating international maritime training standards into national regulations ................................ 160
by Professor Captain P.S. Vanchiswar ExC PhD FNI, World Maritime University
25 Preparing a company training strategy and assessing its effectiveness ................................................ 180
by Mr. Keith Parsons MNI, V Ships
26 The management of seafarers' training by shipping companies through a group training organisation 186
by Mr Colin Chandler BSc MNI, Ship Safe Training Group Ltd.
27 An introduction to competence based training with a framework for vocational qualifications ..... 189
by Mr. R.C. Matthew, UK Merchant Navy Training Board
28 The assessment of competence within a maritime vocational training scheme ................................. 196
by Captain Philip ].C. Smith ExC FNI
29 The role of continuous assessment and the use of projects in student development. ........................ 200
by Mr. Christopher]. Haughton BA Cert Ed MNI, Fleetwood Nautical Campus
30 The development and evaluation of examination systems based upon multiple choice criteria ..... 207
by Mr. Perry A. Stutman, United States Coast Guard
39 Training sea and shore staff to meet the requirements of the ISM Code ............................................ 286
by Captain Graham]. Botterill FICS MIQA FNI, Ferriby Marine
41 The role of research in developing intellectual skills and their application ....................................... 302
by Mr. John S. Habberley BSc MPhil FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre
APPENDICES
Appendix
I Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers ......................................................... 327
II Some training books available from Kogan Page Ltd ........................................................................... 328
III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development ............................ 331
Shipping is an international industry. It is therefore imperative that all seagoing officers share a common sense
of purpose and apply rules and regulations in like manner.
Also we have to recognize that every individual is different and there will be various paths through education
and training programmes towards certification.
Today, maritime education and training is based on standards established by IMO. The 1995 amendments to
the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW),
1978 entered into force in 1997 and, during the next few years, will result in training standards having to be
upgraded. The text of the original Convention has been almost completely replaced; equally important, IMO
itself has been given responsibility for ensuring that the new standards are complied with. Governments which do
not meet STCW requirements could find that their seafarers are denied employment on foreign flag ships because
their certificates are not internationally recognized.
FOREWORD II
by L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI
Welcome to the world of maritime education and training. For seafarers "welcome back", because you will have
been here before, as a student. With a predicted world-wide shortage of officers, maritime education and training
will become increasingly important in the next decade. We need to ensure that the best teaching practices are
used. The more effective they are, the quicker people learn. Better training methods mean better pass rates, higher
standards and shorter times to qualify. Effective training is good for the shipping industry.
This book, which contains some of the best advice available, is designed to improve our understanding and
organisation. It is well timed, for the moment of most need. It will help existing maritime teachers, trainers and
assessors and will be particularly useful for those seeking to enter this branch of their profession. It is a useful
guide and reference for all senior officers and managers whose job includes mentoring and guiding juniors and
trainees. It is also recommended reading for simulator manufacturers and others who serve this sector of industry.
Associated with the book there is a self-study distance learning diploma scheme for those who wish to enter the
maritime education and training profession. The scheme comprises six assignments, which demand a proven
capability to plan for and deliver competence, manage curriculum development and assess results. There is also
a project designed to provide the candidate with an in-depth specialised knowledge of a particular discipline.
Your professional work at sea or working ashore requires specific detailed knowledge and a wide range of
skills. Teaching requires different knowledge and skills. Maritime education and training needs a blend of the two.
It is not always the cleverest people who make the best teachers, but the ones who are best at passing on their
knowledge and skills. As a teacher your knowledge will need to go beyond the confines of certificates of competency
syllabuses. You must know your subject thoroughly and keep yourself up to date with new theories and current
practice. Teachers should provide a link to the wider understanding of technology, commerce and people. No one
can afford to throw their books away when they qualify. In a changing world, teachers can light the torch of life-
long learning, which their students will need.
This book, based upon the experience of respected teachers from many countries, will help you prepare to
work as a teacher or trainer, whether as a career change or for shorter assignments. It is said, "the best way to learn
a subject is to teach it". When I was allowed on my own in the classroom for the first time, and students asked
awkward questions, I realised the limits of my knowledge and experience. You cannot rely on recalling what you
were taught ten or more years ago: things have changed. There are ways of coping. I was fortunate to have a very
good teacher as my mentor when I started, but I wish I had also had this book!
Teaching comes more naturally to some people than to others, but all teachers need to plan and perform in a
professional and competent way. We all remember the teachers from school days who captured our imagination
and made subjects interesting. They tended to be the enthusiastic and happy ones. They were well organised,
maintained discipline, were sympathetic and supportive. Discipline and integrity are also important, particularly
when dealing with younger trainees and in examinations. I remember the first two students I had to fail for
attempting to cheat. They passed a piece of paper across and back, via the floor, while I was invigilating. It did not
help them. The first had written, "What is an Interscan Cursor?" and the other had replied "I don't know!"
We are very fortunate in the maritime world, and particularly in the professional bodies, that we have so many
people who are willing to make time and take trouble to pass on their skills to the next generation. I would like to
thank all those who have contributed to this book, which will take its place alongside those for Command at Sea,
Harbour Masters, Pilots and Surveyors. The Maritime Education and Training Diploma Scheme will take its place
too, by providing advice and guidance to those wishing to become specialists in this branch of their profession.
The rewards of teaching are many. Probably the greatest satisfaction is gained through seeing the success of
former students. The friendships and mutual respect developed between trainer and trainee tend to last well
beyond the gaining of certificates of competency or graduation. I can recommend it. If you wish to become a
teacher or trainer, think ahead and be prepared. The best place to prepare for teaching ashore, is while you are at
sea. This book will help you to "learn to swim" as a teacher, before being thrown in at the deep end. I wish you
success.
THE OVERVIEW
Maritime Education and Training, is designed to provide an authorative guide to effective practices. It includes
learned contributions from no less than 39 authors with a vast wealth of combined experience, from countries as
far apart as Australia, England, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Sweden and The United States of
America.
The editorial board for Maritime Education and Training included Captain Len Holder (former President, The
Nautical Institute), Mr. D. Baillie, Mr. S. Bonsall, Mr. G. Cunnah, Mr.J.S. Habberley, Mr. CJ. Houghton, Dr. A.
Kennerley, Captain C.F. Luddeke, Mr. K.A. Parsons, Mr. J.D. Precious, Mr. E. Raeng, Captain M.G. Vanstone,
Professor Captain G. Zade and Mr. Julian Parker (Secretary The Nautical Institute).
There are two forewords, one by Mr O'Neil, Secretary General of the IMO and one by Captain Len Holder,
who was President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996.
In Section I - Applying the Concepts of Learning - the principles of learning in a maritime setting are
explored and advice is given on various techniques and factors to be considered. The authors combine sea,
government, academic and consultancy experience and set the scene for maritime instructors on helping learners
to learn. The final chapter in this section is an interesting insight into training in the Royal Navy today, how it is
managed and the methods used.
Section II is about Learning Resources and Educational Technology. Chalk and talk, whilst not to be
under-rated, have long been replaced by more modern technology. Electronic, multi-media and computer-based
programs are described and how best to use them. The authors, with world-wide experience in practical training
and education delivery, offer detailed and up-to-date advice. Simulators play an ever increasing part in training,
and the subject is extensively covered here, including the training of simulator instructors. Again, the Royal Navy
adds its view on training simulators at the end of the section.
The Organisation of Education and Training is covered in Section III. University, academy, college and
company views come from highly qualified authors. Training ashore and afloat, how to integrate maritime training
with the industry, lecturer updating and implementation of the STCW Convention are amongst the items covered
in detail. An American view of training cadets afloat concludes this section.
In Section IV - Fundamentals of Assessment and Evaluation - covers the vitally important task of
checking that learning is effective. Highly detailed chapters on assessment, evaluation, multiple choice questions,
feedback from students and management development are presented by authors with extensive and ongoing
experience ashore and afloat.
Section V - Towards Specialisation - concludes this book with chapters on a fascinating of specialist
training matters, including consultancy work, pilotage, command, high speed ships, the commercial approach
and maritime English language. Meeting the requirements of the ISM Code and guidance on IMO Model Courses
are complemented by advice on self-development programmes, distance education and continuing professional
development.
The appendices give valuable details on sources of information and some training books available.
All in all, Maritime Education and Training provides highly professional, skilled and practical advice on maritime
education and training drawn from very experienced authors from countries all over the globe. This book should
be the text book of choice for all seriously interested in the subject.
J.A Hepworth
Lt Cdr RN (Retd) MNI
- SECTION I -
Introduction
reflected for long on their own experiences. They may
The aim of this publication is to help those who seek have a strong need to believe that life is simple and
guidance in the task of raising the professional uncomplicated. Tell them "Variety is the spice of life".
standards of seafarers through education and training.
These standards may be set by IMO, by examiners, You may recall some sayings about learning and
by lecturers, assessors, The Nautical Institute, or by teaching.
the example and demands of serving seafarers. The
standards are achieved through learning, alone or in "It's never too late to learn"
a group, at sea or ashore, by accident or by design. "You can't teach an old dog new tricks"
That is why the guide begins with these reflections on "A little learning is a dangerous thing"
the key aspects oflearning. Many later chapters discuss "We must learn to walk before we can run"
in detail ways in which trainers, tutors and students "Experience is the best teacher"
set about organising effective learning. Here we review "Wise men learn from others, fools by their own
the main ideas which help them to develop and select mistakes"
an appropriate method for a particular situation.
Take your pick. Each is sometimes true. None is
"We live and learn". Think for a moment of all the always a guide. For you who have an interest in
things you learned before you went to school: walking, teaching, reflecting on your own experience is an
talking, eating (in the approved manner), being important starting point. You will probably recollect
respectful, laughing, and so on. Think what you that expertise gives a teacher authority. And
learned during your school years but not at school: enthusiasm will often convey the importance, interest
riding a bike, shopping, dealing with illness, much or excitement of the subject. Both expertise and
more. In or out of school you will have had a few enthusiasm are necessary or desirable, but they do
inspiring teachers, many who shaped your learning not guarantee to bring about learning. That is the
successfully, some who told you much that you have teacher's art.
now forgotten; but always the learning will have been
done by you. There is no doubt that you have the We find it easier to begin studying navigation by
ability to learn. Do not doubt that those whose assuming the earth to be a sphere, the local surface of
standards you wish to raise also have the ability to the sea to be flat, and the tides to rise and fall in a
learn. completely predictable way. These assumptions are
very helpful to begin with, and often can be taken 'for
You, and they, have learned (and forgotten) in a all practical purposes' to be true. But the competent
huge variety of ways and circumstances from a large navigator, who is a practical person, must know the
number of different people. If anyone says to you circumstances in which it can become uneconomic or
"There is only one way to learn" they cannot have dangerous to cling to those simplified assumptions.
It is normal for any learner to feel some anxiety Unhelpful mental states such as anxiety and
about things he cannot yet do, and confidence about boredom also distract attention from learning. You
things already achieved. Too much anxiety is may even be feeling a little of that now, reader, because
undesirable, as is overconfidence, but in dealing with all this is well known to you. What is the best response
individuals the teacher can often use a little of one to for you? Read faster, skip a paragraph, make a cup of
modify the other. Not by ridicule or sarcasm, which coffee, scan through it again to make sure it's as
are as damaging in private as in public, but by facing straightforward as you are thinking? I hope you do
the overconfident with a more complex problem, and what's best for you, but whatever you do it will involve
by reminding the anxious that they have a record of a change of activity, mental or physical or both. You
success already. will be more active than before, and this is one of the
keys to effective learning. It is why this author who
Psychology sheds a little light on attitudes, and has no control of how you learn, only what is on the
provides plenty of food for the thoughtful teacher, but page in front of you, frequently asks you to stop
it does not provide answers. This is because attitudes reading and think, recollect, imagine - any activity to
are so closely associated with individual experience, make a change, however short, from just reading.
personalities and preferences. Yet a professional study
programme which gives no attention to attitudes, and But if you are expecting to start or to improve your
especially 'openness' to going on learning, is in danger teaching or instructional skills there are plenty more
of being a bag of tricks performed for examiners but ways to get and hold the attention of learners which
not carried out where it matters - on the ship. will be dealt with in later chapters. You will be a
planner, a performer, a communicator, a source of
Attention knowledge and a demonstrator of skills. A character,
perhaps, who will be remembered by future
It is obvious that the learner has to pay attention to generations with affection or respect. One who holds
whatever he is trying to learn. Some students have attention, by style or by authority.
tried to improve their memorisation of the Collision
Regulations by falling asleep with their 'Walkman' Before we change the subject let's change the
playing the words into their unconscious ears, but the activity again. Try to recall two or three people who
effectiveness of learning while asleep has not been have taught you things, in school, college or at sea.
established. By contrast the effectiveness of taking a Did they all hold your attention in the same ways?
rest from time to time is a universal experience. Reflect What did they have in common and what were their
again on your own experience; most people will recall differences? Did they all make you and their other
occasions when a problem which has been causing students learn efficiently? Would you like to emulate
difficulty is put aside. After a period of attending to any of them?
something entirely different you return to the problem
and quickly hit upon the solution. Coincidence? Or I have directed your well-motivated attention
perhaps the change of activity caused, or permitted, towards positive aspects of your experience, but there
you to forget the unsuccessful methods of solution is much to be learned by reflecting on things you will
which were hard to get out of your thinking while you hope NOT to do yourself. Some of the most
persisted. Whatever the reason, the concept of knowledgable of men never quite master the need for
attention is not as simple as it first seems. You can voice modulation and eye contact, or the modest skills
have too much of it. Also, it can be directed at the of slide projection.
wrong things. My physics teacher in pre-sea training
always emitted a whistle when pronouncing the's' The aim of attracting and directing the attention
sound in words like whistle and pronounce. I can of the learner is to achieve the next condition for
remember that, from over forty years ago, more clearly successful progress along the spiral, which is correct
than what physics he taught me. perception of what has to be remembered or
performed.
What can teachers and learners do to maximise
attentiveness? Both can be conscious of a few bodily Perception
matters, though only one may be able to do anything
about them. Fresh air to breathe, good lighting for the Perception refers to the ways in which the brain
eyes to work by, no distractions for the ears (though organises the information brought to it by the senses.
music doesn't seem to distract the individual), and Despite a century of research this is still a controversial
enough comfort for the blood to circulate yet not matter when it comes to explanations. Fortunately,
But this is the shortest section of this chapter. The Success in a final exam is a different matter.
reason is that the main techniques of teaching, such as Undoubtedly it is gratifying and good for motivation.
lecturing, coaching, computer-based learning and Unfortunately unless the exam scripts are returned to
simulation and the use of visual and other aids are the candidate - an unusual procedure - he cannot be
all given chapters to themselves later in the guide. Here certain which questions he answered correctly. So with
we can review the features we expect any of these a pass mark of 70% there is a possibility of being
techniques to have, ifthey are to succeed in connecting mistaken about more than 25% of the subject matter
the learners permanently to the subject matter. on which he has been tested for competence. No
information has been provided on the syllabus items
We have seen that the presentation of what has to not covered in that particular examination paper. This
be learned should increase rather than undermine the should remind us that however important the exams
learners' motivation and attention, strengthen positive are for motivation, it's the quality of the training and
attitudes and lead to accurate perceptions. This is learning that counts in setting overall standards of
obviously easier if the subject-matter is seen to be competence!
relevant and interesting, and the learner has a good
grasp of necessary prior knowledge and skills. Later Training on board provides the opportunity to
we shall see the importance offeedback iflearning is make full use of feedback because two-way
to be efficient, and of repetition if it is to be effective. communication between learner and instructor can
be immediate and of high quality. College training
This section is headed 'activity'. Recall a typical programmes will make provision for one-to-one
successful learning occasion. You will have been active, contacts in which the teacher has the chance to test
mentally and probably physically as well. If you had individual understanding closely, and to diagnose the
Following pre-sea training at King Edward VII Nautical College in London, Don Baillie served his apprenticeshiP with what is now
BP Tankers and was a deck officer with BP and P&O.After obtaining the Extra Master's Certificate hejoined the teaching staff of his
old college. While teaching he obtained an advanced diploma in mathematics and attended a teacher training course. In 7965 he was
appointed to the staff of the only UK college which prepared seafarersfor lecturerposts in nautical colleges.
Five years later, when he was completing studies for a Master's Degree in Educational Research, he was invited to become one of
Her Majesty's Inspectors monitoring the work of technical colleges in general and marine colleges in particular. In that capacity he
advised the UK Department of Education on the needs and quality of nautical education, and represented that Department on the
Merchant Navy Training Board, the National Sea Training Trust, and on committees of the Council for National Academic Awards, the
Technician Education Council and then BTEG. He worked closely with the Department of Transport's Chief Examiners in curriculum
and examination developments and the provision of simulators, and published many reports on aspects of nautical education and the
work of the marine departments and faculties.He organised several conferencesfor lecturers in marine fields, and recently retired after
23 years as H M Inspector.
other there is always scope for trying out different "real" world. For example, we can think about 'ship'
amounts of each, in different orders. or 'officer' or 'headway' without having to have a
picture of any of these concepts in our mind's eye.
Likewise the method chosen for the assessment of Concepts are the basic elements of the work of the
competence usually relates to the relative importance mind. They are comparable to genes in biology. They
of skill and knowledge in the competence concerned, link the information we receive from our environment
but this is distorted by considerations of cost and with the sense that we make of it, and how we respond
credibility. For example, the skill aspects of position- to it. Some people say that every word we use stands
fixing,. s~ch as. they are,. have been as ses sedin for a concept, and for the purposes of communication,
unrealIstIc and mappropnate ways for t he best 0 f
So the teacher of 'new' concepts is in a minefield Of course it is much more important to be clear
(I hope we share the same concept of a minefield). about a lot of other concepts, such as 'unstable' and
The learner may have a good conception of the new 'untrustworthy' but here again there are basically two
material, but feels there must be more to it than just approaches to learning the concepts. The concept
learning a new name. Or the new name may call up 'unstable' can be learned by a definition which
partial or irrelevant concepts already in his mind. Or includes all cases and excludes all others, but the
some of both. Since all the teacher has to help him is concept 'untrustworthy' must be refined by trial and
language and imagination - a mass of concepts and error, with no certainty at the borderline, and some
images of his own - he needs to be able to reach up to sort of ideal type to compare each case with.
a higher level of concept-making of his own, which
we call his understanding. We saw that concepts often overlap, as with ship
and boat. Another feature is that they may include, or
To say more about the learning of concepts we need be included in, other concepts. For example fishing-
to take a look at the make-up of any concept or set of vessel, tug and passenger ferry all belong to the
concepts. What are their features and how are the concept 'vessel', and each breaks down to more
levels related? specific concepts that we can have of, for example,
tuna boats, trawlers and shrimpers. Concepts also tend
Whenever a number of objects (ships, for example) to be included in ever more general ones, used to
in the 'real' world have something in common, we classify things. Thus vessels are included in the concept
form a concept of them in our minds. Not only objects 'vehicle', and vehicles belong in the even more general
are involved. Activities like 'sport' and qualities like concept 'means oftransport'. This last would include
'strength' also lead us to form concepts. Unless it is escalators as well as spaceships and mini-bulkers.
nice and simple, like 'triangle', a concept usually
involves several common attributes. A ship is designed The interesting thing about this hierarchy of
to float, but so is a buoy, so the concept 'ship' must concepts from the most particular to the most general
have other attributes which the concept 'buoy' doesn't is that the intermediate ones seem the most important
have. This is obvious; so it will be obvious that one for efficient learning. Once we have a good grasp of
The four stages are as follows. First there is To be a good footballer you need to playa lot of
recognition of an object, activity or quality as being football. To be a good writer you need to be a good
separate from its background or environment. Thus reader. Both skills need a lot of practice, but watching
an infant learns first that its mother is separate from football on TV will do little for your ability whereas
the rest of its surroundings, our ancestors saw that a reading good books will improve your writing. So once
planet moved differently from the stellar background, again there is no golden rule about learning, by which
and the hospitals notice an unexpected level of skin a teacher can avoid thinking hard about how best to
cancer in Australia. help his students.
In the second stage of development the object, etc., What do we mean by 'skill'? Or should I ask "What
is recognised in a different environment, from a new are the defining attributes of the concept 'skill'?".
angle or with a different sense - confirming its separate When I was a student of these matters our tutor
identity. In the third stage several different objects are demonstrated his ability to sail a dinghy with one hand
recognised as equivalent to the first - establishing a while rolling and lighting a cigarette with the other.
group or class ('people' for the infant, planets, and We then had to write down what we thought was the
widespread concern about skin cancer in the Southern essence of 'skill'.
Hemisphere). Finally we reach the formal stage of
setting out the attributes which allow correct Phrases like 'effortless control', 'ability to attend
identification of the members of this concept - or to more than one task', and 'mastery of tools' came to
enabling us to distinguish it from other concepts mind. When we thought more widely of other skills,
(human faces and voices, planetary motion, and we became more general and we settled on three wider
depletion of the ozone layer - a concept which we have attributes. These were effectiveness, flexibility, and
yet to name). anticipation.
The most general description of this sequence is By effectiveness we meant that the particular skill
"From the particular to the general, from the concrete can be performed quickly (apparently without much
to the abstract, and from the known to the unknown". thought), accurately and with a degree of physical
economy. The latter may give freedom to do other
Only if a concept can be defined in terms which things at the same time, or the stamina to go on for a
the learner already firmly understands, can the above long time. The lower level of skill that we show during
sequence be cheerfully ignored. A well-stated learning will be relatively clumsy, i.e. less quick, or
definition, with examples proceeding from easier to less accurate, or more tiring.
more difficult, and a few non-examples if necessary
to illustrate the boundaries of the group, will secure Flexibility may be less obvious than effectiveness
effective learning in that case. but in the end is just as important. Inflexible standard
tests are often used to assess competence, for example
Not only is it usually wise to start concept in car driving. This is fair on candidates as well as
development from concrete experience when possible, measuring a baseline of competence. But in real life
but adults can often be helped by being given an exactly the same problem only occurs twice in the
overview of how new concepts relate to one another. most routine operations, and a skilled person is surely
This may take the form of a hierarchy, as when dealing one who applies his skill effectively in new situations.
with officers' responsibilities or the dependence of one This is often referred to under the head of 'Transfer of
• Developing behavioural based interpersonal skills This also has two aspects. What is the subject matter,
(e.g. crisis management training such as crowd both in terms of the core training objective as well as
control). in terms of scope and what are the desired outcomes?
• Facilitating team building and management
development. In industry, which is turning increasingly towards
• Reinforcing company values and company competency based learning and assessment, as
practices. evidenced by the 1995 Amendments to the Standards
• Enhancing product knowledge. of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)
Convention and, within the United Kingdom, National
If the subject matter has a high academic or (and Scottish) Vocational Qualifications (S/NVQs) it
intellectual content, some preliminary formal teaching is important to have a measure of the effectiveness of
or individual study will improve the training outcome. training. Again within the United Kingdom, the
Also, as more students study individually to develop Training and Development Lead Body (TDLB) has
their underpinning knowledge (UPK) along the route established base line standards for training. Although
to competency based qualifications, an element of these standards have been developed in support of
group training will play an important role in the implementation of S/NVQs, they are a useful
reinforcing and bolstering the acquired knowledge and starting point.
in linking it to the associated skills.
The starting point is a growing acceptance that
Where and When? people's performance in their work should not be
measured solely on their theoretical knowledge nor
Both these questions also require early consideration. on their possession of skills; nor even on their ability
Delivered in the wrong environment, at the wrong to undertake a range of different activities. It is their
time, much of the investment in training sessions can performance and not the process people go through
be wasted. As the organiser of the training, it is easy to achieve those outcomes which should be the basis
to view these questions from the provider's for measurement.
perspective. 'When is it convenient for me to organise
or deliver this training?' rather than 'when and where Competence based learning and NVQs are
can I gather the largest number in a receptive mood discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book; the
and in a (learning) conducive environment?' first important point for the trainer is to identify very
clearly the desired training outcomes. While this fixes
Who? the destination point of the exercise, the starting point
also needs establishing. It is important to have an
Both who is going to be trained and who is to deliver accurate, or as accurate as possible, picture of the level
the training? Should the training be company based of knowledge of the candidates at the beginning of
or would the participants benefit from interaction with the session. This may need some research by the
other organisations, either within or outside shipping? trainer which might be documentary, by use of a
Certainly at management level there is a degree of questionnaire or by talking to the candidates.
benefit from cross fertilisation with other cultures. The
span of participants also needs careful consideration With this knowledge, it is possible to prepare the
- at what level is the training to be pitched and can 'passage plan' , taking into account such navigational
different levels be run concurrently? hazards as language and/or cultural differences,
company cultures and personal expectations.
'Who?' also refers to the question of who is to Preparation and presentation are now the two areas
deliver the training. Specialist knowledge of the subject on which the trainer must concentrate - as frequently
is only part of the specification of a trainer and in stated; Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance.
training as opposed to teaching, it can be argued that
it is not the most important. The ability to deliver in a How?
way in which the subject matter is understood,
reinforced and remembered can be more important How does the trainer prepare for the course delivery,
- especially if it leaves a thirst for more knowledge. how can it be made interesting and stimulating, how
The amount of preparation time should never be can the trainer get across the main training points in a
overlooked - the busy personnel manager or way that will be remembered (and used) and, finally,
superintendent, who rushes on board to deliver an how is the effectiveness of the group training
important message without proper preparation does monitored and assessed?
himself, his company and theJecipients a grave
disservice.
Preparation and the use of visual aids Flip charts, although not 'high-tech', are a valuable
tool since they are flexible and can invite participation
Not surprisingly, preparation is the essential ingredient from the group. They can provide:
for successful training and this incorporates both • A focus and reference point for the group.
planning and skill. The skill, the knowledge and/or· A focus for group/syndicate activity.
capabilities which the trainer wishes to impart, depend • A storyboard for the training session.
not only on knowledge (or research) but crucially, on • A quick way of capturing ideas.
the ability to identify and focus on the training
outcomes which are the objectives. When using a flip chart to take feedback;
• Take up a position on the left (if right handed) to
The planning, how to deliver the training and what maintain eye contact with the group.
equipment is required, is an area which frequently • Write up headline points or key words only.
needs more time than is usually allocated for these • Use the participants words to emphasise their
activities. As well as the trainer being prepared, importance.
preparations should include:
When using a flip chart as part of the delivery:
• The participants or trainees .• Underline titles, keep to three key points per page
- Give at least 10 days' notice of a formal training and a maximum of two colours.
event. • Paper clips may be used or the ends dog-eared to
Brief in advance: dates, times, venue, help locate the place and reminder notes may be
programme title, purpose. faintly pencilled in.
- Provide pre-course reading or activities if • With modern glues, notes may be stuck on to make
relevant. a point and removed to reveal a point - be
• The venue. inventive.
_ Choose an informal seating arrangement - use • The trainer's back should never be turned on the
a 'u' shape for small groups. audience.
Avoid chairs in a row.
Before the role play, the objectives for the role play During the candidate's demonstration of his
must be explained. After asking for volunteers and competence, the assessor should be as unobtrusive as
selecting the role players, the trainer should issue the possible, intervening only for matters of safety or if
role play brief verbally or in writing. After the the assessor's and the candidate's understanding of
observers have been briefed and the importance of the assessment requirements are obviously radically
their role has been emphasised, any observer sheets different. On the completion of the demonstration of
are distributed and the camera operator (if used) is competence, the assessor then tests the candidates
briefed on what to capture. The trainer must be clear underpinning knowledge using a list of prepared (and
about when the role play should end. if necessary, supplementary) questions and these
questions should take into account those aspects of
During the role play the interaction must be the range statements which the simulation exercise
observed, discussion points pinpointed for later, and has not been able to address directly.
any video tape sequence numbers or key points noted
down. It is apparent, therefore, that when setting up a
simulation exercise, whether for assessment or general
Afterwards, the trainer should thank everyone and training, the trainer/assessor must have a clear
ask the observers to complete feedback forms. When understanding of the concepts and principles
the role players have noted down their thoughts, the underpinning the exercise and how this particular
lead role player is asked to comment and then the exercise will help to achieve the objectives of the
observers and finally the trainer should offer his or course/session. The trainer should practise using the
her own comments and insights. If the role play has exercise before the session and then make sure the
been videoed, the whole video can be played or group undertaking the exercise is briefed very carefully
highlights of the role play used to illustrate important and has a clear understanding of its purpose. The
points. The trainer should ensure that the observer exercise must be carefully planned and staged ensuring
feedback focuses on strengths as well as areas for sufficient resources and time are allocated to it.
improvement and the key learning points must then
be summarised. Observers should be thoroughly briefed as they
playa key role in helping the group understand how
Simulation exercises they have worked to complete the task. The
experience of those taking part can be drawn on but
Simulation exercises are particularly valuable in personal observations and insights should be kept until
helping students translate theory into practice ("see/ the end.
hear" to "dolfeel"). They also have an essential role
when there is either an element of danger or Leading a discussion
significantly high cost involved in the subject matter
being taught. In a simulation exercise, it is generally A typical management training programme involves
the process of doing the task that is important rather a number of discussion sessions.
than the background theory and so the selected task
should be something relatively straightforward. The Discussion leading is particularly appropriate for
theory and implications are better covered in handling the implications of a training activity.
associated discussion groups. Concepts, principles and their application to work can
be considered and possible solutions evaluated after
A particularly important dimension of simulation analysis of the issues and problems. It is also invaluable
exercises is their role within the vocational training for feedback after a training activity.
process. In setting up simulation exercises for
vocational assessment, particular attention must be The trainer's role is to develop people's
paid to the performance criteria and the range understanding of the subject by helping them to think
statement related to the element under assessment. it through and relate their experience to that of others
The assessment must be carefully planned and in the group.
recorded if it is to meet the quality requirements of
the Y.Q system. An opening interview between the When conducting a discussion as a lead into an
assessor and the candidate ensures that both are clear activity or as a result of an activity the trainer should
about the task and the desired outcome as well as the decide the purpose of the discussion and how it could
time and place of the assessment and the equipment contribute to the overall objectives of the session. A
to be used. The assessor also has a duty to ensure that discussion framework must be developed, for instance,
• How well did I achieve my objective? During the feedback session the trainer must ask
• Was my discussion plan logical? breakout groups to choose a spokesperson to present
• Did my approach suit the group? their feedback. Where groups have been doing the
• Did everyone have an opportunity to contribute? same task, the spokesperson from group one should
• Did I summarise at the appropriate points? be asked to feedback and subsequent groups should
then add any new ideas or angles, thus avoiding
Breakout groups unnecessary repetition.
There are times in a training programme when it may Groups should always be praised and thanked for
be a good idea to reduce the size of the group to their contributions and the spokesperson singled out
achieve the specific training objective or activity. for a special word of thanks. To draw the feedback
Brainstorming can be used to generate many ideas in If used as part of a structured training programme,
a short space of time and can be effectively used as training videos can help to reinforce a message through
part of a training session, course, or management visualisation, humour and drama. They help to set an
meeting. The activity is also a key element of hazard example and model behaviour and vary the tone and
identification within risk management. pace of the training. They can be used to introduce or
summarise a topic or activity and to stimulate thought
Before starting the session, the trainer can get the and discussion. If shown in clips or segments
participants to start thinking creatively as individuals interspersed with activities and discussions they can
by, for example, asking them to undertake a couple be a particularly powerful tool.
of short brain-teaser activities such as listing ten uses
for a paperclip, in 45 seconds. Then the rules for When using a training video, the trainer should
brainstorming should be put up and explained. have a clear purpose in mind and understand why it
is being shown and how it will contribute to the overall
The participants should then be asked to list on a objectives of the programme or activity. A training
flipchart as many ideas as possible on, for example video should be chosen which is both relevant and up
'how to improve emergency training and drills'. People to date - no videos for the sake of videos or as an easy
should call out ideas and write them up furiously. The 'filler'. It should be previewed to assess its content and
aim could be to reach 50 ideas in ten minutes. The comprehensive notes should be made - key training
ideas can be way out and crazy; they do not need to points, story line, possible stop points and so on.
be feasible at this stage. A prize can be given to the
person who comes up with the most ideas, and another The trainer should decide when it should be used
to the person who raises the most laughs. - as an introduction or summary or to spark discussion
or to support an activity and the trainer's support
After this the serious business should begin. The material which often accompanies the video should
lists should be gone through a second time and the be carefully studied. At the end of the session, the
team should 'star' any particular ideas that appeal. effectiveness of the video should be reviewed.
These 'starred' ideas can be recorded on a flip chart or
wallboard, but no discussion at this stage. Evaluating the training
Next, the 'star' ideas should be evaluated into three Evaluation is such a critical aspect of training that it
categories, numbered as follows: should always be planned at the same time as the
programme itself.
1. Possible.
2. Not sure. The depth and width of evaluation will depend
3. Impossible. upon a number of factors.
The second and third categories should be • The type of training, for example is it a short skills
challenged as no idea should be dismissed session or a series of management development
prematurely. Next groups should be formed and a list modules?
of 5 ideas produced from the first category which the • The timing of training, for example will the training
participants are keen to pursue. Individual team take one hour, one day, one week or will it be
members should then commit to championing each developed as a series of modules over six months?
idea through to implementation .• The level of training, for example is the training
designed foe senior managers, middle managers,
The key to brainstorming is to get the team to think supervisors?
freely and to produce as many ideas as possible. The • The specified training need, for example is it to fill
evaluation process should always be left to the end. a gap in the learning, knowledge, skill, attitude or
The purpose is to get people to have a 'can do' mindset, is it perhaps to bridge a business need?
not a 'wouldn't worR, 'can't do' one.
The purpose of evaluation is generally to improve
Encouraging a team to think in a free-wheeling, the quality of training, considering aspects such as
brainstorming way will spark creative ideas and make trainer delivery, methods, length, content; to assess
training or meetings more fun. the effectiveness of the overall programme, to justify
Figure 3.7 The evaluation chain Timing -learning level evaluation takes place during
the training event. It provides feedback on the
training process and the individual's training needs.
Benefits - it assesses how well the learning - knowledge, Who is involved? - trainers, line managers, senior
skills and attitudes - have been applied at work and management and others, such as human resources.
is therefore a most critical and valuable stage.
Process - identify the key organisation performance
Issues - this level of evaluation is frequently the least indicators at the training needs analysis stage. For
well planned and conducted. Its effectiveness is example, for a safety managing programme,
dependent upon the training needs analysis being performance indicators might include accident
properly conducted at the outset. statistics, claims record, staff generated safety
initiatives and the willingness to report 'near miss'
Who carries it out? - it can involve the learner, the occurrences under a 'no blame' culture.
learner's manager or an external assessor such as
an NVQ assessor. Decide how long the training will take to affect the
indicator. For example, a management programme
Methods - most common methods are that the learner which explores goal setting, coaching and feedback
self-assesses or that the manager assesses learners may take several months to impact on the
either through: performance criteria. It is also important at this stage
to identify any other factors which might impact
• Observation - formal, informal. on the results.
• Self-completed questionnaires.
• Interviews one to one, by telephone or group Set up systems to maintain the results and allocate
interviews. responsibilities for tracking the evaluation.
A graduate of the University of Edinburgh, Elaine Ives holds a Teaching Q,ualification in Further Education from the Jordanhill
Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Professional Studies). She joined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies in
7978 as a lecturer in Meteorology and Applied Science. Her current post is Head of the School of Maritime Studies in the Maritime
Studies Faculty.
John McEnaney joined Ellerman City Liners as a deck cadet in 7967. He obtained his Class 7/Master s Certificate in 7978 and left
Ellerman sin 7980 while serving as Chief Officer. He thenjoined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies as a Lecturer. While
working at G. C.N.S. he has obtained a B.A. from the Open University and a Teaching Qyalification in Further Education from the
Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Teaching). His current post is Resource Manager jOr the Faculty of
Maritime Studies.
Chapter overview
The formal lecture is a form of education which has It is a common failing of inexperienced lecturers
often been criticised. One popular definition of a to attempt to cover too much material in too short a
lecturer is "a person who talks in another person's time. It is a case of "more haste less speed". Students
sleep". This statement can be all too true, particularly are de-motivated if they feel that they are being rushed
when the lecturer has not given sufficient thought to and cannot keep up with the pace of the lecture. It is
the process. Thorough preparation of a lecture is also important that the lecture finishes on time.
essential if the lecturer is to retain the attention of the Students are often given very little time to move from
audience throughout the whole of the time available. one lecture to the next. If one lecturer runs over time
At its best a well prepared, well delivered lecture can the next lecture may be disrupted, so allow for this
be a very forceful means of communication and of when planning.
arousing interest.
The introductory stage of the lecture is crucial to
Introduction its success. The introduction provides the framework
for the whole of the lecture and sends a series of signals
When preparing, the most important fact to resolve is to the audience. Some of these signals are
the purpose of the lecture. This must be clearly unintentional. Rather like the entrance of an actor or
established in the lecturer's mind before any further ac~ress onto a stage, the lecturer must use the first few
planning can proceed. As T.H. Huxley said "Some mm~tes of the lectu~e to gain the attention of the
experiences of popular lecturing had convinced me audIence and establIsh a relationship with them.
that the necessity of making things plain to Making eye contact is a powerful way of establishing
uninstructed people was one of the very best means a rapport. Once established, the lecturer can continue
of clearing up the obscure corners in one's own mind". to use eye contact as an aid to maintaining interest
Once the strategic purpose of the lecture has been and obtaining immediate feedback.
established the specific objectives can then be
identified. The need to bring a lecture to a sensible conclusion
is often not considered to be essential, but an effective
The lecturer must give a realistic appraisal of lecture should have a well planned ending in addition
whether or not there will be sufficient time to deliver to a well planned introduction and structure.
the material. It is vital that the lecturer does not over Summarising the main points of the lecture and the
estimate the knowledge that the student has at the concepts which have linked them assists the students
commencement of the lecturer. The needs of the in subsequent recall of the material. This can be
students are of paramount importance. It is of no important where the lecture is not a stand alone event
benefit to students to hear a lecture which is beyond but part .of a cours~ or series of lectures, where
their grasp and so the content of the lecture must be concepts mtroduced m one lecture carry forward to
adapted to suit their needs. Any knowledge or the subsequent lectures.
concepts essential to the understanding of the lecture
must be revised or introduced during the course of The summary should be concise. This is not the
the lecture. point at which the entire lecture is repeated. It is
In order to use questions effectively they should When simply listening to a lecture students have
be planned, they should also be clear and easy to no visual stimulus. Audio visual material, correctly
understand and if possible short. used, can be a powerful tool for maintaining interest.
It is particularly useful in the case of diagrams and
Another Option is to use "Buzz Groups". These illustrations.
are short sharp student discussions (say 2 to 5 minutes)
based around a small, well defined problem or topic If audio-visual aids are used they must be well
for discussion. prepared. Before constructing a lecture around a range
of audio visual materials it is advisable, whenever
Buzz groups can be used to encourage student possible, to check the facilities which will be available.
participation, student - student learning and idea Even if a video recorder or overhead projector is
interchange. They help develop verbal expression supplied it may be that the physical constraints of the
abilities and most of all provide feedback on the room will restrict their use. They must be easily
lecture, students are more likely to ask/answer accessible to the entire audience.
questions in a larger audience if they have previously
discussed the matter with a few fellow students first.
For some situations a straight (classic) lecture can Boredom: distractions i.e. note taking, reading OHP
be the most appropriate. This is a period of etc. Lack of variety in student activity i.e. listening
uninterrupted talk or presentation. It can be useful only.
when large groups of students are involved (50 or
more) particularly at the early stages of a course to Finally, research indicates an average attention
outline both the syllabus and the course content. It span of most students to be about 20 minutes and also,
can also be useful in helping to present material straight lectures require a great deal of hard work from
gathered from several sources in one presentation and the lecturer.
to allow experts to present findings or opinions thus
encouraging discussion and critical awareness in An alternative format, the broken (step by step)
students. lecture, can be used.
The basic requirements for a straight lecture:- "It is fallacious to assume that learning takes place
when the student merely hears the teacher. There must
a) The lecturer must be seen & heard - "if they haven't be questions, discussions, problems and exercises in
heard it, it hasn't been said". order to maintain a sufficiently high level of interest."
(Powell)
b) His/her voice should be clear, interesting, easy to
listen to and paced. This format assists with the overcoming of the
many problems which arise with the straight lecture
c) Any written or diagrammatic material for OHP particularly those causing the most concern i.e:-
should be readable.
The basic requirements are the same as for the Introduce refinements gradually. Introducing too
straight lecture with the addition of a step by step many difficulties at once causes confusion and leads
structure built around the needs of the learner rather to a lack of understanding. Try to ensure proficiency
than the needs of the lecturer, i.e. with built in feedback at one stage before proceeding to the next. Recap in
from the students through planned questions and buzz stages. Do not postpone all recap until the end of the
groups. However this may not be appropriate with lesson. Students lose interest when they are unable to
large numbers of students as discussion group sizes understand any stage of a lesson and understanding
should be about 3 or 4 people, therefore this type of of any stage may depend on mastery of an earlier one.
lecture only works for numbers less than about 40.
Student participation
A typical structure for an alternative lecture would
be:- Try to make the student anticipate each step you are
going to take i.e. try to present what is required to
10 mins: Introduction and statement of objectives make each step clear before proceeding to it.
using planned questions.
10 mins: Main point. Encourage their activity and participation at all
10 mins: Buzz group based on main point and stages, particularly when producing the summary.
introducing secondary point. They should be able to explain in their own words
10 mins: Second point. what they have learned.
10 mins: Student task based on objectives.
10 mins: Revision using planned questions from For most lecturers the preparation and delivery of
lecturer. lectures is something which they develop over a period
of time. The important thing is to learn from your
As stated earlier regardless of the type it should be experiences. Even the best prepared of lectures may
obvious that for an effective lecture a detailed lesson not go well on a particular day. Analyse your successes
plan must be drawn up prior to delivery. and failures and try to identify ways in which you can
improve. Careful preparation cannot always guarantee
Conclusion success, but a lack of preparation usually results in
failure.
In order to assist with the presentation of a lecture the
following procedures are worth remembering.
Gunther Zade FNI has, since 7983, been professor, vice-rector and academic dean of the World Maritime University (WMU) in
Malmo, Sweden. BefOrejoining WM[1, he worked fOr fifteen years at the Nautical College (Hochschule Jilr Nautik) in Bremen,
Germany, as lecturer, professor, vice-rector and rector.
He was involved in the development of the first postgraduate curriculum fOr WMU in 7982 and early 7983 and has thereafter
contributed to, co-ordinated and continues to coordinate the continuous improvement of its delivery and adaptation to new education
and training needs. In Bremen, he was involved in the changefrom a shipboard-confined curriculum to a shiP-shore curriculum fOr
increasedprofessional ability of master mariners and in the introduction of an academic degreeprogramme.
At WMU he was directly responsible fOr seven years in educating and training nautical, and later also marine engineering,
lecturers. In Bremen he was mainly trained on-the-job as a nautical lecturer and, after additional studies, obtained the German
equivalent of a Master of Science degree in Nautical Studies and Education.
He is a previous and the present chairman of the International Maritime Lecturers' Association (IMLA) and chairman of the
European Commission s concerted action on Maritime Education and Training.
Introduction
to be a widespread understanding that a curriculum
Curriculum development is nothing new. The factors provides planned learning opportunities and
which have to be considered have been known for a experience to students. For the purpose of this text
long time. Curriculum development is a mixture of this basic definition is used.
analysis and design work. It is a practical exercise that
requires common sense and is best done in a team. The following factors should be considered when
Developing a curriculum is by far the best way of developing a curriculum:
learning to do it. So as not to miss important factors
or details, or spend too much time on trial and error, Objectives.
a list of factors which have to be considered when Students.
developing a curriculum can be very helpful in Content.
ensuring an organized and efficient approach. The Level.
following text provides such a list of factors. It is an Methods.
annotated list, providing some details of each factor Materials.
on what has to be taken into account when dealing Media.
with it. Sequence.
Time Allocation.
There are many publications on curriculum Assessment.
development and these often comprise more than two Evaluation.
hundred pages. A summary on curriculum Continuous Improvement.
development like this one has, therefore, to leave out
many details and concentrate on essentials. I have Objectives and students, above all the students'
included what I have found to be essential from my qualifications before starting a curriculum, need to be
own experience in curriculum development for known before the contents of the curriculum can be
students in maritime education and training, students determined. Level, methods, materials, media,
who want to obtain a certificate of competency and sequence and time allocation also have to be
others who have already obtained one. considered. They largely decide the form in which
the curriculum is presented to students. Assessment
Definition and evaluation aim at finding out the effectiveness of
the curriculum and continuous improvement uses the
There is no internationally agreed definition of outcome of assessment and evaluation to improve the
"curriculum" (Print, 1993, pp 7-9)although there seems curriculum.
Educational objectives should specify what each The curriculum is designed to impart knowledge
student should have achieved after having successfully and develop skills which students need to meet the
completed a curriculum, i.e. what the student is curriculum objectives. It is therefore important to be
expected to know or to be able to do. Objectives can aware of the knowledge and skills of the students
be general (the student knows and understands legal before they enter the curriculum. Generally, three
provisions for performing his duties on board) or aspects have to be considered when identifying such
specific (the student understands and is able to apply a "starting point"; general and vocational education,
Rule 19 of the Rules of the Road). "General" and the professional experience of students and their
"specific" should not be taken as rigid categories. learning style - their motivation.
The use of "knows", "understands", "is able to Somebody with a general education of 12 years
apply" indicates a hierarchical classification of with A levels in mathematics, physics and other
educational objectives. "Apply" is more than sciences can be taught the same subjects in a different
"understand" and "understand" is more than "know". way to somebody who has completed a general
The complete "ranking" of a widely used hierarchy education of 8 years. Somebody with a few years
consists of "evaluate" (highest), "synthesize", "analyse", experience as a ship's officer can be taught the same
"apply", "understand" and "know" (Bloom, 1956, subjects in a different way to somebody who has served
Book 1). Other verbs than those mentioned can be as a rating or has not had shipboard experience at all.
used for specifying objectives as, for example,
demonstrate, describe, explain, compare and use. The learning style of younger people and adults is
Preferably they should relate to a class or a level in a to some degree different so it is important to take into
hierarchy of educational objectives. account the average age of the students and their
learning experiences when developing a curriculum.
The literature on curriculum development often
also contains a hierarchy of educational objectives by In the affective domain, it is important to obtain
naming the aims (most general), goals and objectives an understanding of the motivation with which
(most specific). This semantically different students begin a curriculum and which general attitude
classification is neglected in this text because the range they have to it.
between general and specific objectives can be used
to substitute for such "ranking".
For a ship shore curriculum, graduates of maritime Student involvement and interactive teaching are
colleges working in the maritime sector ashore could the key words to effective teaching. Methods which
be interviewed as to what qualifications they were provide for them should preferably be used. The
missing when they left the sea for the shore. Their method of teaching may be influenced by the media
employers could be asked what they found missing in used (see paragraph 7 - Media).
the qualifications of deck or engineer officers when
they came ashore. Teaching can be seen as an information transfer
from teacher to students. The teacher must.be able to
For short refresher courses, the contents should be "send" the information on a "frequency" on which
rather obvious as the contents of the course are based students can "receive" it. The information should be
on previously provided curricula. For short upgrading given in "manageable doses" (for the students) and in
courses, an assessment of the potential students a logical order. The teacher should obtain feedback
training needs, preferably in cooperation with them on whether his information has been "received" by
or their employees, is normally the most effective the student and has been understood. The students
approach. "intake" of information is facilitated by the teacher's
use of additional stimuli besides "talk and chalk".
4 Level Teacher's gestures, visually presented keywords,
diagrams, pictures and also audiovisual stimuli
With what level of presentation can students cope? enhance the effectiveness of teaching.
The level has to be determined at which the content It is useful (as for education in the affective domain)
should or can be taught so that students are enabled to provide students with the opportunity for group
to cope with the curriculum. The appropriate level work and independent work.
can be derived from the information about the
students. Teaching methods can differ depending on what is
being taught. The teaching of concepts may have to
A student with A levels in mathematics and physics be approached in a different way than the teaching of
can be taught navigation mainly as applied practical details.
mathematics and physics. A student with eight years
general education cannot be taught navigation in the A good teacher knows the entire range of
same way; the student may need some upgrading in possibilities and makes use of the most appropriate
mathematics and physics before he can successfully ones for the students.
be taught navigation but even then the mathematics
and physics used will probably be less advanced than 6 Materials
for the better educated student.
What textbooks are to be used? What scripts have to
The level is often defined by the level of abstraction be prepared?
and generalization with which students can cope. It
may be inefficient to teach master mariner students
These media provide various stimuli and the Time allocation should be based on the ability of
advanced ones can be used interactively. Simulators the students, or rather on the ability of a fictitious
help reduce the training job gap (see paragraph 1 - "average student", to cope with a certain amount of
Objectives) and facilitate the transfer of training to information and on the effectiveness of the teaching
shipboard reality. to provide such information. Two major mistakes can
be made - to allocate too little time or to allocate too
It is wrong to believe that the use of advanced much. Too little time leaves students behind and
technology automatically improves a curriculum. The unable to cope with the information presented. They
teacher needs to be familiar with the potential of the will then "give up". Too much time leads to students
technology and how it can best be used for students. being bored and losing interest. If these mistakes
It is here where considerable shortcomings exist. cannot be prevented by a correct assessment of the
Having a simulator at one's disposal does not mean students' abilities in the first "run" of a curriculum,
much if the necessary experience is not available for then they can best be identified through an interactive
using it effectively. The use of simulators in a teaching style.
curriculum has to be approached with consideration
and care, as has the use of other media.
Summary 11 Evaluation:
Use assessments as well as other methods such as,
I Objectives: for example, questionnaires and interviews. Make
Define general and specific educational objectives, own teacher evaluation, compare with student
observing the hierarchy of educational objectives. evaluation. Involve external experts in evaluation
Concentrate on educational objectives in the of, above all, comprehensive curricula.
Rear Admiralj.H.S McAnally LVO, Flag Officer Training and Recruiting, was born in 1945 and educated at Willington and
U7estminsterSchools. He entered the Royal Navy, through a scholarshiP to Dartmouth, in 1962. A graduate of the long and advanced
navigation courses, he has navigated seven ships including a U.S. destroyer, an Australian frigate, an aircraft carrier and HMY
BRITANNIAfrom where he was made LVO. Shore appointments have comprised a year teaching navigation at HMS DRYAD, Fleet
Programming Officer to CINCFLEET andfour Ministry of Defence appointments. He has been Executive Officer of the destroyerHMS
BIRMINGHAM and commanded the minehunter IVESTON, thefrigates TORQUAY, ALACRITY, ARIADNE and HERMIONE
and the 6th Frigate Squadron.
Admiral McAnally completed the RN Staff Course in 1978, was a member of the Royal College of Defence Studies in 1992 and
subsequently of the British Army's Higher Command and Staff Course before becoming Director of Naval Logistics Policy in 1993.
From 1994 to 1996 he was Director of Naval Staff Duties and deputy to the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff He was promoted to Rear
Admiral on taking up the appointment of Flag Officer Training and Recruiting and Chief Executive of the Naval Recruiting and
Training Agency injanuary 1996. Admiral McAnally lives in Old Portsmouth and London.
Chapter Overview
equipment and a large fleet with large crews able to
The Royal Navy today remains capable of delivering provide the necessary spare capacity for training.
formidable firepower worldwide. Every Navy wants However, as ships companies decrease in size, as the
well designed ships fitted with the most effective Fleet has got smaller and with advances in weapon
equipment it can afford, managed and operated by and propulsion technology, shore-based training has
what remains the most important single factor, highly become increasingly necessary to achieve an
trained men and women. This training must be appropriate level of operational competence before
undertaken in an increasingly stringent budgetary joining a ship.
regime and must, therefore, also be delivered cost
effectively. The obvious question which needs to be
continually addressed is "what is the appropriate
To achieve this the Royal Navy introduced the RN level?" It becomes more acute with higher technology
Systems Approach to Training (RNSAT). The system and a smaller ship's company. For example, a Type
is cyclical in operation and follows the path of job 23 frigate packs more punch than a World War II
analysis, course design, instruction and evaluation. By cruiser with around one fifth of the ship's company.
using this model the Fleet is assured of receiving the Operational competence becomes more important
best quality personnel, in the required numbers, at with a smaller Navy and an even tighter budget. This
the right time because training is focused on achieving chapter describes how the Royal Navy deals with this
the operational requirement, effectively and efficiently. problem which is compounded by an environment of
continually changing operational requirements and the
Introduction necessity continually to justify the human and material
resources needed. Our tool, the Royal Naval Systems
The Royal Navy has a longer history of successful Approach to Training (RNSAT) was introduced during
achievement in maritime warfare than any other navy. the 1970s, and is now viewed by many both in industry
Often success was gained against greater odds and/or and the military as a controlled, adaptable and
more capable technology. Hence the RN phrase" the manageable quality system which enables the
greatest single factor" to describe the importance of appropriate level to be determined and then achieved.
its people.
To appreciate why a system is needed, what it is
In the earlier days of sail and up to the beginning and how it should work, this chapter focuses on the
of this century the majority of naval training was objectives of naval training, establishes the justification
performed at sea because of common low technology for a systems approach to training and describes the
The purpose of a Systems Approach to Training (SAT) d) E~cessive De~ands ~n. the Fleet
is to provide a framework for delivering the training WIthout e~fectIv~ tramm~ ashore ther~ :v
ould be
required to ensure that personnel can carry out a an unsust~mable mcrease m OnJob Trammg (OJT)
specific job, duty or task in the operational afloat, whIch would reduce operational capability.
environment. Fundamentally, the SAT process
features a loop of interdependent activities to ensure . T~erefore the RNSAT follows four fundamental
that the operational requirement is met, and to deliver pnnClples:-
the flexibility to reflect changes in that operational .....
requirement. This can be represented dia- a) All :rammg ISdenved from an m-depth analysis of
grammatically as shown in figure 6.2:- the Job.
The phases of the RNSAT may be represented Each of these specialist areas require different
diagrammatically as shown in figure 6.3 above. training. Thus every job within the Royal Navy has
its own "Training Pipeline", embracing a combination
In summary, all good systems are based upon of both general and very specific training courses
simple models. The RNSAT is no different. External which, with on job experience, provides the
Quality Control helps evaluate trainees against the appropriate core, peripheral and marginal skills from
operational requirement and therefore is a measure New Entry up to the Job Holder. The full range of
of effectiveness. Internal Quality Control investigates types of training which the Royal Navy has adopted
how well the training execution has met the training is as follows:-
objectives and is therefore a measure of efficiency.
Initial Training
One further factor also needs to be addressed. Training given immediately on joining at BRNC
Training alone can never create the "Master Dartmouth (28 weeks for Officers) and HMS
Performer". To do his other job and develop full RALEIGH (8 weeks for Ratings).
potential, the trainee also requires development
achieved through job experience and a degree of Career Training
education. These three concepts can be explained as Training, of varying length, given at set points in
shown in figure 6.4:- both Officer and Rating career paths.
Prejoining Training
In-depth training given for specific pieces of
equipment fitted in different ship types, very much
focused on achieving 'Just Enough, Just in Time"
training.
On Job Training
Training conducted in operational billets which
cannot be provided in shore training
Breadth and depth of Royal Naval establishments. It is usually controlled by a Task
.. Book and set on-board training routines.
tr ammg
..... Continuation Training
a~ rships contam a commumty of speCIalIsts all Repeat core and peripheral skill training which is
mterdependent on one another e.g:- carried out to maintain Fleet operational
.. effectiveness. This includes both ship and squadron
a) War~are specialIsts to use the weapons and sensors, exercises plus the use of shore Command Team and
b) NavIgators and seamen, Tactical Trainers.
FOST Flag Officer Sea Training Operational sea training of surface ships
RN Submarine School at HMS DOLPHIN, Gosport a) The Staff College employs 16 instructors teaching
overlooks the entrance to Portsmouth harbour. As the an average of 170personnel a day covering Special
lead school for RN submarine training, it takes warfare Duties officers on promotion training, the Initial
and weapons engineer officers and ratings from basic Staff Course and Staff Course. Staff training is due
submarine courses through most of their career courses to relocate to an interim site at Bracknell in
as well as pre joining training on specific equipment. September 1997 with a permanent site, yet to be
It runs 171different courses and has a staff of 199 with determined, planned for 1999.
an average daily total of 163 trainees.
b) The Department of Nuclear Science and
HMS TEMERAIRE is located at Burnaby Road in Technology (DNST), provides training in support
Portsmouth and comprises the Royal Naval School of of the Naval requirements for officers within the
Physical Training and the Directorate of Naval Physical Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme. In addition,
Training and Sport. The buildings include a 33 metre DNST provides support to the Procurement, Fleet
swimming pool, squash courts and a gymnasium. The Support and Naval Base Directorates General and
school runs 11 different courses employing 6 their subcontractors, assisting them in meeting their
instructors teaching an average of 28 trainees a day. mandatory nuclear training requirements. DNST
employs 22 civilian and 11 Royal Navy instructors
RN School of Educational and Training teaching an average of 50 students per day on 25
Technology is a lodger unit within HMS NELSON. courses. DNST is due to relocate to either RRA
The school trains instructors both in classroom Derby or HMS SULTAN in approximately
techniques and the practical environment including October 1998.
computer based training (CBT) as well as carrying out
audits of the training system in training establishments. Flagship Training Limited is the marketing arm of
The school employs 24 instructors teaching an average the partnering arrangement with the NRTA. The
of 25 trainees a day on 7 different courses lasting up headquarters are located at:
to 6 weeks. 223 Southampton Road
Pauls grove
Portsmouth
Hampshire P06 4QA
United Kingdom
- SECfION II -
Alston Kennerley served at sea as apprentice and deck officer with Alfred Holt & Co., a period which included nearly a year aboard the
four mast barque Passat. He then pursued an academic career,for many years teaching professional coursesfor merchant seafarersfrom
cadets to masters. Forfourteen years he also taught on the in-service teacher training coursefor teachers in further and higher education
and for seven years was head of information services in the Learning Resources Centre of Plymouth Polytechnic where he developed a
range of study skills courses.
Captain Kennerley is past Secretary and Chairman of the Maritime Information Association. In recentyears he has been director of
undergraduate courses in the Institute of Marine Studies at the University of Plymouth. Amongst his researchactivities Alston Kennerley
has long been involved in the study of the history of education and training in the mercantile marine, but has also been active in the
study of modern provision through involvement with The Nautical Institute and the International Maritime Lecturers' Association. He
has published a number of reports on maritime education and training in Seaways, is a long serving member of the Education and
Training Committee of The Nautical Institute and has been its Chairman for a number of years.
Captain Michael Vanstone commenced his seagoing career in 7976 with Shaw Savill beforejoining British Underwater Engineering
where he achieved command in 7997. In 7993 he moved to BT (Marine) where he was assigned, with others, to develop modern
training methods for the company.
Due to the successof the developed materials Mike and two colleagues have now established their own company, TechnovoTraining
Systems Ltd., Southampton, to deliver these modern training applications, including computer assisted learning and electronic NVQ,
recording and assessment systems into the marketplace.
Introduction
utilised method for the transfer of information,
Computer generated and electronic training methods
increasingly so because of the availability of this
of one sort or another are rapidly becoming the
equipment in homes and offices. CD-ROM
trainers number one tool in delivery of information
technology has been with us for some time and due to
and instruction into the workplace. Many differing
its large data capacity, perhaps replacing
technologies are available for use so much so that it
approximately 400 or 450 of the standard computer
would be impossible to cover all of them in a paper of
discs, it is becoming a popular platform for the delivery
this size. For this reason this paper will deal with some
of training and instruction into the workplace.
of the most common media available at this time, as
these are the most likely to be experienced by trainers
The CD-ROM resembles the audio CD-ROM now
entering the training field for the first time. The areas
commonly available, the information being stored on
that will be covered are computer aided learning, CD-
the disc in the form of a binary system code. The disc
i or compact disc interactive. The principle of
is inserted into a CD-ROM player installed as a
"Telematics" and its component parts, video training,
hardware component in the computer. There may be
the Internet and "on-line" training, virtual reality and
a brief and straight forward installation process or the
the principle of training when experiencing "total
training process can be started immediately, directly
immersion". Finally a brieflook forward into the future
from the inserted CD. Users have the ability to select
to see some of the emerging systems that will become
specific parts of the training or even specific subjects.
available in the next few years.
Due to the large storage capacity available on the disc
and the ability of the average computer to play audio,
Generally training material can be developed as
still and display good video images it is ideal where a
either a "generic" programme, that is training that is
large amount of information needs to be stored and
common and can be delivered and used over a wide
relayed 'on demand'. The material shown is of high
range of companies or organisations. Alternatively it
quality and most programs can be purchased at a
can be commissioned for a specific use and be
reasonable price.
"bespoke" where the developed training programme
is produced for a specific area of interest or an
This form of technology supports training directly
individual company internal procedure or operation.
in the workplace during the training period.
Commonly, companies will have trainers coaching
Computer based CD-ROM: multimedia individuals as and when required. These trainers can
in the workplace help the trainee to identify when CD programs can
be used to their best effect and how the process can
The principles and designs of computer assisted form an integral part of the individual's training plan.
learning (CAL) have already been covered under "The This retains the direct contact between student and
development of computer based instructional trainer in the workplace to the benefit of both parties.
programs" which forms the next chapter of this book. This technology does not replace the trainer but will
In general the CD-ROM is fast becoming the most support and enhance their overall capability.
It is always worth remembering that these The world, perhaps, is no longer seen to be divided
processes are here to support the training delivery and by latitude and longitude lines but perhaps by
when used correctly can be very powerful. communication links and accessibility to them. It has
been suggested that these links will make the world
The time and method of their use needs to be "borderless". Fewer controls on the transfer of
identified by the trainer, so as to structure the information, ideas and theories country to country,
assembled information in a form the student continent to continent, will exist. Some possible
understands and from which they can actively gain examples of how this may happen are demonstrated
benefits. The trainers and in-company mentors will in this chapter in the teleconferencing and Internet
support the transfer of the practical and soft skills using sections.
experience gained over time and this process will
always remain as necessary and important as it ever This is not as critical as it first appears but it does
was to the student. Electronic training methods are have very exciting prospects for both trainers and
being shown to be effective and at the same time cost trainees because this "electronic information
effective. These modern techniques were moulded migration" (ElM) will greatly improve the knowledge
around the traditional principles of training that have and awareness of trainers and trainees on an
been used for many years. international basis rather than just a national basis.
This should support and foster greater understanding
Where next? future advances and co-operation between nations on all aspects of
training policy, standards and certification, particularly
in industries where national interests coincide or
Technological advances within the Internet and other
services over the next few years may make registration overlap such as shipping and other maritime activities.
with a specific supplier of services obsolete.
As a consequence and with the appropriate
Information, perhaps, may be transmitted by a range
communication links, electronic training delivery
of companies in such a way that it is always on line
utili sing interactive training techniques and the wide
even if you are not 'watching'. In other words it may
variety of information potentially available will almost
begin to operate in a similar way to the broadcasts of
certainly increase the effectiveness of training in our
an average television company. However, the user will
future world, "virtual" or otherwise.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
COMPUTER BASED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI
Captain Michael Vanstone commenced his sea going career in 7976 with Shaw Savill beforejoining British Underwater Engineering
where he achieved command in 7997. In 7993 he moved to BT (Marine) where he was assigned, with others, to develop modern
training methods for the company.
Due to the success of the developed materials Mike and two colleagues have now established their own company, Technovo Training
Systems Ltd., Southampton to deliver these modern training applications, including Computer assisted learning and electronic NVQ,
recording and assessment systems into the marketplace.
Overview
Companies are recognising that the driving force for them at some stage of our careers. In general
their operational success when competing in global computers are considered as a tool for undertaking
markets is customer satisfaction, operational certain arduous or repetitive tasks. In recent years the
excellence and continuous improvement. use of computers has expanded dramatically. One such
Development of a company's human resource remains use is the delivery of training and the benefits gained
a key ingredient in these goals and objectives. by training individuals in the workplace with
Consequently the provision of the most modern information at their fingertips.
training methods and systems continues to assist and
benefit the development of peoples knowledge, skills The process of computer assisted learning has been
and attributes. Technovo Training Systems Ltd. has available for some two decades now, However, the
for some years been developing bespoke computer production of such programs tended to require very
based instructional programs to support this principle high programming skills and, as a consequence, made
and support the methods used to train individuals in many of the programs costly to produce. Because of
the workplace. this, programs tended to concentrate in areas of
simulation to replace activities that could not be safely
In this chapter I outline some of the principles and completed in the workplace. Such examples are pilot
procedures that are required for companies to develop training facilities using flight simulators and where the
a Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) program. produced program provided the most cost effective
Commonly this process is undertaken by dedicated solution. For many individuals the first contact with
companies such as ours. However, perhaps you may computer assisted learning, sometimes known as
at some stage be responsible for technical input into, computer based training (CBT), probably would have
or control of a project to develop such a program. been the "tutorial" programs supplied with new
The following information will guide and assist you software. These initial "self help" packages were
in producing a good quality and effective product to probably the forerunner of the more detailed and
meet business and customer requirements. flexible computer based training packages that are now
available. We have moved on considerably since these
Introduction to computer based earlier programs, both in efficiency and reduced costs
training media for production, but even today tutorial sections are
commonly used.
Before we look at some of the methods of developing
a computer based instructional program an What is computer assisted learning?
introduction to the concept is in order.
Computerisation on one system type or another is CAL is a method of presenting a preprogrammed
steadily becoming commonplace, even in smaller schedule of events using a computer. The events can
companies, who are now recognising the considerable comprise audio, text, photographs, graphics and
benefits computers can deliver. It is fairly certain, moving pictures in the form of video and/or
therefore, that most of us will come into contact with animations in any combination. This technology
a) Programming the computer using a language and These icons or a combination of icons can be
methods understood by the computer software installed on the new pathway in the required order
system. This method is normally used by those with by selecting with the mouse pointer and dragging and
detailed programming skills. dropping them along the initial displayed path on the
worksheet area. Information relating to their function
b) The utilisation of a specialist software package, or action in the form of text, graphics, photographs,
which, partly by-passes the need for programming speech and video etc. is then entered by the developer
skills but still requires particular expertise in its within each icon as they are installed. When the
utilisation. computer is directed to run the developed program,
"icons" operate in the sequence in which they were
As the former is normally completed within established. They complete their preprogrammed
specialised programming companies the latter method function and show or play any additional information
may be the most likely to be experienced by trainers included by the developer. This is the initial
contemplating developing all or part of the process. development process from which the full blown multi-
Therefore this is the process that is described in the media training program be~ns to evolve. Information
following sections. Even so, the development can be entered by "opening-up" the icon to a larger
principles between these two methods are very similar. worksheet area onto which the particular part of the
training can be developed.
When the completed storyboard text is received
from the editor the multimedia author needs to There are various programs in existence so these
understand the concept and the principles behind the processes may differ slightly, depending on the
developed training and, from this information, be able software used. Much of the training information can
to build up a picture of how the material is finally to be inserted using either the keyboard and/or mouse.
be presented with greatest effect. It is possible that However, any audio, video, graphical and
the storyboard editor and the multimedia author are photographic inserts require the use of additional
the same person. However, as already mentioned in equipment and computer software for their
the previous section, it is more likely that they are preparation for use, e.g. scanner, sound recorders etc.
different people and because of this they should have Development continues until the icon events
conversed regularly. This ensures the concepts and containing all the necessary training have been
principles behind the training are already known and completed according to the storyboard specification,
understood and as such will progress the work that in the correct order, and in the style originally
much more easily. There are a number of commercial envisaged by the storyboard editor and client
systems available for the development of multi-media company.
which allow the insertion of text, graphics,
photographs, video and audio on a limited scale fairly Development of the computer program
quickly. However, until sufficient skills are obtained
in the use of the development software only very basic In general any information included on individual
and short programs can be expected to be produced. screens must be clear and avoid congestion.
For more complicated program developments the Overloading screens with too much information only
User actions and interactions Many schools, even those for younger children,
are investing in the process and installing computer
One of the benefits of multimedia is that it seeks to terminals and basic computer assisted learning
include the student by interaction. In general, technology directly into classrooms. These young
interactions should be developed to enable the student people, the future work force, are already becoming
to investigate and explore objects and information very adept at using computers in all parts of their life
displayed on the screen. For example, putting together - so much so that they are rapidly becoming a
an electrical circuit, or user insertion of additional common feature in private homes for entertainment
words or sentences to form correct factual statements. and education. Major advances within the Internet
Alternatively the screen can be provided with areas service are now allowing the provision of
known as "hot spots" or places on screen such that if a computerised information and education on an
point and click of the mouse is completed anywhere increasing scale, made available wherever you are.
on this small area further information is revealed. This
could be a more detailed breakdown of that part of An enormous amount of reference material is
the process or equipment under discussion. In more available via this process in addition to some computer
advanced interactions valves can be opened and assisted learning and training facilities. This can be
closed, switches operated, machinery started and on utilised while 'connected on line', sometimes with the
screen gauges can indicate actual readings. assistance, if required, of an individual tutor who can
be based at a central location. Alternatively the
Questioning in its many forms is another type of material can be used when disconnected from the
During a seafaring career sapnning 15 years, Michael served on a variety of vessels,from passenger shiPs to VLCCs and latterly on
chemical tankers as chief officer.
He came ashore in 1982 to conduct research at the Department of Maritime Studies, University of Wales and was a awarded a
doctoratefor his work in the development of marine simulator training programmes.
Since 1985 he has lectured and advised extensively on petro-chemical tanker safety in the UK and overseas. He now directs the
Research Section and is a member of the UK delegation to the STW Sub-committee at IMO. His research interests include instructional
system design and manpower issues.
Overview
industries within the UK, and an internal seminar
This article describes the findings of a research project with members of the Warsash Maritime Centre
to investigate the effectiveness of marine simulators. (WMC) with simulator experience.
The project was funded by the Marine Safety Agency
and their Project 340 Report was published in The first seminar was directed primarily at the users
November 1995. The research team from the Warsash of simulators in the UK maritime colleges and
Maritime Centre was Dr. Mike Barrett, Captain academic institutions. The second seminar invited
George Angas, Steven Stallwood, Peter Barber, Rob delegates from other industries with an interest in
Sawers and Mrs. Thelma Poole. The MSA Project simulation, for example, from civil aviation, nuclear
Officer was Pat Dolby. These extracts from that report power and the Royal Navy, and involved both
are reproduced with kind permission of the MSA. operators and representatives of industrial lead bodies.
• Three seminars - two external seminars involving The literature review revealed that experience from
both Southampton Institute staff and invited the Services had indicated that one of the problems
delegates from the maritime and other relevant associated with the introduction of new or upgraded
1. New training devices, including simulators, should Simulation can also include situations where real
be designed and constructed as a result of a Training objects are being used in a simulated environment,
Analysis to a specification based on specific training for example, warships used in exercises at Plymouth;
objectives. Where existing training devices are used whole aircraft engines for maintenance training, and
for new programmes, they must be capable of signals applied to real navigational equipment in a
satisfying the specific training objectives. Equally, laboratory.
additional features of the training device should not
detract from the attainment of specific training The notion of a "simulator" contains an element
objectives. of an object specially designed for a purpose. It is
suggested therefore that a simulator, in addition to
2. The effectiveness of training is dependent on the other features it may possess, must satisfy all the
successful interaction of many components. It is following requirements:-
often said that the single most important component
in simulator training is the instructor and not the 1. It includes a piece, or pieces, of apparatus; (e.g. not
hardware. Both the quality of the course design and role-playing).
the motivation of the trainee are also important
factors. 2. It has been designed for a purpose, or purposes;
(e.g. if that purpose is training and/or assessment,
3. If the specific training objectives comprise it should satisfy specific objectives).
standards, expressed as explicit performance
criteria, training can be geared to the individual, 3. Some aspect of the reality it mimics will have been
for example, training may continue, or remedial deliberately omitted (otherwise it is the real object
training be provided, until the required level of in a simulation).
proficiency has been reached.
4. The device allows an operator to acquire a new
4. Systematic testing of trainee performance prior to skill; or practice and/or demonstrate an acquired
and after the training programme, as well as one; (this may also include knowledge and/or
attitudes).
In civil aviation, simulator design and development In summary, conclusive empirical evidence of
progressed with the aim of producing the highest positive transfer seems to vary from one study to another.
physical fidelity level possible under the assumption Although it may be impossible to quantity, expert opinion
that realism must lead to good training. However, across a range of industries suggests that high fidelity
doubts have emerged about the validity of that simulators do provide a cost-effective training benefit.
assumption. It has been suggested that what is What is more of an issue is to what extent can effective
important in relation to the fidelity of a simulator is training still be maintained when the physical dimension
not stimuli themselves, but the presentation of cues. of fidelity is lowered. This suggests that comparisons
For example, a stimulus may be a flashing light or an between different levels of fidelity and different types of
alarm bell. The purpose of training is to learn the simulator might be more important than general studies
meaning attached to that stimulus so that the proper of transfer from high fidelity replica simulators to the
response can be made. As stimuli gain meaning, and work place. Figure 10.2 illustrates a matrix relating
that meaning is learnt, then the stimuli become cues (2). physical fidelity to different types and stages of training.
There are plenty of anecdotes in a number of Where simulators are used for training in "normal"
industries to testify to the value of simulator training. steady-state operations, such as standard watch
There have been incidents where operators have keeping tasks, then mere substitution, i.e. one day on
handled emergencies successfully, and afterwards have a simulator is worth one day on a ship, is more
attributed their success to their simulator training. In questionable. Experience on ship's bridge simulators
the marine world, Masters have conducted difficult suggests that this type of watchkeeping substitution is
manoeuvres for the first time on a real ferry, after an not very effective for two major reasons:-
appropriate simulator course, and testified to the
effectiveness of the training. Course critiques 1. The simulator cannot provide all the external cues
completed by the students themselves are widely used which make up the total shipboard experience.
at the conclusion of marine simulator courses. A third
source of user opinion is that provided by the major 2. The length of time to make substitution worthwhile,
sponsors of simulator training, the shipping companies. i.e. days or weeks on a simulator, makes it non cost-
effective.
It is considered across a range of different industries
employing simulators that subjective opinions, despite There may be potential value in remission of sea-
their limitations, from simulator instructors, often time, i.e. a day on a simulator is worth more than one
expert practitioners themselves, from the trainees, day on a ship, through the use of simulators.
whether novices or experienced personnel, and the
reactions of their sponsors, do provide overwhelming Traditional forms of training, using time spent in
and positive evidence of the training effectiveness of the work place as a way of ensuring competency, are
simulators. based on the principle that through a series of
experiences, a trainee will absorb sufficient knowledge
There are also other features of simulators which and develop adequate skills so that when presented
are considered important in training effectiveness and with a novel situation, he will be able to deal with it
these include, in no particular order:- effectively. This type of experiential learning relies on
a sufficient length of time for enough sets of
1. Versatility and upgrade ability of the device. circumstances to arise, and a sufficient length of time
for reflection and synthesis, before an individual takes
2. User friendliness of the device for the trainee. on responsibility.
3. User friendliness of the device for the instructor, Despite its apparently haphazard nature, this form
including ability to set up initial conditions easily of "apprenticeship" has undoubtedly been effective
and inject malfunctions etc. in producing mature, competent individuals. The idea
of allowing qualifying periods of sea-time to be
4. Flexibility of the device; i.e. that it can be altered shortened through the use of simulators is based on
to provide different levels of training by adding or the concept that a simulator is not merely a
removing cues as necessary. replacement for the work place, but that the training
programme associated with it provides improved
5. Monitoring, recording, playback and freeze/fast conditions for learning.
forward features of computer based simulators.
These contribute to improved feedback to the Experience with current levels of sea-time
student. remission suggests that relatively modest levels have
not proved detrimental. For example, a two week
Simulators and their substitution for Bridge Watchkeeping Preparatory Course may be
work experience eligible for six weeks sea-time remission. However,
attempts to shorten sea periods through the use of
simulators should be viewed with caution for the
Where simulators provide the only safe way to train,
following reasons:-
for example, in emergency response, or handling
particularly hazardous situations, then the substitution
1. Experiential learning requires time for reflection
can be total. In this context, the use of simulation
and repetition.
demonstrates one of its fundamental benefits.
5. Within an approved programme specifying the use 3. To assess performance not able to be assessed in
of simulators, the individual apparatus is required any other way.
to meet certain minimum criteria.
Simulator Transfer
A device, designed to satisfy specific objectives, which Transfer refers to the degree to which new learning is
mimics part of a real situation in order to allow an dependent on old. Measurement of transfer deals with
operator to practice and/or demonstrate competence the degree to which learning one task is facilitated by
in, an operation in a controlled environment. the prior learning of another (from Allerton and Ross
(1991) op cit.).
Roger Syms is a lecturer and manager (simulation) at the Australian Maritime College. After a varied career at sea hejoined the college
in 1986. His deep sea experience was mainly in tankers, starting with British Petroleum and then moving to the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.
In 1969 he gained his degree in Nautical Studies at Plymouth Polytechnic. The major part of his career was served in Hoverlloyd
and Hoverspeed as Navigator, Captain and subsequently Flight Manager.
Sincejoining the collegehe has been involved in shiphandling and high speed navigation courses as well as a number of consultancies
and is currently involved in the development of new simulation facilities at the AMG.
At the outset, if we are to examine the subject of Although the maritime world is a latecomer to
simulation and who is best qualified as a simulation simulation it has arrived at a time of unprecedented
instructor it is important to understand that simulation developments in technology. The exponential curve
in itself is not a subject. At least, not in the sense that of computer capability and capacity, starting slowly
it is a subject to be included in any modern marine in the sixties and seventies, has now reached the point
education curriculum. Simulation, in whatever form of free climb vertically up the graph. The last five years
it might be, sophisticated or otherwise, is simply a have probably seen greater development than the
teaching tool no different than sayan overhead preceding fifteen. Mainframe computers that would
projector or a video machine. Why should we, have been regarded with wonder even 10 years ago
therefore, refer to someone as a simulation instructor? are now seen as dinosaurs compared with desktop PCs,
We might as well refer to others as whiteboard which may have 100,000 times more capacity. The
instructors or overhead projector instructors, which is effect on marine simulation of this development has
plainly ridiculous. been two-fold. First it has provided massive increases
in the ability to simulate the real world. Second, and
The fact is that just as we expect most people in perhaps more importantly, this development has been
any education field to be at least basically computer accompanied by a corresponding and equally
literate we should expect all instructors in any marine dramatic drop in cost. Today, relatively sophisticated
institution using simulators to be comfortable in their simulation is available to even the smallest of
operation and use. institutions, whereas just a few years ago it was only
available to the few that could afford it.
It is true to say that compared with the aero world,
which has been using real time simulation since the In generational terms we are probably in the
1930s, simulation is a very new toy in maritime transition between the 3rd and 4th. First generation
training. Fully capable "out of the window" simulators marine systems appeared in the early 60s and were
have only been in use generally for the past 15 or 20 simple radar simulators using a simple analogue
years. There is a feeling that we still are yet to come technology to provide a few moving targets on the
of age before we can fully accept and integrate radar screen. The advent of the microchip saw the
simulation into our training programs. The definitive further development of these radar-only systems into
book on how to use simulation as an effective tool for more sophisticated radar/navigation simulators with
any vocational training has yet to be written. both ship and coastline targets and more manoeuvring
Particularly in the maritime world we are all still ability. Third generation systems can be considered
wrestling with problems of assessing the effectiveness to be the shiphandling or full mission simulators that
of simulation both in terms of time and content. started to appear in the late seventies.
Part or component tasking. This takes the idea of speeding up time in the routine
Compression of events. sequences a stage further by factoring time across the
Time factoring. whole exercise. Currently there are few in the
simulation training world who are taking this
Part or component tasking possibility seriously but it remains a capability of
simulation that cannot be ignored.
This is probably the most commonly used distortion
when only part of the real world task and environment It has been shown in human factor research that
is simulated and exercised. It can be further sub- mild speed stress is a useful spur to the learning process
divided into these main types:- and for that reason alone it is worth some
experimentation. More sophisticated modern
Instrumental - part task simulators such as simulators can provide the ability to factor time in
individual navigation aid simulators have been small increments say 1·1 or 1·2 times reality. This
around for some time. It is also possible to adjustment will hardly be noticed by the students but
component task on individual instrumentation could result in greater training benefits. In fact, in
within a full mission type simulator. experiments at the Australian Maritime College during
routine coastal navigation tasks, students were
Sequence repetition - any part of a sequential series completely unaware that the time had been doubled.
of tasks which in reality may occur infrequently can They were vaguely aware they were working harder
be repeatedly practised in a short time frame. For but were totally ignorant of the time distortion.
example, altering course at a way point in an
accurate manner does not require a three hour real Who needs the instructor?
coastal exercise when the actual turns required may
be infrequent. This is actually part tasking in time. This may seem a silly question in a chapter which deals
with the need for instructor qualification and which
Concurrent - by moving some tasks which would therefore implies a need for the instructor. However,
normally run concurrently with others we can we must not forget that simulation is essentially
concentrate the student's attention more clearly on Computer Based Training (CBT). The whole concept
the task to be learned. It makes sense to have of CBT today is to shift the instructor back a level in
navigation exercises free of anti-collision problems the teaching process and allow students to teach
and vice versa. An intelligent exercise programme themselves via interaction with the program. Why
will not separate elements too completely but should we use simulators differently? One of the most
employ a method of adding and highlighting the successful teaching programmes at AMC in recent
elements to be taught and merely downgrading years has been the Self Assessment program for Master
others rather than including them all together. The Class 1 candidates learning shiphandling in the
aim is to build up a mosaic of required skills and ship handling simulator. Broadly, this program allows
Samar Singh has been responsiblejOr navigation simulator training at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University jOr almost twenty years.
He is Chairman of the International Simulator Lecturer's Conference, a Visiting Professor at the Shanghai Maritime University, and
was a Visiting Professor at the World Maritime University jOr its first ten years.
His research into the aetiology of collisions and groundings was the basisfor his MPhil and doctoral work. He led the researcheffort
to develop a visual simulation facility in Hong Kong, and is the author of several papers on the subject of simulation.
Introduction
This chapter seeks to provide some signposts on the require however is interaction, whether it is with one
uncertain path to developing a competent simulation or more machines and/or one or more persons. It
training facility. Commencing with an explanation of requires some objective and finally it carries the
the enabling role that simulation plays in the marine requirement to conclude with a debrief or evaluation.
environment, and of the simulator manager's place in
that role, we will consider some of the factors that are As modern industry and human activity move from
germane to the process of implementing, running and a phase where the contribution of a human operator
developing a simulator facility. In concluding, this is data retention, to a phase where this contribution
chapter provides some indication of the limitations of moves towards data management, simulation as a
simulation in the context of current systems and medium can be expected to playa greater role in the
practices, and briefly addresses the knotty question of learning process. As our educational system objectives
simulator based assessment. evolve from emphasising teaching to emphasising
learning, simulation will need to be more widely used.
This chapter is written for those who train and As technology provides us more fulsome methods for
educate using radar and navigation simulators. They re-creation of environments, simulation can expect to
will henceforth be referred to as facilitators. The become a more powerful tool for both learning and
detailed task of conducting simulator based education research.
and training is outside the scope of this book. A good
understanding of the relevant sections of the The advent of technology has brought the maritime
International Convention on Standards of Training educator another welcome capability. That is the
and Watchkeeping 1995 (STCW '95) code is assumed, freedom to develop ideas into applications without
and is recommended reading. No attempt is being dependence on manufacturers in respect of virtually
made to replicate the information included in this anything that we have sufficient motivation to do by
code. The term "ship station" has been used to refer ourselves. Hardware of many types can be replicated
to the simulated bridge of which there could be two by a processor, some software and the odd relay and
or more in the typical simulator. These are sometimes stepper motor. This was a unique freedom denied our
referred to as "own ships". predecessors whose only resources very often were
knowledge and chalk. Our challenge today in maritime
Simulation and learning education is to manage our new resources as efficiently
as our predecessors managed theirs.
Simulation means many things to many people. To
many of us it conjures up visions of multi-million dollar The argument for learning from aircraft simulation
investments in high technology with stunning visual practices is seductively superficial. In that latter context
imagery. In fact, the mechanisms of simulation are less simulators are used principally for the inculcation of
important than the process and the outcome. Business psychomotor skills for a specific type of aircraft. In
simulations may require nothing more than a few the maritime environment, the simulator's role is
pieces of paper. Role play to simulate a given situation directed more towards broad based educational
may require just two people. What simulation does development rather than equipment specific skills.
Simulators probably are at their most functional as In the operational environment our senses, such as
integrative, broadening, interactive tools, which our eyes and ears, yield sensory cues. The following
provide a risk free environment, to discover explanation of the human response to sensory cues
relationships between concepts: to expose students to has been derived from Woods [2]. When a problem
problem solving under confusing and ill defined occurs these cues are used by the brain in association
circumstances: and, to develop professional with memory to determine if the problem is a familiar
competence [1]. Whilst this is not intended to deny one or not (figure 12.1). A familiar problem means
the powerful role that simulators can play in skills that access to long term memory is likely to provide
training, it does reflect the fact that a cost/benefit prior episodes which were similar in nature. In such a
analysis would favour its use for the higher order skills case, a mental model is available which determines
that maritime professionals need in the operational the action that we take (figure 12.2).
environment.
Captain Piet Pols was a merchant marine officer with Nedlloyd Lines fOr ten years. He then studied at Vereeniging Corne/is Douwes to
become a teacher at the Nautical Academy at Rotterdam. There he worked fOr another ten years, of which the last year was as the
manager of the education of integrated maritime officers. He has been the Nautical Training Manager of MarineSafety International
Rotterdam b.v. since August 7993.
He has been a volunteer freelance officer of the tall shiP schooner "Eendracht" since 7989 and became one of the captains in 7995.
5. Handle unexpected and emergency situations and The law of exercise states that those things most often
make decisions that are realistic and sensitive to repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of
constraints. practice and drill. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate
and apply new concepts or practices after a single
6. Explain the value and practical use of standard exposure. Every time practice occurs, learning is
operating procedures (SOPs), specified by the reinforced. The course of instruction must ensure that
company. there is time provided for practice. It is also important
for the instructor to ensure that the practice periods
Learning and memory are directed towards the objectives or desired learning
outcome of the lesson at hand. Bridge resource
People tend to associate learning with memory. Many management principles will be much better
instructors consider their endeavour successful if the implemented if supported by simulator exercises.
student can recall the subject matter. Learning,
however, involves much more than just memory. It is Law of intensity
possible for an average person to forget over 55% of
the information that has been learned in the first hour. A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience
Therefore learning must involve the acquisition, teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The
retention and application of a combination of law of intensity implies that a student will learn more
knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In other words, from the real thing than from a substitute. Unlike
learning is more than the acquisition of knowledge. bridge, simulator or shop instruction, the classroom
To have truly learned a concept the student must be or briefing room imposes limitations on the amount
able to recall and to use the knowledge in new of realism that can be brought into teaching. The
situations. instructor should approach reality as closely as
possible. Bridge trainers and posters, maintenance
This is the student's application of what the mockups, spare parts, slides, videotape and interactive
instructor has presented. In a classroom situation, the video can be used to add realism to the classroom
student may be asked to explain new material or to environment.
perform tasks or operations associated with the
material. For example, at the end of a classroom period The purpose of education and training is the
on voyage planning performance, the student may be acquisition of knowledge and skills that can be
asked to complete a voyage plan for the afternoon's transferred to other situations. No amount of mental
100 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
gymnastics involving the learning of unnecessary realism. Avoid multiple malfunctions in the
material will help to accomplish this. In other words, beginning, as this may overload the learner and
the student must not only learn, but he must also be distract him from the learning situation.
able to use what he has learned, e.g in simulator
exercises. Do not apologise for simulator deficiencies or
inconsistencies. Be sure to explain them and their
The closer the learning experience comes to reality, effect on the lesson.
the easier it will be for the student to transfer the
acquired knowledge and training to new situations. Never allow a person to become fatigued to the
For example, a line drawing of an anchor winch engine point of making mistakes.
will help the student visualise what the real thing looks
like. A mockup will help even more. Still better would Never embarrass anyone by allowing or causing
be having the actual winch in the classroom. The serious errors in procedures or decisions.
ultimate would be the actual forecastle.
Offer assistance or explanations only when needed.
The use of a simulator for training Avoid interruptions unless absolutely necessary.
Improvements in full mission bridge simulators have Link the simulator lesson to the theory taught
nearly perfected the transfer of learning and training earlier.
since they allow the student to transfer the learned
knowledge, skills and training almost in their entirety. Select real live cases that demonstrate failure of
With the aid of a full mission bridge simulator, the concepts taught in the theory phase.
instructor is able to improve transfer by devising
learning exercises in keeping with the demands of real Exercise design
life situations. He can create coordinated, planned
problems and emergency situations calling for actions Exercises should be designed in such a way that they
and solutions that are identical to those demanded cover the bridge resource management subjects and
under actual navigational conditions. objectives. This may seem rather evident, but
inexperienced instructors or course developers often
As the highest order of training device, bridge tend to design exercises that are focused too much on
simulators frequently have more training value than shiphandling. In fact, the training team may ground a
the actual equipment. Simulators duplicate the ship on the rocks as long as they apply bridge resource
equipment being simulated as closely as possible. They management principles. It will, of course, be very
often allow practice of malfunctions, manoeuvres and unlikely that they ground a ship if they follow the
emergency procedures that would otherwise be bridge resource management principles.
impossible or unsafe with the actual equipment. The
following hints can help take maximum advantage of For example, if the emphasis in the course is on
bridge simulator training capabilities:- voyage planning, teamwork and monitoring progress,
the simulator exercise should require such. There is a
Plan each lesson carefully and thoroughly. great danger in making ad hoc decisions. People spend
quite a long time on planning a passage, incorporating
Review the simulator minimum equipment list to all available data like wind, current, depth, possible
determine the simulator malfunctions and the effect dangers, etc. They discuss it with the bridge team and
they will have on the training session. prepare equipment, parallel index lines, etc. Then
suddenly, mostly under pressure, someone diverges
Set up the simulator to lesson configuration prior from the passage plan, making a new decision in a
to the time the learner enters it. split second, often just triggered by one or more visual
clues, without consulting his team members or even
Conduct a thorough briefing of all procedures and his equipment. This decision is always worse than the
manoeuvres that are to be accomplished during the original plan. So, in this case, the exercise scenario
training session. Also, a debriefing with a should contain situations that expose the possible
constructive critique helps the learner understand weaknesses of the passage plan and/or challenge the
his progress. participants to diverge from it - all this within the
limits of realism of course.
Explain the lesson objectives thoroughly before
beginning an exercise. Evaluation and assessment
Insist that the simulator be regarded in the same Evaluation is an integral part of the learning process.
way as the actual equipment. Strive for maximum Whenever learning takes place, the result is a
(1) = PROFICIENT
The trainee is able to perform the manoeuvre or procedure properly and safely and/or the
trainee has a full understanding of the procedures and principles involved.
The trainee is making satisfactory progress towards proficiency and should achieve full
proficiency by the end of this present course of instruction.
The trainee has not performed to a satisfactory level of proficiency yet but additional
examining and training of the objectives will enable the trainee to achieve level (1)
proficiency.
(D) =DISCUSSED
Item was not actually performed on the simulator but was discussed with the trainee. The
discussion revealed a satisfactory knowledge of the appropriate procedure, manoeuvre,
etc.
The trainee evaluation sheet should be rated to the observations of the instructor.
When making evaluations and assigning a rating, take into consideration the shipboard
background and experience level of the trainee.
The trainee evaluation sheet and the ratings showing the trainees' progress and deficiencies on
a daily basis is only a reference for the instructor on how to stimulate the trainees to improve on
their skills.
The clues of situational awareness should be tagged if they occurred during the exercise.
Figure 73.4 Situational awareness evaluation sheet - bridge team management training
Captain Nigel Hunt started his seafaring career with Blue Funnel (Ocean Fleets Ltd.) in 7966 and gained his BSc in Nautical Studies
from Liverpool Polytechnic in 7973. Working up to chief officer with Bank Line during 7974 to 7984 he later served with Nectar
Shipping & Projects and then with Coe Metcalf Shipping as master.
From 7988 to 7990 Nigel was Harbour Master at Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. In 7990 he moved to Warsash Maritime Centre, where
he works in the simulation section.
Andrew Prince was born in 7956 and, after a short period with the Royal Air Force and at Bristol University, entered the Royal Navy
in 7975 to train as an Observer in the Fleet Air Arm. After flying training he served in 826 and 874 Squadrons flying in the Sea King
helicopter and in HMS BIRMINGHAM Flight and 702 Squadron flying in the Lynx. During this time he took a degreein English and
History with the Open University. In 7985 he qualified as a PrinciPal Warfare Officer (PWO) and served in HMS AMAZON and
ARETHUSA as PWO and Operations Officer. This was followed by a return to flying as Flight Commander of 826 Squadron C
Flight, with an autonomous detachment of2 Sea Kings serving in various Royal Fleet Auxiliaries.
Since then he has served as Executive Officer of the Type 22 Frigate HMS CHATHAM (including dePloyments with the NATO
Standing Naval ForceAtlantic and in the Gulf) and commanded 874 NavalAir Squadron, flying Sea Kings from HMS INVINCIBLE
in support of UN operations in the Adriatic. He took up his present appointment as Staff Officer, Tactical Procedures Group at the
School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD in October 7994.
Introduction
The Royal Navy's School of Maritime Operations that he or she will be using at sea but individually or
(SMOPS) is situated at HMS DRYAD in historic in small groups. The third phase is sub-team training,
Southwick village in the Hampshire countryside about where students come together in groups to practice
five miles north of Portsmouth. SMOPS has grown individual warfare disciplines such as Anti-Submarine
around Southwick House (now used as the Wardroom) Warfare (ASW) but without the multi-threat
which was the headquarters for the World War II D- complexities of the full operations room, although this
Day landings. SMOPS is the main shore training often takes place in parts of the simulators because
establishment for officers and ratings of the Warfare therein lie the appropriate equipments. Finally, the
Branch, that is, those who fight our warships. Much training culminates in Full Team Training (FfT), with
of this training is supported by simulators and virtually the complete operations room simulators manned by
every course at SMOPS includes time in the the students of each course, who come together for
simulators, usually as the culmination of their training the purpose. This is the culmination of the courses
and under scrutiny and assessment. This chapter and usually includes a period of assessment and test
explains how SMOPS uses its simulators to achieve of competence before leaving SMOPS to go to
its warfare training. Although the Royal Navy is appointments and drafts in ships at sea. When this
addicted to acronyms and Three Or Four Letter assessment is involved, FTT is called Operational
Abbreviations (TOFLAs), every attempt will be made Team Training (OTT).
to explain them as the chapter progresses.
The Principal Warfare Officer
The SMOPS training programme
Fundamental to the way in which the Royal Navy
In order to understand what simulators are available mans its operations rooms is the Principal Warfare
in SMOPS and how they are used, it is appropriate to Officer (PWO). Senior seaman Lieutenants or junior
look a little more closely at the way SMOPS conducts Lieutenant Commanders take the course to fit them
its training. After all, the simulators were procured to to become PWOs in frigates and destroyers of the
support the training, not the other way round. surface flotilla. The course is over one year long and
introduces the officers to all aspects of surface ship
Warfare Branch career course training passes operations, both in time of tension and in war. The
through four identifiable phases. First, introductory first half of the course prepares the officer to be a watch
training comprises conventional instruction, leader in the operations room and culminates in two
increasingly complemented by Computer-Based weeks of FfT, followed by a week at sea. After that,
Training (CBT) in the classroom environment. Second, the course splits and officers are specialised in either
skill training introduces the student to the hardware Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Above Water
- SECTION III -
David Precious, after attending HMS WORCESTER Training College, served at sea as a cadet with BI for several years. Transferred
ashore to the personnel department of P&O in 7962, he subsequently joined Panocean Shipping and Terminals in 7973 as Personnel
Manager. In 7983 David was appointed Personnel Director of PAL Shipping Services and transferred to the Wallem Group in 7984.
He became a director of Wallem Shipmanagement (Isle of Man) Ltd in the same year, leaving to set up his own consultancy company
in 7989.
Precious Associates Limited (PAL) is an independent consultancy offiring specialist services in all human resource/personnel
management areas, with particular knowledge of the marine industry. Located at Haywards Heath, Sussex, UK thefirm has been ISO
9002 standard since 7993 and has also met the UK national Standard for Investors in People.
Mr. Preciouspassed his 2nd mate's Foreign Going examination and is a Fellow of The Nautical Institute. A key areafor PAL is the
training and development of young people, including some 40 British and Irish cadets.
Introduction
All of us involved with shipping depend for the success Large scale redundancies.
of our respective ventures on one specialist group of A virtual embargo on recruitment, especially
people - the seafarer. Without them ships will not cadets.
trade, cargoes will not be carried and, in effect, there A severe curtailment of all training.
will be no marine industry. Little or no continuity of employment.
A drive towards the lowest manning cost.
No apology is made for emphasising the crucial People being considered as easily replaceable, in
importance of the seafarer, indeed, the title of the paper effect, a short term resource.
states Afloat and Ashore and not, it will be noted,
Ashore and Afloat. The initial focal point of attention For most of us, the above phase has passed
for our industry is the seafarer and most of us will although, understandably, a certain amount of recent
acknowledge that, in many cases, the skills of the public and press criticism has been directed at the poor
seafarer are transferred ashore, but very seldom the industry image. Fortunately, there are now
other way round. encouraging signs that most trading sectors are more
buoyant and, with the lessons learned, we should be
From where are tomorrow's skills, both afloat and able to plan more positively for the future. To fully
ashore, being developed? The answer, not complete this renaissance, we must again experience,
surprisingly, must be primarily from the seafarers of as we call it in the UK, the feel good factor. This is
today. What is more difficult to determine is from especially important in developing future skills.
which sources, and how. We also need to consider the
future shape of the industry. This chapter sets out to Tomorrow's sources of crew supply will not and,
address a few of the relevant issues. in fact, cannot be very different to those of today. There
is still likely to be the balance between Europe and
Background the Far East, although it is acknowledged that Europe
may shift from western, to central or eastern. If this
Initially, and by way of background only, let us belief is substantially correct, then what we need to
look at the past. Most of us will be all be too familiar consider is the changing nature of our industry and
with the world trading recession and the main focus how, broadly, today's labour supply sources can
of attention, at that time, being directed at survival. In effectively be harnessed to provide skills for tomorrow.
manning terms, and relative to shipping, this was This must apply, equally, afloat and ashore.
reflected by:- Importantly, what changes must we bring about?
• Changing geographical patterns of supply, i.e. There are a number of research projects taking
continuing decline in 0 ECD countries. place in Europe, all focussing on increasing the
• Supply from the Far East - increasing all the time. attractiveness of a marine career - there are thus still
• Changing circumstances in Eastern Europe, i.e. prospects that the decline of the European seafarer
potential opening up as a supply area. can be arrested.
• Dependence on OECD senior officers, i.e. still a
demand for European seniors. India and the Philippines
• Needs of shore based sectors, i.e. there is still a
reliance on the seafarers to come ashore. These are customary supply centres, but serious
• Quality as opposed to quantity - this is a key issue. concerns have recently arisen in India through the
• Impact of STCW Convention - now in force. influx of non traditional Indian employers. It is
• Changing patterns of trainee recruitment, e.g. some reported that the country is in danger of being over
increase in numbers but, for many nationalities, still stretched for demand of officers with both Greek and
not enough. Japanese owners focussing on India, in the short and
• Need for better data - there is a shortage of reliable medium term. The Indian manning shortage is
statistics. worsening all the time and it is reported that the
number of Indian manned ships has almost doubled
For some time now, and especially in West in the past year.
European countries, the attraction of a marine career
to young people has diminished and the shipping In the case of the Philippines, there is still the
industry, in many observers' opinion, is a low profile reported worry over STCW and the white list.
business - sadly, as stated earlier, it is only when
something of an adverse nature occurs, that the media East and Central Europe
show any attention to the marine world.
It is stated that there is an increasing availability of
This poor image was expressly pronounced after personnel from some Central/Eastern European
the flagging out phase of the mid 1980s when the countries, with examples being Poland and Croatia.
recession forced a major change in manpower supply Other East European countries, such as Bulgaria,
- almost overnight there was a displacement of Ukraine, Latvia and Russia are now increasingly
thousands of European seafarers and rapid growth in commented on as being part of the global marine
supply from the Far East. scene.
Summary of labour supply b) The age profile with, for example, the average age
of British officers currently 40+ years. We
In summary, we have thus established:- understand that, on present trends, this average age
could be 50+ by the year 2000.
• There will be declining numbers of West European
officers but not a total elimination. Central and East The problem is likely to be even more exaggerated
European officers will continue to assist with the if, as suggested, future growth areas are from Central!
overall demand. East Europe and the Far East. Initially, the main
• Whilst there are three or four expanding sources, availability will be in the rating ranks and sources of
these are principally for ratings. officers, at least in the early stages, will be limited.
• Whilst China appears to be an answer to the Nevertheless, numbers of junior and senior officers
manpower shortage, there has yet to be, in many will also increase outside the OECD.
observers' views, a breakthrough as regards the
international scene. A final comment on demand. Significantly, a
• The Philippines, for the foreseeable future, will number of shore management positions today are also
continue to dominate, mainly rating, supply. filled from European/OECD Officers - clearly, in
future, this cannot be in the same ratio and many
Of course the above generalities only reflect senior jobs ashore will attract job applications beyond
quantity. Quality aspects are even more important and traditional sources.
are being considered by companies and other
responsible bodies. Tomorrow's skills
All of us involved with marine issues would be How, and in what manner, might tomorrow's skills
delighted to come across a source of well trained, develop to meet the requirements of ship owners and,
reasonably priced, predominantly English speaking, as important, the aspirations of the seafarers?
highly motivated seafarers but, realistically, there are
no new secret sources (on this planet) to serve our Future management strategies must relate to the
industry - we can only promote what is available and, needs and requirements of the industry. By and large,
as many owners are currently doing, encourage and we are traditional in our approach to shipping and
fund those areas where it is believed the growth of there is little evidence to indicate any radical change.
skilled seafarers can be developed.
In determining tomorrow's skills, however, we
Labour demand need to consider what shape the industry might take
and, subsequently, how we act. How do we thus see
The other side of the manning equation, which is of the future?
equal importance, is the recruitment, or demand, for
seafarers. In an ideal world, supply and demand would Features relative to manning are:-
Technology will, of course, impact on vessel design It is the individual who makes up our industry and, in
but only, it is suggested, to a limited degree. In practical recent times, there has been too much emphasis on
terms, the day of the totally automated/unmanned casualisation. Company loyalty and identity have been
vessel is some way off, if at all. Current thinking is severely stretched and, unless we act quickly,
that even the most technically advanced vessel, when individual pride and a feeling of company
in service, will still have a core manning complement. commitment may only be past features of the industry.
Therefore, the benefits of technology will, principally, What a tragedy that would be.
be a safer operating system and more sophisticated
equipment, both requiring new skills. What do we propose?
On board manning If we accept the foregoing comments and agree that
tomorrow's skills must evolve from today's seafarers,
Today, and primarily due to vessel ages, there are we then need an industry approach, embracing our
relatively high on board complements. Our industry future needs, both afloat and ashore. The following
is labour intensive with a substantial number of propositions come to mind:-
personnel being semi skilled and undertaking routine
tasks. Traditionally, the on board structure comprises More emphasis on a marine career, based on a
deck, engine and catering departments. selection of marine qualifications. Entrants to the
industry should be encouraged to view their future
Tomorrow's manning complements, for these as a lifetime career within the marine industry, and
technically advanced vessels, will be somewhat less recruitment and training programmes should be
than today. Indeed, many observers believe that planned accordingly. At the top end, these may
numbers of between ten and fourteen, for a standard develop from a degree (or equivalent) but, most
vessel, will be the norm, even for ships due to enter importantly, at all levels throughout the structure,
service in the next few years. What must change, is there should be opportunities to obtain one or more
the onboard structure with a greater emphasis on the marine qualifications. These should be based on
functional approach, i.e. manager and operators/ assessment similar to the STCW approach and also
technicians - one defined group. Future complements to the idea of vocational qualifications which are
must have higher skill levels, and will again be being introduced into all levels of industry. For
supported by (as today) work squads supplementing seafaring, these marine qualifications must bridge
the shipboard numbers. the boundaries between ship and shore and also
between the present divisions of deck and engine.
Government regulations
The acceptance of younger marine professionals.
There is a need to consider industry regulations, The age profile of the industry will inevitably result
whether introduced as voluntary codes or in legislative in younger men and women, all adapting more
form. Such measures may affect not only on board easily to advanced technology and the proposed
numbers, but also the way in which we operate our marine qualifications. However, their experience
ships and the requirement for future skills. This will in the industry will be less, and must therefore be
relate to such areas as GMDSS, STCW revision, hours compensated accordingly, by appropriate training
of work regulations, ISM code, OPA 90, etc. - the list and by generous support from us all.
is almost endless.
The global role of women should receive greater
We must also be mindful of the many pressures recogNition, not only in numbers but also the skill
which these regulations impose on our seafarers - and application they bring to an organisation.
adequate training and support must be provided.
Organisations, which we now see are based on
National characteristics flatter structures - again providing opportunities
for rapidly developing and changing roles. Out-
We have determined from the earlier part of this paper, sourcing of activities will expand.
potential growth areas of certain seafaring nationalities.
Whilst accepting we are today an international There should be a greater harmonisation of
industry, we are still divided by barriers of culture, competence accompanied by harmonisation of
language, role, skills, wage levels and the like. This nationalities. This does not infer a dilution of
must change and, in planning for tomorrow, an cultures, but a blending of the divisions between
international seafaring culture must be in our minds. West and East. Europe, as we all know, has freedom
of labour movement and, within the international
Technical, i.e. pilots, harbour masters, surveyors, How can this be achieved? A few thoughts are:-
ports and technical operators, etc.
Management, i.e. ship management, A concentration of effort on commonality of
government authorities, etc. recruitment whether initially for a seagoing role or
Supplemental, i.e. lawyers, lecturers, etc. shore role. This must also extend across nations, so
that any recruit from any point of the globe can be
Increasing nationality flow. As an extension of the on a similar career path from a single stream entry.
above point, current UK legal changes permit An increasing training effort to provide greater
designated European officers to serve in senior marine skills, many of which will relate to both
ranks in UK registered vessels. Will this lead to the afloat and ashore roles. This training will possibly
possibility that, conceivably, a future Dover be formalised along the following lines:-
Harbour master might well relocate from Basic marine induction: Covering the customary
Murmansk - or Bombay - or Manila? We already pre sea training/courses, Company culture and
have many Europeans working away from home. including industry induction.
Is there any reason why the reverse should not Career development: Acceptance of change,
apply? teamwork, delegation, positive thought, cultural
differences, decision making, quality awareness,
There should be consideration of more equitable people skills, etc. - i.e. all part of our suggested
employment packages between ship and shore, marine qualification.
thereby facilitating the transfer of seafarers to a Technical/professional: Navigation, engineering,
marine shore environment, with the specific aim maintenance and statutory legislation.
of industry retention. In today's scene the Managerial: Our industry is capable of teaching
employment package for seafarers is, in monetary technical skills, but:-
terms and relative to their country of engagement, Who regularly trains their shore personnel?
generally attractive with, in many cases, What formal training is given in
government allowances as regards taxation. The understanding different cultures/ languages?
shore employment package is, by comparison, at a Management training in many companies
disadvantage in that the pay levels are frequently has almost lapsed - is this sensible?
lower and, almost certainly, no tax concessions are Supplemental: special training for
applicable. specialised jobs.
The supply of seafarers, if not direct employees, Note: In all cases, there should be a more
must be through personnel managers and not just standardised approach to training, so that an owner/
manning contractors. There must be, as far as manager can be comfortable that the skill levels of
possible, permanency of employment. those on board are consistent, irrespective of the
nationality of the crew. Additionally, for some
And, lastly, there is risk management where all countries, it may be beneficial to reduce the number
incident information, no matter how minor, is of training establishments, to enable those that remain
actively collated, analysed and acted upon to make to upgrade their programmes to the highest level.
the workplace safer for seafarers -leading to a zero
defects culture and a think safety attitude, rather A greater concentration of training in the emerging
than just paying lip service to the concept. supply areas, particularly with the current known,
and increasing, growth in the requirement for
The foregoing is a brief sketch of possible people officers.
changes for tomorrow. How do we now ensure we
have the appropriate skills? In this respect why, with few exceptions, does the
industry continue to ignore one obvious resource
Within all training programmes, many of which Quality is part of our normal business life and those
should be simulator based, the question is asked - of us who have been assessed to an appropriate
who will pay? standard, now appreciate the benefits.
In time, the younger international work force will
As earlier stated, recession equals no training. The adapt more easily to the required changes and the
cost of all training should be shared and, relative to advanced technology.
our industry, no single party should be excepted. The STCW revision, port state control and the ISM
Training involves a range of costs, i.e. course fees, code are collectively aimed at providing a standard
additional personnel, incidentals such as travel, legislative framework of skills and procedures -
accommodation, etc., and not to be forgotten, the wage consistent across the globe.
element itself. The relevant parties to contribute and The gradual return of the feel good factor about
to share this cost should be - governments, owners/ our industry.
managers (employers), trade unions and even, under
certain conditions, the individual - self help is a great Tomorrow's skills will develop from and with
motivator. today's young people. We should not forget that in
the 1980s (for various reasons) companies discarded
This completes the cycle of recruitment, on board many highly skilled seafarers. We need to raise the
training and then supplemented by, where profile of our industry again so that people are, once
appropriate, training for shore roles plus the inevitable more, proud to be a part of it.
cost factor.
Captain UTanShukry is presently the PrinciPal of Maritime Academy Malaysia (ALAM). He joined ALAM in 7983 as a lecturer,
moving up to become the Director of Studies in 7987. He took over the chair of PrinciPal in March 7990, shortly after his return from
study leave at the World Maritime University, where he was awarded an MSc.
Beforejoining ALAM he was at sea serving mainly with Malaysian International Shipping Corporation and is a Master Mariner.
Captain UTanShukry is fully involved at the nationalleve! in formulating guidelines and policies and represents Malaysia at
international meetings and conftrences, especially on matters concerning seafarers, education and training.
He is very active in the proftssional field, having presented papers in seminars and conftrences and being a member of many related
bodies and organisations.
Chapter Overview
both physical and non-physical, that are a part of or
are closely linked with maritime activities within a
A comparison of maritime colleges, whether in
particular boundary. These include, for example,
developed or developing countries, will undoubtedly
various sectors of industry, governmental bodies, Non-
reveal many different and contrasting features from
Governmental Organisations (NGOs), shipping and
the role and status of the institution, system of
maritime policies and even image and public
education and training, facilities and equipment, to
perception of the sector or entity being considered.
the number and type of courses offered. While
differences are many and are due, perhaps, to
In a wider context maritime environment
prevailing local conditions and circumstances, there
transcends geographical boundaries and extends from
are also - surprisingly - a number of common traits.
the interface to the immediate vicinity, district, state,
However, the commonality is more likely to be in the
national, regional and global level (see figure 17.1).
form of constraints faced by these colleges. One feature
which is indeed very common is the seeming isolation
of maritime colleges, regardless of whether they exist Maritime environment from the
as independent institutions or as part of a larger education and training perspective
establishment.
To consider the maritime environment from a
There could be many reasons for this state of affairs Maritime Education and Training (MET) perspective
but a particularly important and largely neglected area we need to look more closely at the various aggregate
is the degree of integration of colleges with the elements. At the general level the elements are
maritime environment. This chapter focuses on the probably relevant to all sectors while at the sectoral
importance of this aspect and discusses ways in which level some may be more applicable and important
colleges can effectively integrate with and benefit from than others. In the case of MET they include the
their close affiliation with the maritime environment. industry, government agencies, professional bodies,
the national education system and policies, school
Maritime environment - what it is Ieavers and parental expectations and the status and
image of MET.
The word 'environment' here does not refer to the
natural environment (oceans, seas, beaches) but to an The wider maritime environment
aggregate of all things, factors and conditions existing
within a certain boundary. Maritime environment can The wider maritime environment comprises all the
thus be regarded as an aggregate of all the elements, aggregate elements broadly outlined above, but also
In many countries maritime colleges are usually Building support from government/
not known outside the maritime circle. This is true
even within the immediate locality. Creating greater
industry/other organisations
public awareness is therefore an effort that must be
A number of steps can be taken to help build support
given due emphasis. To achieve this, positive publicity
from industry, government, key organisations and
through the print and electronic media is perhaps the
individuals. Colleges should endeavour to maintain
most effective. Institutions should seek to host as many
frequent contacts with the environment. Every
media-friendly activities as possible. These could
opportunity should be taken to consult outside
include holding open days for the public, special days
agencies and individuals on relevant matters. This can
for underprivileged or handicapped children and
help nurture a strong bond and build mutual trust,
world maritime day, in addition to seminars and
respect and concern for each other. Besides, it also
conferences. They should also try to participate in
helps to assure those consulted that they are held in
educational and training expos, exhibitions and other
high esteem and are important to the college. Every
career guidance activities. The institute's newsletter
institution, no matter how established it is, should
or journal should be widely distributed to as many
guard against assuming an aloof attitude.
related organisations as possible. Colleges should also
take the initiative to establish and maintain contacts
The creation of a separate advisory board
with the media.
comprising members from outside agencies for all
major courses (viz. nautical science, marine
engineering) is another effective means of gaining
support in addition to providing quality inputs to the
Following pre-sea training at HMS CONWAY, Mr. Cunnah spent 72 years with the New Zealand Shipping Company involving
experience in a wide range of vessels, including cadet ships, refrigerated, general cargo vesselsand tankers. His Master Mariner and BSc
in Nautical Science were obtained at Liverpool Polytechnic and some time was spent in the ports industry beftre taking up a teaching
post at Fleetwood Nautical College.
Considerable experience was gained in develoPing and delivering learning programmes over 20 years at the college in a broad range
of marine subjects. Management experience was accumulated through heading key sections, including cadets, senior marine courses and
Fleetwood Offshore Survival Centre before becoming Deputy Head of Department.
After the merger with the Blackpool and the Fylde College and befOre leaving in 7994 the author was Director of Maritime
Operations and the deputy Head of School of Engineering Technology and played a leading role in the change process in the marine
educational provision at the Blackpool College in the late 80s and early 90s.
Mr. Cunnah has worked as a part-time inspector with the Further Education Funding Council and is an external verifier on
marine and ports programmes fOr EDEXEL (BTEC). He is currently project leaderfOr the implementation of vocational qualifications
with BP Shipping, a company pro-active in training and continuing professional development.
Which choice is right for the company? performance. It should be a natural progression to
move from college based training centre (option 1) to
As with all change, incremental change will cause least college and company partnership (option 3). The time
disruption and be easier to implement. Colleges have scale involved could be from two to five years and
traditionally delivered training programmes for the the degree of involvement would be at the discretion
shipping industry and the college based training centre of the company.
(option 1) closely mirrors the existing arrangement.
A competency based programme has as its outcome The college and company partnership should be
a qualification awarded on the basis of valid and the goal for most organisations as it holds the most
reliable practical assessment which ensures that benefits. When senior ships' officers talk to college
performance to the national standards has been lecturers, hold discussions on the review and
achieved at work. evaluation of the training programme then:-
It is a rewarding experience to see people develop These are just some of the direct benefits, even
into responsible, competent officers and it is hoped more exciting are the indirect benefits of improved
that some mentors will wish to progress to become motivation, teamwork and trust.
assessors. They would achieve this by following a
programme such as the Training and Development The final step to independence would be the
Lead Body qualification for assessors - units D32 and company based training centre (option 2), but the
D33. resource implications and the considerable
administrative burden is likely to deter most
If senior officers work with the candidate on a daily companies. Of particular disadvantage to the cadet
basis, they can make observations quite informally, if would be the lack of opportunity to mix with peers
they are also qualified assessors then this makes for a from other companies and gain an insight into different
very efficient method of assessing candidate experiences which is beneficial in the transfer of
Option 1 with direct progression to option 3 will The role of the training officer is to support ships'
not only provide the greatest added value, but is the staff in fulfilling these two main functions.
easiest to implement in an incremental way.
Doing things right is all about section 1 of this book,
Improving maritime skills applying the concepts of learning. We all learn in
different ways and at different rates and it is important
We are all concerned about maintaining and that the explanation and demonstration is set at the
improving marine skills in our industry. Essentially it right level for the learner to understand. Not only must
is about selecting the right people and giving them they be able to do the task, but understand why they
the right training. are doing it in a particular way and the consequences
of error.
Resolution 8 of the STCW Convention 1995 gives
a good guide into the role and responsibilities of If we bear in mind that:-
persons involved in the training and development of what we hear we tend to forget
seafarers. what we see we tend to remember
what we do we understand
It encourages companies to "appreciate that the then our learning sessions will take up a natural
overall effectiveness of selection, training and form where they are kept fairly short. An example
certification processes can only be evaluated through would be where we take the cadets out on deck,
the skills, abilities and competence exhibited by explain and demonstrate a task and allow them to
seafarers during the course of their service on board practise the task under close supervision. We allow
ship". them to ask questions and practise on their own until
they can perform at a competent level.
It recommends that arrangements are made to
ensure that companies:- I hope that this all sounds familiar. It should do, it
is what we have always done, it is how we learnt our
1 Establish criteria and processes for the selection of job. But it is important to remember that we too had
personnel exhibiting the highest practicable difficulties as young seafarers if the explanation was
standards of technical knowledge, skills and overlong or complicated and the task complex. The
professionalism. principles behind a task can be explained simply and
2 Monitor the standards exhibited by ship's personnel the complex task can be broken into smaller, easily
in the performance of their duties. understood, parts.
3 Encourage all officers to participate actively in the
training of junior personnel. This is where the training officer can assist in
4 Monitor carefully and frequently review the providing a structure for the learning and development
progress made by junior personnel in their programme. Consider the role "Monitor and Control
acquisition of knowledge and skills during their Cargo Transfer - Tanker".
service on board ship.
5 Provide refresher and updating training at suitable This is the role and level of competence that we
intervals as may be required. would expect a senior cadet to demonstrate prior to
6 Take all appropriate measures to encourage pride the issue of a watchkeeping certificate. It is a complex
of service and professionalism on the part of the role which requires subdividing into parts, with each
personnel they employ. part containing a list of tasks and duties which have to
be performed to satisfy the role. The whole role is
As professional seafarers, we all have a duty to pass shown below with the tasks expanded for Part C.
on our skills to the next generation, but it is important
that this is done in a structured and logical way. It is Monitor and control cargo transfer -
important that:- tanker
We do things right - that we explain and Part A - General familiarisation tasks:
demonstrate new knowledge and skills in a manner
that can be easily understood and practised by the Part B - Carry out standard procedures to confirm
learner. vessel's readiness to receive cargo and report results:
We do right things - that the knowledge and skills
that we impart are appropriate to the on board role Part C - Support the chief officer in cargo operations
during loading:-
Part G - For vessels not fitted with Segregated Ballast Let us consider the role of 2 cadets, both of whom
Tanks (SBT), support the chief officer in tank washing perform their duties in a satisfactory manner, but who
and ballast change: are in two different teams with different duties.
Part H - Write a report on the planning, preparation, Cadet A is in team 1. In both drills he dons fire
loading, monitoring and discharging procedures for a suit and Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus
cargo you have carried. You should submit copies of (CABA), enters with charged hose and extinguishes
any records, plans and calculations used. fire.
Breaking a complex role down into manageable Cadet B is in the control team on the bridge
parts and then defining key tasks for each part ensures providing support to the master in command and
that all cadets understand what is expected of them in control of the fire.
order to demonstrate competence. For the officers
supporting cadet development, it provides a clear Both cadets follow the process outlined in the
guide of what has to be covered and will ensure Training and Assessment Plan.
consistency, or uniform interpretation, when
Ship: .
For this voyage we will concentrate on the Elements M7.l, M7.2 & M7.3 which are concerned with.responding to
an emergency, fire fighting and the rescue of personnel.
You will be participating as a team member in emergency drills each week. These simulated scenarios will
cover a broad range of different emergencies and situations in accordance with company guidelines.
For each drill you will be expected to record your experience in the following way:-
1. Briefly summarise the drill and your particular role as a team member.
2. Attend the de-brief on the bridge and participate in a constructive manner. Reflect on how the drill went, was
it good, were any problems encountered, how were they surmounted, can it be improved, what changes if any
will be incorporated next time?
Briefly record your summary of that part of the de-brief that affected your team. Record key issues of the total
drill.
For each drill you are expected to complete about half a page of A4 size. Remember quality not quantity.
Give each drill and piece of evidence a title and reference number, e.g. Drill 1 - Galley fire and rescue, and
Boat Drill- Ref M7.l, Drill 2 - Pump room fire and rescue, and Boat Drill- Ref M7.2, etc. Enter the title and ref.
no. in the Evidence Summary Sheet and track and record your achievements against the Performance Criteria
and the Range in the Standards for Unit M7.
This assessment plan has been discussed and agreed with the candidate and the team leader.
Signed: Signed:
Candidate: Team Leader:
Date: Date:
Note:- Performance Criteria are the standards against which performance in the task are measured to determine
competence.
The Range Statement defines the scope and variety of the task and gives an indication of whether the cadet can
transfer the skill and adapt the skill to different situations, e.g. different types of fire on the same ship or similar
fires on another ship type.
Check each item of evidence against each performance criteria for each element of the unit and tick the
appropriate column in the Evidence Summary Sheet.
Enter the ref. no of your evidence alongside the applicable range statement in the bottom right hand box of the
Evidence Summary Sheet for each element in the unit.
Gunther Zade FNI has, since 7983, been professor, vice-rector and academic dean of the World Maritime University (WMU) in
Malmo, Sweden. Before joining WM[l, he worked fOr fifieen years at the Nautical College (Hochschule fUr Nautik) in Bremen,
Germany, as lecturer, professor, vice-rector and rector.
He was involved in the development of the first postgraduate curriculum fOr WMU in 7982 and early 7983 and has thereafter
contributed to, co-ordinated and continues to coordinate the continuous improvement of its delivery and adaptation to new education
and training needs. In Bremen, he was involved in the change from a shipboard-confined curriculum to a ship-shore curriculum fOr
increased professional ability of master mariners and in the introduction of an academic degreeprogramme.
At WMU he was directly responsible fOr seven years in educating and training nautical, and later also marine engineering,
lecturers. In Bremen he was mainly trained on-the-job as a nautical lecturer and, after additional studies, obtained the German
equivalent of a Master of Science degree in Nautical Studies and Education.
He is a previous and the present chairman of the International Maritime Lecturers' Association (IMLA) and chairman of the
s
European Commission concerted action on Maritime Education and Training.
Definitions
salary and image. It is therefore necessary to improve
the qualification of maritime lecturers who are not
A "maritime lecturer" is a full-time lecturer at a
satisfactorily qualified yet, and make efforts, supported
Maritime Education and Training (MET) institute who
by offering better conditions, to attract well qualified
is qualified to teach a number of shipboard-related
individuals to MET. A co-operation between the well
subjects to students in certificate of competency
qualified maritime lecturers and their less fortunate
courses including courses for master mariners and
colleagues could also be a useful approach to help
chief engineers. It is assumed that these courses form
those who need to improve their qualification. Such
the basis of a curriculum for the meeting of
"seeking excellence through co-operation" (as it was
international MET requirements.
the motto of the World Maritime Day 1996) can be
pursued on an institutional or individual level.
In this text, updating is used for keeping abreast of
developments in subjects with which a maritime
Even well qualified maritime lecturers are not
lecturer should already be familiar; upgrading is used
always fully aware of the context in which they operate
for acquiring knowledge in new subjects.
and what their contribution to "safer shipping and
cleaner oceans" (IMO motto) could be.
Introduction
This text is to give both groups of maritime
IMO's revised International Convention on Standards lecturers, the well qualified and the less qualified ones,
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for as well as newcomers to the profession a few ideas on
Seafarers 1995 (STCW '95) describes the minimum how they could improve their performance by
knowledge and competence standards which ship updating and upgrading their qualification.
officers must meet. To achieve these standards,
maritime lecturers are needed who are qualified to
Present selection and present training
teach the required subjects on the level of these
standards. Unfortunately, not all MET institutes have
The quality of the faculty of an MET institute is
a faculty of which all members have the necessary
predetermined by the quality of its teaching staff, so is
qualification for this task. The main reason for this
the quality of an MET institute's curriculum. The basic
unsatisfactory state is the low attraction of a position
prerequisite for a prospective maritime lecturer is
as maritime lecturer in a number of countries -
shipboard experience and the highest certificate of
compared to other positions in the maritime industry
competency in the deck or engine department or as
ashore. On the other hand, there are countries in which
dual purpose officer, provided he/she is not expected
maritime lecturer is an attractive profession, both by
Present training of lecturers does often also not The WMU course on Maritime
provide for developing skills for, and a positive attitude Education and Training
to, life-long-learning. The latter has become
increasingly important because of the continuously The course is a two-year course, divided into four
changing maritime environment. Particularly the use semesters. Successful students obtain a Postgraduate
of more and more modern technology requires Diploma after one year and a Master of Science degree
permanent updating efforts by maritime lecturers. after two years. A one-year option is also available for
individual, exceptionally well qualified students who
These were some of the important considerations can be granted "advanced standing". Entrance
when World Maritime University (WMU) developed requirement to the two-year course is an unlimited
its Master of Science course for nautical and marine certificate of competency in either the deck or marine
engineering lecturers in 1982 and 1983. The course engineering department, i.e. a certificate as master
has proven its quality by the success of the graduates. mariner or chief engineer. Students are on average
This semester is a common semester for MET, Maritime Transport of Cargo I - II (1)
maritime administration, port and shipping
management students. It gives the students an Maritime Law III (Maritime Casualty Investigation,
overview of the maritime sector and how it works. 1)
The following subjects are covered; the numbers refer
to subject categories in the previous section:- Ship Dynamics (1)
• Principles of Maritime Economics (5) Ship Design, Structure and Maintenance (1)
• Principles of Sustainable Development of the Sea Ship Machinery and Propulsion (1)
(5)
The course programme also comprises several
• Research Methodology (5) weeks of field studies to mainly advanced MET
institutions with modern equipment.
• Computing Technology (1)
Updating and upgrading of maritime
Second, third and fourth semesters lecturers
Common subjects for MET and students of other Maritime lecturers who are unable to find the time
courses:- for attending a course at WMU can not excuse
themselves from continuous efforts to upgrade and
• Law of the Sea (5) (Maritime Law II) update their knowledge and skills in matters maritime.
The prevailing situation at many MET institutes is that
• Principles of Management 11(4) the faculty needs upgrading in maritime sector and
management subjects and updating in pedagogic
• Maritime Security (5) subjects, professional subjects and how-it-is-done-
somewhere-else subjects.
• Modern Maritime Communication (5)
An upgrading of knowledge is mostly necessary in
• Maritime Disaster Management Workshop (5) maritime sector subjects. It is difficult to improve one's
knowledge and understanding of matters maritime
• Maritime Commercial Policy Seminar (5) outside MET by a systematic approach without
attending a special course. A study of maritime
Common subjects for the nautical and marine transport comes closest to maritime sector knowledge.
engineering MET students:- The alternative approach available is to work for
shipping companies, other maritime enterprises or
• Teaching Pedagogics I - IV (2) maritime administrations and develop an
understanding of the maritime sector based on a
• Maritime Education and Training Systems I -1Il (3, number of individual experiences. It is obvious that
4) this is not a full substitute for a systematic approach.
• Computers in Maritime Education and Training (1, An upgrading in management subjects can be
2) achieved by attending special courses, by individual
studies and own experience. The shortcoming of the
• Maritime Technology (1) latter approach may be its dependence on individual
experience.
• Automation and Control Systems (1)
Steve Bonsall was born in 1948 in Buxton, Derbyshire and joined the Royal Fleet Auxiliary in September 1965 after one year pre-sea
training in Grimsby, later leaving as a senior second officer. He passed his master s exam in Liverpool in 1974, subsequently graduating
there in 1977 with a BSc in Maritime Studies. He worked in various positions in ports culminating in Terminal Manager at Cawoods
from 1988 to 1990, and then joined Liverpool]ohn Moores University as senior lecturer.
At the university Mr. Bonsall guided the updated undergraduate degree through the early years of the Integrated Credit Scheme
(ICS) and evolved a new MSc in Maritime Transport, now updated to Maritime Operations. Steve ispresently a Levell Tutor for the
undergraduate course and MSc Course Tutor. He is studying for PhD, has been Branch Secretary of the Nautical Institute North TrVest
Branch since 1993, and is a member of the Nautical Institute Education and Training Committee.
Introduction
if marine departments were to survive in these
The history of higher education in maritime disciplines establishments then their portfolio of courses would
can be traced back to the establishment of the Extra have to include a graduate programme. Thus, in the
Master's Certificates of Competency. These were not late 1960s, a BSc in maritime studies was set up in
required "per se" by shipping companies or several polytechnics in the UK. Not all these courses
government bodies as necessary qualifications for were to survive the test of time but some have
seafarers but were desired by some individual mariners developed and prospered. Entry to these courses was
as a way of continuing their education and improving initially by certificate of competency which, owing to
their understanding of their discipline. In the UK, from the syllabus, was an adequate qualification for the
the end of World War II, pre-sea training was carried intended work. Entry could also be gained with the
out in independent colleges such Conway, usual university entry qualifications but initially there
Pangbourne, Worcester and Warsash. Gradually, other were few if any students enrolling on the courses from
further education colleges included maritime this direction.
apprenticeship training in their list of courses. At this
time (mid 1950 to 1970) there was a great need in the The new undergraduate BSc was taught alongside
UK for officers in the Merchant Navy and courses were the extras course and a pass in extras was considered
generally full. Many of these colleges, but by no means equivalent to a 1st class pass at undergraduate level.
all, had instruction up to "extras" level. Some, Many of the occupations that had previously required
however, would teach at only the lower levels. At this an extras certificate started to accept graduates who
time entry as an apprentice into the UK merchant navy had a masters certificate of competency and a good
was at GCE '0' level standard. Thus the majority of degree (1st or 2.1 (Honours)) or ordinary degree with
the apprentices and consequently officers had a commendation in a technical discipline as equivalent
nationally recognised ability only to that level. If they to the extras. The degree itself often had more than
wished to study to graduate level then they needed to one pathway which would include both technical and
gain GCE 'N levels. commercial. This differed from the extras certificate
which had only the one set of subjects.
In the 1960s some of the courses in further
education colleges were taken into regional technology Where the degree was and is taught
colleges and these eventually, in the early 1970s,
became polytechnics. At this stage tuition to extras Teaching of the degree was initially quite widespread,
level was reasonably widely available and had become with courses in the University of Wales Institute of
a necessary qualification for college lecturer and often Science and Technology (UWIST) and at the
marine superintendent or surveyor. However it polytechnics of Plymouth, London and Liverpool and
became apparent to those in the new polytechnics that in colleges of further education in Southampton and
The early suite of courses included pathways in UWIST had developed from a College of
technical and commercial subjects. The technical Advanced Technology (CAT) which had taught the
pathway was intended to take the student towards professional maritime courses. By 1974 all these
careers in ship surveying, the Department of Transport courses had moved to a college at Llandaff and thus
courses developed from the undergraduate base.
Level One
Named Routes
Figure 20.2 Level One - named routes to BSe (Hons) degreesat LfMU
The PhD study is again a two part process with the The time allowed for each module is divided between
initial study being to Master of Philosophy (MPhil) lectures, tutorials, practicals, course work preparation
and transfer to Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) occurring time, private study and the exam. Not all these
half way through the course. The degree can be studied elements need be present and practicals and written
in the full or part time modes with full time taking exams are not always included. The lecturer is not
from 2 to 3 years depending on the establishment and present for the private study or course work
student and the part time degree taking up to 5 years. preparation and whilst tutorials are planned the
Transfer to PhD is made on successful completion of emphasis here is on questioning and analysis by the
a transfer report. This report in itself is about 6000 student. These periods are for the students to
words and has to outline the results of the research to consolidate their understanding of the subject matter.
date and the way the research can move forward to Only in the lectures and practicals is it necessary for
PhD level. It is essential that the study will add the lecturer to deliver the subject matter of the module.
something to the knowledge of the subject area. It is
necessary to break some new ground and repetition At LJMU there is a standard of 30 hours learning
of known facts is not sufficient. attached to each credit. Thus for the standard 3 credit
module there is a nominal 90 hours learning time.
Supervision and assessment at PhD level is more Figure 20.3 shows how the 90 hours for ship
intense than at the other levels. Two or possibly three technology are split.
supervisors are required and the main supervisor will
have had at least three previous successful supervisions This structure, then, is different to the standard way
as a second supervisor. Assessment is by panel which that the subject matter for the professional seafaring
will include external assessors to the establishment. examinations has been taught. Essentially, with
professional teaching, everything required to be
PhD study is an essential part of university activity known by the student is delivered by the lecturer
and thus the University of Wales has the longest history during the lecture periods. Test papers are then set to
of maritime PhDs of the UK maritime establishments. ensure that students know the answers to the likely
Plymouth University have also developed an extensive questions. The type of answer may have been
Figure 20.3 Division of Time Allocated to the Study of Ship TechnologyLevel 7 LJMU
If there is any time left after teaching and the work The future for maritime disciplines
above then it can be devoted to research. This may
be consideration of a chosen subject area or may be The maritime studies undergraduate degree has
part of a team researching a particular topic. Either existed for about 30 years now and is a well established
way it is a necessary part of the life of a lecturer in a and recognised qualification. It is a specialised degree
university or department involved in the teaching of taught in a few establishments in the UK and
graduate and/or post-graduate courses. The research increasingly in universities and colleges with a
will probably lead to the writing of research papers maritime background throughout the world. It is listed
for journals and may lead to participation in in the directory of degree courses and the degree is
conferences both as a presenter and a delegate. held by many directors and managers of industry.
Key knowledge required by employers It has proved a popular degree with students in
the main establishments in the UK and extensions to
Any selection of employers will have differing views it are now being seen. The area of maritime business
on the type of knowledge required from a graduate. is particularly attractive as this is one where the
Essentially the graduate has to provide something specialty of maritime is immediately seen. Many
more than the non-graduate, whether this be attitude, overseas students to the UK find the study of maritime
analysis skills, confidence or a deeper knowledge of business in the UK especially attractive as they gain a
the subject area. Unfortunately, however much one readily saleable skill together with the development
knows about a subject, the first question often asked of their English which is the main business language
will be the one to which you do not have an answer. in the maritime field.
Shipping is a vast subject area and anyone who knows
something of all the areas is likely to have insufficient Recent years have seen the development of the
depth of knowledge of any particular area. No one named undergraduate degrees into specific areas such
can be an expert in everything! as maritime business and environment. The area of
transport has always been a speciality in Cardiff but is
Employers are likely to require core skills. The now being exploited elsewhere. Leisure and history
ability to research quickly and efficiently, to be able are also areas actively being taught in some
to present findings in a clear and concise manner, to establishments. HND teaching of maritime disciplines
report succinctly and with authority and to be able to for non-seafarers has also developed over the past
communicate at all levels are likely to be some of these decade and this will remain as an option for those
core skills. In the shipping industry employers take without the necessary qualifications to move straight
on graduates from many disciplines and not just to a degree course. The MSc courses continue with
maritime. Similarly maritime graduates may find that smaller intakes than the BSc but still viable for that
they can be employed outside the maritime area. The level of teaching. They will continue in those
core maritime knowledge acts as a foundation and is establishments able to support such courses.
used together with the transferable skills gained from
studying common subjects such as computing and In developed countries the graduate and post-
statistics to provide a student who has knowledge in graduate teaching will continue and develop into the
depth but is not blinkered in outlook and can be foreseeable future, especially where traditional
employed in a variety of ways. teaching for seagoing declines. Developing countries
will gradually develop this level of teaching as the
universities are able to obtain the necessary teaching
skills and have the industry to support the graduates
once they have completed their courses. The structure
Conclusion Bibliography
Graduate and post-graduate study of maritime studies 1 Liverpool John Moores University, School of
is now well established with graduates at all levels - Engineering & Technology Management,
BSc, MSc and PhD - working within industry and Undergraduate Module Proforma Document 1996.
academia. The development of the maritime studies
degree and its offshoots from the initial industrial base 2 Liverpool John Moores University, School of
has found acceptance in industry and education and Engineering & Technology Management,
those with degrees at all levels find that their degree is Undergraduate Modular Degree Scheme Volume I (F),
accepted and understood. Its further development in Course Document for BSc/BSc(Hons) in Maritime
a world-wide context is assured with courses now being Studies.
set up in many countries. As training in the traditional
maritime subjects in industrialised countries declines Acknowledgements
study at the undergraduate and post-graduate level
will increase. The majority of this article has been written from the
author's own knowledge of the development of
Maritime studies as a discipline at graduate and graduate and post-graduate teaching in maritime
post graduate level has more than come of age and disciplines in the UK. The following persons and
will be part of a maritime university's portfolio of organisations have offered advice and information and
courses into the future. Those entering universities as some have proofread the document. Their help in the
lecturers will find departments with a variety of courses production of this article is much appreciated.
which are constantly under review. They will have to
become part of this review process and will be Maritime Studies Lecturers at Liverpool John
expected to make a useful contribution to it. Their Moores University.
role will not just be that of teacher but they will have
to take on administrative roles, be it a course, year or 2 Maritime Lecturers at the University of Wales,
individual tutor, and will have to become adept at College of Cardiff.
developing new modules and updating existing
modules. They may need to be a student counsellor 3 Glasgow Nautical College.
Marine Consultant
Stephen Chapman is a Master Mariner, a Fellow of The Nautical Institute, a graduate of Southampton University in Nautical Studies
and a Member of the Institute of Logistics. After gaining seagoing experience in coastal and deep sea cargo and passenger liner trades he
joined Esso Petroleum Company, Transportation Department, in 7974 as Training Manager responsiblefor the training and development
of 7,300 seafarers.
He joined Esso Europe as International Planning & Economics Manager in 7982 and developed economic bases and financial
analyses for restructuring the Exxon European tanker fleets. As International Marine Manager in 7984 he had responsibility for
strategic businessplanning and performance monitoring of a 62 vesselfleet (of 7.6 million dwt), including European inland waterways
barges.
As an independent marine consultant he has, since 7986, undertaken assignments for the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) in French west Africa and London, EC funded projects in Europe and the South Pacific, TecnEcon, the Centre for Advanced
Maritime Studies, Lloyd's of London, the Marine Safety Agency (Department of Transport of the UK), the Government of Tuvalu as a
commercial shipping advisor, and other clients in the UK, Netherlands and the USA.
The legal requirements are supplemented by An important change means that for the first time the
technical requirements and guidance contained in a IMO itself is given some authority over individual
Seafarers' Training, Certification and Watchkeeping parties. Under regulation 1/7 parties will be required
(STCW) Code. The Code is in two parts, part A being to provide detailed information to IMO concerning
administrative measures taken to ensure compliance
2The articles contain the legal provisions ofthe Convention with the Convention, education and training courses,
dealing with entry into force provisions, amendment certification procedures and other factors relevant to
procedures, denunciation and other matters. These remain implementation.
unchanged, but some of their provisions are supplemented
by new and amended regulations contained in the revised This information will be used by the Maritime
annex. Safety Committee, IMO's senior technical body, to
1/6 - Training and assessment The regulation requires that trainers and assessors be
qualified, whether on board or ashore.
lI8 - Quality standards Quality standards apply to all training and certification
activity. External evaluation at 5 year intervals.
1/9 - Medical standards - issue The regulation requires that parties establish medical
and registration of certificates standards. Registers of certificates have to be maintained
and accessible.
lIlO - Recognition of certificates The regulation requires flag States to confirm that
standards are met and to issue endorsement or own
certificate.
Figure 27.7 STew '95 - main chonges in maritime training, certification and watchkeePing
identify parties that are able to demonstrate that they standards to those ships entitled to fly their flag.
can give full effect to the Convention. However, they cannot apply higher standards to ships
of other flags which enter their territorial sea or visit
This regulation is regarded as particularly their ports while engaged on international voyages.
important because it means that governments will have
to establish that they have the administrative, training New or revised legal provisions have to be made
and certification resources necessary to implement the to require that seagoing experience, training on board
Convention. No such proof was required in the original and ashore and training record books which are to be
convention (or in any other IMO instrument), leading produced as evidence of any competence required by
to complaints that standards differed widely from the Convention be approved.
country to country and certificates could therefore not
always be relied on. Training and certification
National law and regulations With so many changes many actions have to be taken
to give full effect to the training and certification
The revised Convention entered into force on 1st requirements of the Convention. The transitional
February 1997. Parties are obliged to take immediate provisions of regulation 1/15, however, allow some
action to review their laws, regulations, decrees and leeway.
administrative procedures and amend them as
necessary to implement all new and revised Broadly speaking new provIsIOns in the
requirements. As with other Conventions, the Convention will come into effect on 1st February 1997,
standards contained in the STCW Convention are whilst changes to existing requirements are phased
minimum standards. Any party is free to apply higher over a five-year period of time to February 2002. This
A quality standards system is in place which covers All training programmes, courses and provisions
the training and assessment and certification which are to be accepted under the Convention
activities of maritime training academies, training are required to have been reviewed by the party to
and assessment activities which take place on board determine their acceptability, and approved if they
ship and government activities concerning the meet all applicable requirements.
training and certification of seafarers.
All STCW certificates, other than those issued,
Medical standards must be established for seafarers. endorsed or revalidated under the transitional
Global standards are being developed jointly by provisions, have to be issued, endorsed and
IMO, ILO and WHO. revalidated in accordance with the revised
Convention, using the appropriate new format.
Information is contained in a register to permit
timely verification of the authenticity and validity All information required by regulation 1/7 and
of certificates, endorsements and dispensations that section A-l/7 is required to have been
may be produced by seafarers seeking employment communicated to the Secretary-General of IMO.
or recognition of their certificates.
Satisfactory completion of the above steps will
Mandatory simulator based training and any allow the party to be approved under the authority of
assessment of required competency or IMO and publicly recognised as meeting the full
demonstration of continued proficiency that requirements of the Convention.
involves the use of a simulator, meets the
requirements, taking into account that compliance All transitional provIsIOns, other than those
with the prescribed performance standards is only concerning the replacement of gross registered ton
required for simulators brought into use after 1st limitations, has to be phased out by 1st February 2002.
February 2002. The action so taken has to be reflected in the report
on the next subsequent independent evaluation of the
Legal requirements and administrative provisions quality standards system communicated to the
ensure that companies operating ships under the Secretary-General of IMO. Such reports have to be
party's flag comply with certification, familiarisation provided at intervals not exceeding five years. If the
and manning standards in regulation 1/14. maximum permitted interval is adhered to then the
phase out would be reported on not later than 1st
All persons employed on board seagoing ships, August 2003.
other than passengers, have received approved
familiarisation training or instruction before being Endorsements to certificates
assigned to their shipboard duties.
The issue of endorsements cannot be delegated by
Subject to any exemption granted by the the administration and it therefore has to be carried
administration, seafarers engaged as part of any out by officials of the administration. Practical
seagoing ship's complement with designated safety
or pollution prevention duties will be required to
3Note that this requires refresher training to be undertaken
provide evidence of having achieved or retained,
at intervals of not more than five years.
It is expected that the need to provide information to The changes mandated in the new Convention will
IMO and the powers given to the Maritime Safety not happen overnight. It will take time and a lot of
Committee to assess the actions of national effort on the part of administrations, maritime colleges,
governments will greatly strengthen the effectiveness shipowners and the seafarers themselves to achieve
of the Convention. It is also clear that it will be difficult what is necessary. The structure of the Convention, as
for some governments to comply without assistance. it now stands, will make it a much simpler process to
A conference resolution urges parties to provide keep the regulations abreast of modern developments.
assistance to those States which have difficulty in
meeting the improved requirements and request
assistance.
Professor Vanchiswar is a Fellow and Vice President of The Nautical Institute. He has been Resident Professor at the World Maritime
University from its inception in 7983, with specific responsibility for the Courses on Maritime Safety Administration. He has also been
the occupant of the ITF Professorial Chair. Prior to that he had served IMO as Inter-Regional Consultant/ Expert on Maritime Safety
Administration for about four years.
Previously, for very many years, he was in the service of the Maritime Administration of the Government of India, reaching the
highest nautical position as Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, which he held for about 10 years. He was also Chief
Examiner of Masters and Mates for many years. During this period he was also leader of the Indian Delegation to many IMO
Committees/Conferences. At the International Conference on Standards of Training, Certification and WatchkeePing of Seafarers
(1978) he was the Chairman of the "Committee on Master and Deck Department".
Earlier he had been in command of Cargo and Passenger Ships. He holds the highest seafizring qualification as "Extra Master Mariner"
and a "Doctorate Degree" in Maritime Administration.
Introduction
It is to the credit of the World Maritime
The standards of training and examinations of various Community and the IMO that in the year 1978 they
grades of seafarers (officers and key ratings) along with adopted through an IMO Conference the
their appropriate certification in a country are intended "International Convention on Standards of Training,
to establish and provide proof of the competence of Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978"
the respective seafarers concerned for the levels at (STCW Convention). Thus emerged the first ever set
which they have to perform their duties on ships. They of international regulations in this regard. This
constitute the "first element" which determines the Convention entered into force on 28 April 1984.
standards of safety and efficiency at which the ships
of the country are operated. Even though the above-mentioned Convention was
ratified by the vast majority of countries worldwide
While the human factor as a whole is dominant in (113 countries covering 94.6% of world tonnage of
the operation of a ship, the professional competence ships - as on 1July 1995), there had been the growing
of the aforesaid management/ supervisory personnel realisation during the past decade that the basic
would be predominant. In view of the great objectives of the Convention were not being achieved
importance attached to such examinations and the worldwide. The primary reasons adduced in regard
certification of seafarers, all traditional and progressive to this unsatisfactory situation are stated below in brief.
maritime countries had accepted these as a
responsibility of their Governments and had regulated The causa remota was the lack of precision in the
the same nationally through their respective Maritime standards prescribed in the Convention, which also
(Safety) Administrations even before the STCW left the interpretation of same "to the satisfaction of
Convention, 1978, emerged. It was of course expected the Administration".
that Governments would decide upon the standards
and systems in consultation with the representatives The consequential causa proxima was the varying
of the shipping industry, the maritime education and interpretations of the standards by the different
training authorities, the seafarers, and the professional Administrations and the varying methods adopted for
institutions concerned. achieving such standards.
However, the standards and systems had varied Further, it was claimed that many Administrations
considerably amongst the maritime countries and (Governments) did not or could not have the
there were no international standards established until appropriate regulatory mechanisms to implement or
the year 1978. enforce the requirements of the Convention.
Such international regulations can be implemented (a) Translation of the international standards into
only through promulgation of appropriate national national regulations, along with the implementation
regulations, which is obviously the responsibility of of the latter.
the National Government. Besides, the National (b) Assessment of compliance reports received at 1MO.
Government has to ensure that such law as applicable (c) Endorsements of Certificates issued by or under
to its seafarers suits their extraordinary working/living the authority of another Party.
environment and is compatible with its policy based (d) Decision making regarding certificated manning
on its international obligations and its national requirements.
political, social and economic philosophies. (e) Port State Control.
Thus emerges the vital need for the assumption of Nevertheless, the waves need to be ridden only if
regulatory responsibilities by the National and when they come along! Accordingly, the author
Government. These regulatory responsibilities in turn wishes to proceed to deal with the main purposes of
have two aspects which have to go together, viz, this chapter.
enactment of the law and its administrative
implementation or enforcement. Both these aspects Translation of international training
together constitute the ultimate regulatory standards into national regulations
responsibilities of the National Government, even if a
number of matters are delegated to other institutions/
Legislative actions required
agencies for implementation.
The first and very important action to be taken by the
The author has thought fit to give the above
Government in this regard is to ensure that the
explanations to clarify that the ultimate responsibility
appropriate legal frame-work is established. In view
of the National Government is unassailable. However,
of the extensive revision of the Convention, there is
the present mechanisms used by various governments
no doubt that all governments concerned would find
for the administrative or physical implementation of
it necessary to amend their relevant laws, regulations,
their respective laws do appear to need review so as
decrees, etc., to reflect the revised requirements. Some
to make them more effective in meeting the necessary
may even have to create new legislation. There is also
and desired objectives. Some of these shall be covered
urgency in this regard since the revised Convention
as relevant to this chapter, leaving the rest to other
entered into force on 1 February 1997. At the same
authors.
time there is also an advantage to be noted. Since the
revised Convention, along with its Code, has been
The STCW Convention 1978as developed in great detail, it can be said that it
amended in 1995 accommodates both the monistic concept of
international law (whereby the Act of ratification or
Obviously this amended (revised) Convention, accession of the Convention itself makes it part of
along with its Code, specifies the present international national law), and the dualistic concept of international
Standards for Maritime Training and related law (whereby the Convention becomes part of national
requirements, which in turn have to be translated into law after detailed implementing national legislation
national regulations for implementation/enforcement. has been adopted).
While the essential objectives of the revised In countries where the legal regime is such as to
Convention are to rectify the primary deficiencies adopt the "monistic concept", the act of ratification or
referred to in the introduction, the revision has made accession would tend to be considered not only as the
the Convention "User friendly", and amenable to clear "Primary Legislation" but also as the sole legislation
interpretations, thereby facilitating implementation. At in this regard. Therefore, such legislation (in the
the same time it makes the Governments accountable absence of subsidiary legislation) would need to be
directly and also satisfies IMO regarding compliance. supplemented by administrative directives, etc., as
appropriate. On the other hand, in countries where
In this connection it is to be noted that the Code the legal regime adopts the "dualistic concept", there
provides detailed "Guidelines" for all concerned. would have to be both "Primary Legislation" with
As regards "Safe Manning" and "Certification" the However, there are at present various differences
direct mechanism used by a Government is its in the "Systems" (methodologies), as well as alleged
Maritime Safety Administration. The author is of the qualitative deficiencies in some cases. Accordingly,
view that this is quite appropriate. However, this has there is the clear need to harmonise to the maximum
been a weak area in a number of developing countries. extent possible the MET Systems, especially since it
While IMO and WMU have done a lot to rectify the has already been stated earlier that the MET
situation, the efforts need to continue in this regard as Institutions are also best equipped for managing and
otherwise the whole "Quality Chain" would continue conducting the examinations for seafarers. Obviously
to be adversely affected in such countries. any effort towards ensuring adequacy and
harmonisation of systems for the competence and
In respect of the mechanisms used for certification of officers and key ratings has to take fully
"Examination of Seafarers" there have been (and still into account the quality of the maritime education and
are) the following main types of variations:- training involved. Similarly the quality of the education
and training of all ratings deserve attention along with
Examination conducted entirely by the Maritime the implications of the different manning structures
Safety Administration. and patterns that are proposed.
Examination conducted entirely by the Maritime In all these efforts there is the imperative need to
Education and Training Institution concerned. keep in mind the vital importance of human factors.
However, it is appreciated that the achievement of
Examination conducted by an external Body, which harmonisation of the various systems is not an easy
is neither the Maritime Safety Administration nor matter. There are bound to be many problems to be
the Maritime Education and Training Institution resolved and multifarious factors of influence to be
concerned. reckoned with. Nevertheless, concerted efforts, on a
priority basis, need to be made in this direction. In
Examination conducted by joint arrangements the following paragraphs this chapter attempts to
between the Maritime Safety Administration and identify the major factors that can be anticipated in
the concerned Maritime Education and Training the harmonisation of systems and offer suggestions to
Institution. overcome the problems and cope with the factors in
order to achieve harmonisation to the maximum
It is the view of this author that Maritime Education extent possible.
and Training (MET) Institutions, provided that they
are well established, manned and managed, are better Harmonisation of systems - major
equipped and geared to undertake the responsibilities factors, influences, problems and
for managing and conducting the examinations. They
and their staff also have the international linkages and
suggestions
forums, and the capabilities to achieve substantial
The initial problems to be resolved may well be
harmonisation of systems which is most desirable and
those related to human aspects as stated below:
is also dealt with later on in this chapter. Besides, the
MET Institutions have not only the potential to
The natural tendencies of those concerned to
cooperate, they are already co-operating in many
continue to adhere to national traditions and practices
regions and partly also world wide. At the same time
(whether indigenous or inherited) with which they are
the roles and responsibilities of governments and the
familiar. These may even amount to conservative
reasons for same have to be borne in mind. For
attitudes with consequential resistance to change.
discharging them Governments have to ensure that
there are adequate and appropriate monitoring/
Assumptions that since the present systems in the
auditing mechanisms through or with the involvement
respective countries have been successful in the past,
of their respective Maritime Safety Administrations
they are the best and need not be changed.
(MSA). Obviously, as a condition precedent to such
assumption of monitoring/auditing functions, the
The most complex set of factors is that the efforts
MSA concerned itself must be well established and
towards harmonisation have to cover not only all the
manned by competent officials.
three links of the "quality chain", i e, manning,
examination/ certification and maritime education and
training, but also the various elements of each link.
Captain De Simone is a graduate of the State University of New York Maritime College and the Manhattan College Graduate Division
of Business. He holds an unlimited Master's license with First Class Pilotage endorsements and is commissioned at the rank of
Lieutenant Commander in the United States Naval Reserve.
After graduatingfrom the State University of New York Maritime College in 7973, Captain De Simone made a career at sea sailing
with various steamship companies in all capacities from able seaman up to and including master. During his seagoing career he also
gained experience as a vessel and cargosurveyor, expeditor and vetting inspector. In the spring of 7987, Captain De Simone accepted the
position of VicePresident, Commandant of Cadets and Master of the training ship EmPire State at his alma mater, the State University
of New York Maritime College.
During his time on staff at the Maritime College, Captain De Simone pursued graduate studies in management and international
business and was awarded the degree Master of Business Administration from Manhattan College. He was instrumental in program
enhancement at the Maritime College that included a broad spectrum of programs from establishing a Learning Assistance Center for
tutoring to the acquisition of bridge and cargo simulators for cadet training. The current training ship, EmPire State VI, was converted
to a training ship from a breakbulkfreighter (ex Mormactide) and commissioned during Captain De Simone's tenure. In addition to his
responsibilities for all non-academic programs and the operation and maintenance of the training ship at the College, he alsofound the
time for classroom teaching as well.
After almost ten years in the academic environment, Captain De Simone made a career decision to return to private industry. He
was offered a position with the Great Lakes Towing Company as Director of Fleet Operations and Engineering and is currently assigned
to the position of Assistant to the President with that company.
He is a member of the Council of American Master Mariners, served as one of thefirst Commissioners on the Connecticut State Pilot
Commission, is a member of the Board of Directors of the Connecticut Maritime Association and is Vice Chair of the North East Coast
Branch USA of The Nautical Institute.
The training ship has been a part of the American The school ship program was enacted in 1873 by
maritime infrastructure for over 120 years. During this the Congress of the United States. This program was
time, thousands of qualified ship's officers, both deck in response to a group of New York businessmen who
and engine, have been trained and educated on board expressed grave concerns about the ill health of the
training ships. On the international scene, training American maritime industry in the post-Civil War era.
ships have also played a prominent role. Egypt, the The industry had declined significantly during that
former Soviet Union, Mexico and Taiwan are but a war. A considerable number of owners removed their
few of the world maritime community who have vessels from U.S. registry for fear of losing them in
embraced the training ship methodology of maritime the conflict, while many others were, in fact, casualties
training and education. of that conflict. The end result was a greatly diminished
maritime presence for a nation that had barely begun
In this age of simulation, it should be mentioned to realize its tremendous international trading
that training ships are but one of many successful potential. The group of New York businessmen felt
maritime training regimens. Company cadets, that if the trading potential of the United States was to
academy cadets, civilian training and 'hawsepipers' be developed fully, the nation must have a strong
are testimony to the varied and successful methods of maritime industry. The logical place to begin
training seafaring professionals. This chapter, however, rebuilding the industry was with the training of ship's
will address the American, ocean-going, power driven officers. In 1874, a decommissioned U.S. Navy sloop
training ships. In the jargon of the U.S. Maritime of war was transferred from the federal government
Administration, the State Academy school ships. Also, to the City of New York for the purpose of training
it will speak only to the deck license program, although merchant ships' officers.
Figure 23. 7 Training ship EMPIRE STATE, Long Island Sound, Spring 7992.
Length 772m, Displacement (loaded) 77,200 LIT, Beam 23m, Shaft Horsepower 77,500, Draft 7.5m, Accommodations 787.
The training ship EMPIRE STATE is the newest and most sophisticated training ship under Us. registry. The vessel isfitted out with state-of
the-art navigation, communication, electronic, computer and collision avoidance systems. Additionally, classroom, laboratory and libraryjacilities
are available to conductfull scale underway training and education. The vessel is also equipped with ARPA and diesel simulators. The EMPIRE
STATE is the sixth vessel to bear that name in the 722 year history of the United States' oldest maritime academy, the State University of New
York Maritime College. The College is located at historic Fort Schuyler in the Throgs Neck section of New York. Programs include afull range of
associate, baccalaureate and master's level curricula, along with the professional license trainingftr entry level ships' officers.
Figure 23.2
Engine room scene
Figure 23.3
Personnel inspection
Figure 23.4
Handling lines
- SECTION IV -
Professor Peter Muirhead has a wide and varied experience in the maritime industry, having spent some seventeen years at sea trading
world-wide, and overfive years as Senior Marine Surveyor and Examiner of Masters and Mates in Sydney, Australia. In 7979 he
became involved in the foundation and establishment of the new Australian Maritime College, developing both traditional training
programmes for officers and ratings as well as new approaches with integrated ratings training and at-sea task and guided study
programmes (TAGS) for deck watchkeeper trainees and post-graduate maritime awards using distance learning methods and satellite
technology. In addition, he has had over 20 years experience in the development and use of marine simulators.
InJanuary 7993 ProfessorMuirhead took up his present position as Inmarsat Professor of Maritime Education and Training at the
World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmo, Sweden. Through the MSc programme in Maritime Education and Training (MET)
he is responsiblefor providing the develoPing countries with maritime education administrators, lecturers and instructors. Through the
concept of training the trainers, the aim of the WMU programme is to provide MET graduates with knowledge and understanding of
basic pedagogical practices and practical instructional skills.
Introduction
This chapter is designed to provide the reader with a interpretation on measurement information and is
brief overview of some assessment methods and usually concerned with assigning a score, mark, grade
techniques used in education. However, before or ranking. Assessment procedures (e.g. norm-
embarking on this specific topic, it is necessary to have referenced assessment, criteria referenced assessment
some understanding about the purpose and role of and goal-based assessment) may be used to make
measurement, assessment and evaluation in teaching judgments and decisions about students, lecturers,
in general as some confusion often exists between the courses, resources or curricula. Judgments about the
use of the terms testing, measurement, assessment and value of such data are properly the role of evaluation.
evaluation. For all practical purposes measurement Evaluation depends upon both measurement and
and assessment can be considered synonymous. assessment and is concerned with the assignment of
worth or merit to particular performances, behaviours,
Testing is a procedure used to measure a sample or processes. The subject is covered in chapter 31.
of behaviour in order to discover how well a student
performs, usually in comparison with others, or Purpose of assessment
compared with identified performance criteria. In this
context it is important that the test, in whatever form Students are assessed with a view to finding out the
it is being used, yields consistent results by being valid, extent of their knowledge, understanding and skill,
reliable and practical. Whilst we can only take a and how well they have learned. In general there are
sample of a person's knowledge or comprehension several recognised main purposes for assessment,
about a topic in this way, testing methods do provide namely motivating students, grading for advancement
a more reliable estimate of performance than most (further studies, career, etc.), standards setting and
other observational techniques; unsystematic or providing feedback to students and teachers. Their
irregular observation being too unreliable. impact on the assessment process can be varied
however and the lecturer setting the assignment, test
With measurement, we are concerned with getting or examination must be clear about the objectives of
a statement of performance, i.e. how much?, against such assessment if it is to achieve its purpose.
some established scale or rule, usually expressed in a
quantitative form although it may be non-numerical. Assessment is only one inter-linked part of the
During this process information and data is being teaching process model (objectives, syllabus and
gathered but it must be systematic, valid and reliable. assessment) and may be permitted to dominate it if
Assessment can be considered as placing an care is not exercised.
Effective marking
This avoids awarding too many marks for tidy yet
meaningless work. Consistency (reliability) of marking The most important factor in the marking of papers is
is important as it leads to fair treatment of students the achievement of a high degree of marker
who will take feedback more seriously. It lets them consistency. Dunn (1967) makes the following
know what the lecturer considers to be important and suggestions:-
what hel she is looking for. Marking aspects should be
listed for matching against the topic objectives and (a) Use questions that can be scored with a high degree
weighted for value. of objectivity if these can effectively test the
objectives of the course.
Assessment is done for a purpose. The process of
assessment should provide data for decision making. (b) Extended answer, either problem or essay-type
With the availability of assessment data, the educator should be structured so that the parts can be scored
is now in the position to complete the evaluative with greater objectivity. Sub scores can be given
process. for the various parts as a guide for students.
Figure 24.2 Example of a credit hours and quality point average scheme
points earned. The semester GPA is then arrived at Converting marks and rankings into
by dividing this total by the total number of credit grades
hours attempted. Figure 24.2 above illustrates this.
Chapter 31 provides some insights into the
A cumulative grade point average(CGPA) will be establishment and use of standardised scores as part
computed for all course work completed over each of the evaluation process. Generally however, most
year. To graduate, a minimum CGPA and semester teachers find this a time consuming process and in
credits of graded hours will be specified by the addition, it assumes for the individual scores an
institution. accuracy which may not be warranted. The choice of
a scoring scale is often arbitrary and the application
Anecdotal written evaluations of a fixed translation scheme from raw scores may
not be reasonable (e.g. 81-100%= A, 61-80% = B etc.).
Students do not receive grades. They get written As it is a time consuming practice, many teachers opt
anecdotal comments from the teacher regarding their for a norm referenced approach to grading.
strengths and weaknesses on specific assignments, or
on the course overall. The use of checklists, in which In order to ensure some comparability between
the teacher can check off specific strengths or areas teachers, it is desirable to use a uniform system. One
needing improvement, is also a form of anecdotal method of awarding grades (on a 5 point scale) on the
written evaluation. rank order within a group (either whole year or within
the class if they are homogeneous) is to use the
Pass/fail following:-
Only two grades are available in this system, namely A to the top 10% of students
pass or fail. Students meeting the course criteria for a B to the next 20% of students
passing grade receive a pass, those failing to meet the C to the middle 40% of students
criteria receive a fail. Pass/fail is generally the outcome D to the next 20% of students
of criterion referenced assessment but for different E to the lowest 10% of students.
reasons. Criterion referenced assessment is to ensure
that students who successfully complete a course can This approximates to the normal distribution
do a range of things competently. Pass/fail courses are shown in figure 1. Similar distributions can be obtained
not to establish performance standards, but are for the range of marks for 10 or 15 point scales (A+ to
designed to avoid certain negative effects of assessment E). This approach in assigning marks and grades is
such as too much competitiveness between students. often termed norm-referenced as it depends on the
norms established by his or her particular cohort of
Mastery approach fellow students. The grading is relative. It is more
justified when applied to national examinations and
In this system, the teacher sets up pre-established large numbers, but becomes more dubious when
competencies and acceptable levels of attainment, applied to small groups.
which students are required to meet in a particular
unit of a subject before they can be considered to have Soine teachers have reservations about such
mastered the tasks or material in that course. Skills arbitrary proportioning of grades, on the grounds that
based training techniques utilise the principles of this it could be unfair where parallel class groups may be
system. of different standards of ability. Thus they should only
Keith Parsons, a Master Mariner, served with P&O fOr 73 years, sailing in a variety of ship types including general cargo, tankers and
passenger vessels. In 7990 hejoined the Monaco based shiP management company, V Ships, as Group Training and Planning Manager
and, until 7994, was based at the company's head office in Monaco. He has since returned to the V Ships regional office in Southampton,
UK and has been responsiblefOr the development and implementation of a group training strategy, servicing a varied fleet of some 200
vessels employing over 5000 crew.
The selection of trainees, the inspection of training facilities and the establishment of the company's in-house training programme
has involved extensive travel and has given Keith a detailed knowledge of the world's marine training and manpower supply centres. To
date he has inspected well over 700 marine training establishments on behalf of V Ships, from Eastern & Western Europe, North &
South America, and Asia, including a recent visit to the People's Republic of China. He has a particular interest in India and sat on a
joint ISF/Warwick University study investigating manpower supply and demand in India.
Mr. Parsons has assisted with the production of various training aids, developedfOr the industry in general, including The Nautical
Institute's own publication 'Bridge WatchkeePing, a Practical Guide'. He has been a member of the Council of The Nautical Institute
since 7994 and fOr three years was a member of the International Ship Manager's Association Manpower and Training Committee.
Introduction
When defining the required qualifications, skills
The determination and preparation of a company's and experience it is most important to establish
training strategy will depend upon a variety of factors, priorities. For the sake of convenience three levels of
including the type and size of the fleet, the equipment priority are suggested.
carried, the skill of the existing work force, the number
of the crew on each vessel, changing legislation and The first priority is the training leading to
the budget available for training. Every fleet has its mandatory qualifications, without which a vessel
unique requirements and some operators, offering cannot sail. A company should count itself fortunate
attractive terms of employment, with access to a if it has immediate access to the necessary crew to
qualified and experienced work force may elect to do fulfil this fundamental requirement and will almost
no more than fulfil their statutory obligations. Such certainly have to devote a proportion of the budget to
operators are, however, becoming rare! meet the mandatory minimum requirements.
Assessing the effectiveness of training is a complex The second priority is the training that provides
process, where techniques vary considerably, but all the essential skills and experience to operate a modem
too often such an assessment is absent altogether. In vessel successfully, a far wider reaching set of
reality, the failures of a training strategy are more requirements than the mandatory qualifications alone.
readily apparent than the successes and unless an
objective means of assessment is in place, the Lastly, if resources are available, they should be
shortcomings in a system are more likely to form the targeted at the desirable qualities that will enhance
basis of assessment. the safety, efficiency and the overall quality of the
operation.
Preparing the strategy
Mandatory training
What are the steps towards implementing a coherent
training strategy? The first stage is to define the The first priority and the foundation of any training
qualification, skill and experience requirements for strategy for any company, large or small, is the need
each position onboard. This ideal set of criteria should to man a vessel with trained and suitably qualified
then be compared with the credentials of the existing personnel to meet the plethora of mandatory
work force to establish the areas in which additional requirements. A vessel with inadequately qualified
skills training is required. personnel onboard may be deemed unseaworthy and,
What are the mandatory requirements? This will In summary, when defining the mandatory level
depend upon the nationality of the seafarers employed, of training, consult the requirements of:-
the flag of the vessel, the vessel type, its trading pattern,
and in some cases the equipment carried onboard. The STCW convention.
The ISM code.
A good starting point is the STCW convention, The flag state.
which, although not ratified by every administration Local bylaws.
can be considered as the realistic bare minimum for a Labour supply country.
commercial vessel engaged on international trade. The
revised convention, dealt with in greater detail in Essential skills and experience
chapter 21, now lays out very clearly the
responsibilities of the company and will be the Having established the foundation of the training
cornerstone of any company strategy. strategy, i.e. the mandatory minimum requirement, it
is then necessary to build the next layer and define
The STCW convention, flag and port state the skills and experience that are essential to operate
regulations govern the qualifications required to the vessel safely and efficiently. This may extend to
operate specialised equipment, or to handle specific personnel that do not get a mention in the STCW
cargoes. A knowledge of a vessel's particulars is convention or may not be part of the vessel's safe
essential, therefore, to determine the training required manning.
for a particular vessel or trade.
An owner or manager that goes no further than to
The flag state interpretation of the convention also satisfy his mandatory obligations would be unwise to
requires scrutiny to ensure that seafarers meet the flag let the ropes go! A perfectly certificated crew, holding
requirements and carry the necessary documentation. all the correct pieces of paper, may have difficulty
finding the first port, let alone delivering a cargo safely.
The ability of the crew to communicate effectively
is not only essential for safe and efficient operation For example, a master that cannot understand the
but is a mandatory requirement, forming part of both terms of a charter party will be a serious liability. A
the STCW convention and the ISM code. poorly trained reefer engineer who fails to maintain
the temperature of a refrigerated cargo may cost his
The ISM Code, now embodied in the SOLAS owner dearly, or an electrical officer who cannot
convention, also addresses the subject of crew training. maintain the vessel's cranes may cause considerable
It deals specifically with training necessary in support delay.
of the safety management system which will include
the organisation of emergency drills, the The job description for each position has to be
understanding of relevant rules and regulations, and examined closely, including particular safety hazards,
the familiarisation training required at the time of language requirements, the type of vessel and technical
joining (see chapter 39). specifications, and in certain positions a detailed
knowledge of commercial considerations.
The labour supply country's requirements also vary
and need to be checked thoroughly, as a seaman's It can be seen that the job description is an essential
book can only be obtained in certain countries after element of any training strategy and it is only by
successful completion of specific training. developing a job description that a meaningful set of
skill requirements can be established.
A vessel meeting the requirements mentioned
above may still incur the wrath of the local officials, The job description will normally be drawn up in
and every company must keep abreast oflocal training conjunction with the vessel superintendent who will
requirements to avoid citation, punitive fines, or have detailed knowledge of technical requirements,
unnecessary delay. Environmental protection is at the as well as the owner's and charterers individual needs.
heart of much local legislation and failure to comply The latter is particularly worthy of mention.
with the most obscure requirements may cost the Experience requirements for key personnel, over and
unwitting ship owner dearly. above the statutory norm are frequently found in a
charter party and may be the subject of strict vetting.
Having negotiated the minefield of mandatory Most make perfect sense and should be closely
regulation successfully, the qualification requirements adhered to.
The progress of individuals must also be reviewed The loss ratio, accident and incident statistics do,
collectively and most companies will monitor their however, provide a tangible measure of the
training programme through a computerised crewing effectiveness of a safety training programme. The
system. In fact, STCW '95 now requires that a record number of days lost through injury, the number of
of training, experience and competence is maintained accident free days, the number of near misses, are all
and readily accessible. Ideally the system should be excellent measures of success and provide even more
capable of presenting the information in a variety of useful information when compared with previous
forms so that progress in any particular area can be statistics. The ISM code now requires proper analysis
monitored. of statistics and the implementation of corrective action
will in many cases require additional training.
If, for example, an organisation decides that all
deck officers are to obtain a GMDSS operator's license Analysis of accident statistics by nationality, rank,
within a given period, there must be a means of and vessel type, provide additional detail which, used
monitoring progress towards this objective. A intelligently, can identify effectiveness of training as
computerised system capable of extracting that specific well as the gaps, and will indicate where resources are
data from a personal file and presenting it in whatever most needed.
form requested will be of great benefit to the
administrator. Internal and external audits of the company's
procedures provide a wealth of information and will
A personal record of training, similar to a cadet highlight areas of weakness. An absence of findings
record book, detailing all training and instruction
Colin Chandler went to sea in 7960 at the age of sixteen as a deck cadet with the British India Steam Navigation Company Limited.
He served as Cadet to Second Officer on a variety of cargo and passenger vessels, attaining a Master Mariner's (Foreign Going)
Certificate of Competency in 7969. This was followed by a six year short service commission in the Marine Branch of the Royal Air
Force, during which period he commanded various small vesselsengaged in the operational training of maritime aircraft and search and
rescue.
Thereafter, he spent three years as a Fishery Officer with the Sea Fisheries Inspectorate of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food, working both ashore and afloat. He then served eleven years with P & 0 European Ferries (Dover), previously Townsend
Thoresen, mostly as Chief Officer on ro-ropassenger and freight vessels, but also responsiblefor the organisation of a range of training
activities for seafarers, both ashore and afloat. In 7989 he joined the Ship Safe Training Group Ltd. He is a graduate of the Open
University with a BSc degree in mathematics, and has undertaken basic accountancy studies.
The author served at sea with the P&O Steam Navigation Co. as a deck officerfrom 1961 to 1972. He transferred ashore tojoin the
then British Shipping Federation as Safety Training Adviser. In 1977, he was appointed Secretary and subsequently Chief Officer of the
Merchant Navy Training Board (MNTB), combining this with other responsibilities for training and employment affairs within the
Chamber of Shipping.
The MNTB, which is representative of shiPowners, seafarers 'organisations, marine collegesand Government departments concerned
with the training and qualifications of seafarers is recognised by the Department for Education and Employment as the industry
training organisation and lead bodyfor the development of vocational qualifications (VQJ) for the Merchant Navy.
The objective is to establish a clearly defined single Occupational competence is the bringing together
set of standards of competence recognised by all of all the diverse skills, knowledge and abilities needed
concerned. Achievement of those standards signals a to ensure that individuals are capable of fulfilling the
successful outcome of training. roles expected of them in the way and to the standards
expected in employment. Precise definition is difficult
Competence but the main components are:-
Despite familiarity with the system of statutory Skills, knowledge and understanding that are
certificates of competency which have been required specific to an occupation.
for employment at sea for many years, little attention More general skills and knowledge.
has been given until fairly recently to exactly what Personal effectiveness.
competence means. Most people have their own ideas
of what it involves and would almost certainly claim The precise definition is not important. What is
to be able to pass subjective judgment on the ability important is that a broad or holistic view of
or performance of others as being of an acceptable competence is fostered. This will help to ensure that
standard or not. individuals are assessed to a high standard.
Figure 27.3 Extract .from table of standards of competence A-JIll "Officer in charge of a navigational watch" in the STCW Code
opportunities aboard ship and, in some cases, their A number of opportunities arise from the
random occurrence. development of competence based qualifications to
· How to identify the knowledge which underpins
competent performance.
enhance the education and training process. These
include:-
· How best to link the off-the-job training which is
necessary to develop underpinning knowledge and
understanding with on-the-job practice in order to
· The full involvement of senior staff on board in the
learning process. They are ultimately responsible
promote transfer of learning (during and after for the safety of operations and have a vested
training) and make the most efficient use oflearning interest in the competence of their juniors. Feedback
opportunities. from them is to be encouraged as this will inform
· How best to develop the planning, problem solving
and team work aspects of occupational competence.
the future development and refinement of the
standards.
· How best to develop skilled and motivated learners
(i.e. learners who know how to learn) who will in
· Assuming that the occupational standards are
designed with sufficient precision, it should be
future be able to take advantage of further possible for sO,me individuals to prove their
development opportunities as life-long learners. competence more swiftly, strengthening their
motivation to learn at sea.
There are no quick and easy answers to these issues.
Training providers need to consider them in the
· After an initial induction and familiarisation with
ship operations, all learners should have the
context of their own circumstances and arrangements. opportunity to be involved in planning their training
In the UK the MNTB envisages, for instance, that programme with their tutor/supervisor. This will
planned, structured and progressive learning improve motivation and, providing it is not
programmes will continue to constitute the main routes burdensome to them, help the ship staff in the vital
to competence for new entrants. As a general principle, tasks of ensuring that maximum benefit is derived
the learning of basic principles and underpinning from all learning opportunities.
knowledge will be programmed in such a way that it
supports the development and demonstration of
· Value can be added to the existing certificates so
that they are seen as evidence of full occupational
competence during periods of training at sea. competence and not only licences to serve in a
specified capacity.
A new Training Portfolio has been developed. Its
purpose is to guide training and provide a means for
· There may be scope for improving learning
efficiency on board through modern IT-based
the trainee to keep and record evidence of telecommunications. For instance, tutors and
performance of various tasks and duties. A degree of trainees could review problems via e-mail and fax
flexibility has been built into the design of the Portfolio and records of work and achievement necessary
as it will need to change from a rather prescriptive, for planning future programmes of individuals can
task-oriented approach to evidence gathering, which be transmitted in seconds.
is appropriate at lower levels, towards broader based
projects and assignments which are more appropriate Conclusion
at the higher levels.
Moving towards an approach to qualification that is
based on occupational competence ensures that
education and training is relevant to competence and
the needs of individuals, and raises standards. The
structuring of occupational standards according to
occupation (or function) and level of responsibility (or
competence) enables common competences to be
recognised easily. This will be of benefit to individuals
seeking to extend the range of work they are qualified
to perform and to progress their careers.
Figure 27.8 Trainingportftlio
The occupational standards indicate what is
At this stage, sea staff are not expected formally to
expected in employment. Qualifications are not
assess competence against the standards. This will be
awarded until candidates provide sufficient evidence
undertaken at an approved centre ashore, usually a
Philip Smith was at sea with Royal Mail Lines and Canadian Pacific and holds an Extra Master certificate of competency. After
leaving the sea he worked in various nautical colleges as a lecturer and Head of Department, then became one of Her Majesty's
Inspectors of Schools, working in the Further and Higher Education sector and with special responsibilities related to nautical education.
For the last five years Philip has been self-employed, running Maritime Open Learning, undertaking various consultancies related
to training and also working part-time for the UK Merchant Navy Training Board and the Sea Fish Industry Authority as thejoint
industries' Project Manager, responsiblefor the implementation of NVQJ and SVQJ.
It has not been stated as to who should undertake In practice, the assessment must be carried out
that observation. Clearly, it would be helpful if the using a range of techniques. It should include
assessor observes the person but, if that is impractical, observation and, in order to test the aspects which
the assessor might accept statements that others have cannot or might not be observed and to ensure that
done the observation. These are sometimes called the competence can be judged to be likely to continue
witness statements or witness testimony. In fact, for into the future, questioning in written or oral form
Chris Haughton went to sea in 7977 with Cunard Brocklebank and servedfor nine years in general cargo, container and reefir shiPs,
a VLCC, product tankers, livestock and bulk carriers. He studied for Second and First Mate Certificates at Plymouth College of Further
Education (now Plymouth University). Transferring to passenger shiPs he spent a further five years on the Q,E2 and Cunard Princess
as First Officer. He obtained his Master s Certificate in 7982 at South Shields Marine and Technical College (now South Tyneside
College). Following a brief spell ashore as Training Manager he moved to Dover and servedfor three years on cross-channelfirries. He
is now in his ninth year at Blackpool and The Fylde College and is Head of Maritime Operations.
Developments in UK education policies have seen the introduction of a functional-based training system (National Vocational
Q,ualifications) into the UK Merchant Navy. Fleetwood has been closely involved with this work over the past four years.
Introduction
at the end of a Certificate of Proficiency in Survival
Historically, candidates for Certificates of Competency Craft (CPSC) course may be familiar. If there is a
presented themselves for examination at the end of a connection between the stress of a face-to-face
college-based programme or whenever they felt able. examination and the candidate's competence in a
Failure meant the candidate simply went round the lifeboat it is tenuous to say the least. That is not the
block again and again until success came, more by only flaw. The candidate may also be at the mercy of
inevitability than anything else - the candidate, having idiosyncratic examiners who can baffle even
exhausted the question banks, was able to predict the experienced seamen with esoteric questions built up
papers fairly accurately. Over the past fifteen years over a lifetime of similar encounters.
there has been, within the UK generally and the
Merchant Navy in particular, a shift towards on-course On the other hand, a planned assessment strategy
continuous assessment for much of the work that sets criteria which are mutually understood by assessor
people have to do. This is only part of a much wider and candidate. Assessment is conducted in an
educational move towards student-centred learning atmosphere of mutual respect and candidates have a
with its underpinning ethos of humanist thinking. proper environment in which to demonstrate their
competence - or otherwise. With the CPSC example
Nowadays, the academic components of a above, it may be expedient to assess the course in one
qualification in the UK are satisfied by studying session at the end. However, on some of the longer
programmes approved by various academic standard- academic programmes it may be better to assess at
setters (BTEC/SCOTVEC). Furthermore, with the regular intervals.
advent of a functional-based training system -
National Vocational Qualifications - students will also Questions of norm vs. criteria referencing,
have to provide evidence of performance at sea (or replicability and validity are dealt with in other
possibly in simulation) which will combine with chapters. All forms of assessment must be planned
academic achievement to prove competence. This and implemented with these overriding principles in
chapter will discuss the merits of continuous on-course mind.
assessment before moving on to discuss project -setting,
focusing on the adequate briefing of students, some Decisions as to the form of assessment within a
of whom may not have encountered this form of given academic programme are made at (inter)national
assessment before. level in discussion with other institutions, the industry
lead body (the MNTB in the UK), the academic
On-course continuous assessment awarding bodies and the relevant governmental
administration. Having decided on the overall scheme,
The image of an accomplished and mature seaman the actual implementation is delegated to the
waiting with trepidation to face an oral examination institutions, course teams and lecturers.
Note on Referencing
You may quote short passages from text books or other sources. However they should always be properly
referenced. Suppose you were writing about the safety of bulk carriers. There is an interesting article in
the Nautical Institute's September 1996 edition of Seaways which you might like to use. The full passage
reads:
"In the early 1990s when it became apparent that bulk carriers were being inexplicably lost in numbers every
sector of the industry had its explanations and solutions. Nautical Institute members speculated that these shiPs were
being driven too hard in adverse weather, or damaged by high loading rates." (Seaways, Sep 96 pg. 45).
Arguably, this is too long to reproduce in full in your project. You might decide to cut it down while
still retaining the gist as follows:
''In the early 1990s when it became apparent that bulk carriers were being inexplicably lost...{it was] speculated
that these ships were being pushed too hard ...or damaged by high loading rates." (Seaways, Sep 1996 pg. 45).
The series of full stops ... indicates that you have omitted a word or words from the original text. The
square brackets [ ] indicate that you have inserted your own words in order to make grammatical sense
of the part quoted.
The brief reference at the end is always put in parentheses ( ) and is enough so that the reader can find
it in the bibliography at the end of the project. In the bibliography you must include the whole reference
to the publication used, including name of author, title of publication, publisher, year (and month) of
publication, e.g:
Isbester J, Bulk Carriers - A Changing World, Seaways, Sep 1996, Nautical Institute, London
Perry Stutman has had a diversified and extensive career in the US. maritime industry. Following his graduation with honours in
1969, he sailed until becoming an instructor in the Marine Engineering Department of his alma mater, the Calhoon M.E.B.A.
Engineering School; established by the Marine Engineer's Beneficial Association and supported by contracted US. shipping companies.
He remained at Calhoon until 1987 when the cadet training program was terminated and returned to sea until his retirement in
1991. During his 13 years as an instructor, heprovided training to more than 2500 cadets and licensed engineers. Further, he developed
the transportable inert gas and crude oil washing courseprovided to the M.E.B.A. membershiP at ports throughout the us.
At the beginning of Operation Desert Shield in 1990, he was chief engineer of the ammunition ship S.S. Cape Archway, placing it
back in servicefOllowing its eleven year lay-up in the maritime administration's ready reservefleet. His sailing and instructional
experience was tested extensively to move the 25 year old ship over to the Persian Gulf and back. With the end of hostilities he retired
as a seagoing mariner, but took over as the Chief, Engineering Section of the us. Coast Guard's Merchant Marine Examination
Branch inJune 1991. There he has modernised the methodology and the multiple choice questions used in the engineering examination
process and devised increased use of computer concepts in the future examination of the mariner.
He has also authored the book ''Applied Marine Hydraulics", was an instrumental participant in develoPing the Coast Guard's
report "Licensing 2000 and Beyond': and is working on another bookfOr publication describing an engineer's efforts in sailing cargo
vessels. In addition to being a licensed private aircraft pilot, he has been an active sailor, participating as navigator during several
racing seasons in the Chesapeake Bay; and headed the Inner Harbor Sailing School in Baltimore, Maryland during the late 1970s.
Situational essay items were those in which a problem Scoring of computational type questions suffered
requiring action would be described. The examinee from an absence of standards and contributed to an
would attempt to respond with their version of an inconsistency in grading amongst examiners
appropriate course of action. nationwide. For these questions to be given credit, the
examinee was not only required to provide the correct
Descriptive essay items required the examinee to answer, but to also show their solutions in solving the
provide a list of specific items or a series of brief problem. Inconsistent grading was partly attributed
descriptions related to an object or situation. to the fact that many mathematical problems could
be solved by several methods. Examiners, being either
Computational items involved the solving of a set inexperienced or untrained, were further
of problems, typically related to mathematics or disadvantaged as they were incapable of recognising
physics. an examinee's use of technical shortcuts or an ability
to perform some calculations in their head. In other
Upon providing their answers, the examinee was instances, the solution began at a reference point
subjected to various aspects of the experience of the different from the solution provided on the back of
individual examiners grading the answer. For example, the card.
situational essay items typically required a unique set
of conditions. Each condition required a weight factor With five to ten problems presented to an examinee
which, when added together, provided the total score as a complete test, the unsuccessful answer to one
for that particular question. problem would have a major impact on the passing
grade. As a result, the examinee may have provided
For many of the questions, the preprinted answers the correct answer, but in the examiner's opinion did
on the cards were, as a matter of opinion, either not provide the correct mathematical process and the
incomplete or offered examiners only fragmented grade for the particular question was reduced. In a
solutions. While scoring the examinee's responses, few instances, an examinee may have provided an
examiners were often required to draw upon their own incorrect answer, but may have been given as much
experience to supplement the suggested fragmented as eight out of ten points for having shown the correct
answer during the evaluation of the examinee's mathematical process and erroneously been granted
response. a certificate.
The evaluation of the response was then subjected Over several decades, the goal of the examinations
to the range and experience of the examiner. Although to determine mariner competency was severely
some Coast Guard test centres had experienced compromised as the bank of essay questions and
examiners, many centres were staffed only by recent answers were captured by nearly every training school.
academy graduates. In some instances the examiners Hence, even though several thousand questions were
were enlisted personnel without benefit of any sea available for use, repetitive review of the questions by
service. This system of inconsistent and inaccurate a candidate, just prior to being examined, resulted in
scoring resulted in some experienced examinees being successfully acquiring the certificate.
failed, where they should have passed; and some being
passed, when they should have failed. All of the problems associated with the essay
examinations were considered in the 1969 study
The condensed background information on the One should be aware of the shortfalls in the
administration and scoring of essay examinations had examination element when the human element is
been based on examinations conducted within the U.S. involved in the process. Examinations are merely tools
maritime industry. However, where the use of essay and the improper use of any tool results in a sub-
examinations as a function of training courses is being standard output. Driving a screw into wood with a
considered, some instructors may attempt to discount hammer may appear successful, but this procedure
the major problems previously encountered. For does not provide the same ability to keep the two
instance, several points were highlighted regarding the pieces together as when the screw is properly driven
inconsistency of scoring by a collection of examiners in with a screwdriver.
with mixed experience. This consideration might be
If the developer uses an unrelated term in the A. to have two completely independent power units,
response, the examinee will reject the unrelated term. but each may be driven by the same electric motor.
The question developer has essentially provided only B. to be tested within 12 hours prior to a voyage of 48
three responses from which to choose. If this is done hours or greater in duration.
once, it will probably be done several times and the C. to be supplied by one source of power if installed
student will gradually determine that the examination aboard a tank vessel.
questions are not meaningful. D. to move the rudder from 15° on one side to 10° on
the other within 15 seconds at maximum service
Parallelism speed.
All responses must be parallel in grammar, form and
intent. Better: The steering gear for an ocean going vessel is
required to be tested within 12hours of sailing when
Example (grammar) the voyage duration is to be at least _
Poor: The main purpose in providing crew members
with a station card is _ A. 6 hours.
B. 12 hours.
A. to improve morale. C. 24 hours.
B. improve individual expertise. D. 48 hours.
C. to specify their duties.
D. clarify a requirement. The intent of the question in the poor example is
to determine whether or not the examinee knows the
Better: The MAIN purpose in providing crew members regulatory requirement of when the steering gear is to
with a station card is to _ be tested prior to sailing. The primary problem with
the listed responses is the stamina required by the
A. improve morale. examinee to read through and finally select the most
B. improve individual expertise. appropriate response.
As related by the above examples, the writing of Abbreviations should be avoided due to the lack of
the question and its responses must be done in a clear standard recognition, or the possibility of more than
and readable manner. However, at the same time, the one accepted use. For example, both point and pint
can be represented by "pt".
A. ordinary seaman. Better: Where must the date and time of the fire and
B. bosun. boat drill be recorded?
C. able seaman.
D. helmsman. Poor: Which substance would you use to fight a class
A fire?
The selection of words used in the questions should
be simple, short, concise and consistently spelled Better: Which substance should you use to fight a class
whenever possible. A fire?
In an effort to provide more difficult questions, The examples used in the discussion of multiple
question originators may use words that are choice question development should eliminate most
It should be fairly obvious with this example that A. Cool the gas.
the selection of the correct response is relatively B. Remove solid particles from the liquid passing
simple, that is if the examinee has acquired the basic through the scrubber.
knowledge. The relative ease in answering this C. Eliminate all corrosion throughout the system.
question is underscored by the use of answer D - All D. Distribute the gas throughout the system.
of the above.
Example
The hint in assisting the answering of this question What function is provided by the inert gas system
is if the first two responses can be determined as scrubber?
correct, an educated guess is for the answer to be all
of the above. However, if either of the first two A. Act as a point of gas distribution throughout the
responses are false, then the number of potential system.
correct responses rapidly drops to two. B. Remove solid particles from the liquid passing
through the scrubber.
In this example, the originator of the question may C. Reduce the corrosiveness of the gas.
genuinely have attempted to determine if the D. Cool down the cargo tanks.
examinee knew the functions of an inert gas system
scrubber. However, there is also the possibility that Example
the question originator was short on ideas in What function is provided by the inert gas system
developing new questions and simply resorted to the scrubber?
earlier example.
A. Act as a point of gas distribution throughout the
Regardless of the situation, the originator, by using system.
the response all of the above, has realistically provided B. Remove solid particles from the gas.
three active responses, i.e. either all three active C. Completely eliminate all corrosion throughout the
responses are correct or only one of the three is correct. system.
With this type of question, the examinee will D. Cool down the cargo tanks.
instinctively read the first response and, if correct, as
it is here, will read the second response to determine Another hint that is passed onto the examinee has
if it is also correct. Once he has determined B as being been to look for the longest answer (word count).
correct or incorrect, he automatically determines the Although this has been true in the past, many questions
validity of D. Hence this type of question does not are now developed with the longest answer purposely
always determine the subject knowledge of the developed as being incorrect.
examinee.
To this hint, examinees have often been informed
With a bit more thought, however, the originator that C should be selected if they cannot rely on their
would have been able to develop three additional knowledge to select the correct response. Unless the
questions, which requires additional thinking, rather developer of the question makes a conscious effort
than that of the one question discussed. randomly to locate the correct response, they
inadvertently place the correct response at C. If a
The following questions are intended as examples databank of questions is not used randomly to select
used to eliminate the use of the response all of the questions for the examination, then an original
above. Further, this method can be used examination should use a spread of questions where
simultaneously to increase the pool of questions for the correct responses are evenly distributed.
Professor Peter Muirhead has a wide and varied experience in the maritime industry, having spent some seventeen years at sea trading
world-wide, and overfive years as Senior Marine Surveyor and Examiner of Masters and Mates in Sydney, Australia. In 7979 he
became involved in the foundation and establishment of the new Australian Maritime College, developing both traditional training
programmes for officers and ratings as well as new approaches with integrated ratings training and at-sea task and guided study
programmes (TAGS) for deck watchkeeper trainees and post-graduate maritime awards using distance learning methods and satellite
technology.In addition, he has had over 20 years experience in the development and use of marine simulators.
Injanuary 7993 ProfessorMuirhead took up his present position as Inmarsat Professor of Maritime Education and Training at the
World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmo, Sweden. Through the MSc programme in Maritime Education and Training (MET)
he is responsiblefor providing the develoPing countries with maritime education administrators, lecturers and instructors. Through the
concept of training the trainers, the aim of the WMU programme is to provide MET graduates with knowledge and understanding of
basic pedagogical practices and practical instructional skills.
Consider the fictitious example shown below of The student should be well briefed as to the
what happens when marks are standardised. It objective of such observation and the manner in which
illustrates the problem of giving all subjects equal he/she is going to be assessed. In the case of workshops
esteem or weight. The weight of an examination and laboratories, clear written instructions on the use
depends on its standard deviation. The table below of equipment should be provided. If scoring methods
illustrates an extreme example in which the Law marks are to be used, then specific objective criteria should
have zero standard deviation. Rank is entirely be established and validated beforehand. Subjective
determined by the Physics marks. evaluation should be kept to the minimum. The
method is applied commonly to simulator training
_La_w Physics Law+Physics such as radar and ARPA training, ship manoeuvring,
50 70 120 machinery space and GMDSS. The method centres
50 60 110 around the concept of mastery, demonstrating an
50 50 100 ability to perform set tasks and functions safely and
50 40 90 effectively. Entries by officers in trainees' onboard
50 30 80 record training books attest to the fact that the trainee
50 20 70 is considered to have mastered the particular task. The
problem for the observer is in having clear and concise
In summary, comparing performance in different criterion of performance against which judgments can
subjects is highly complex and standardised scores can be made. Of course some element of subjectivity will
convey to the student a totally different perception of always remain.
how well he has achieved. One could say that perhaps
the teacher would be better off to give the students
Feedback from questionnaires
high marks in examinations in order to encourage
them to follow his/her optional subject.
Survey research seeks attitudinal and behavioural data
via questionnaires and as such the latter have wide
Evaluating written essays or applicability. They may also be used in a limited way
assignments to gauge student performance or collecting data in
product evaluation.
Some of the problems facing an assessor in making a
judgment about open-ended essay type questions are Effective evaluation questionnaires are very hard
the absence of clear marking criteria, a lack of to design, requiring careful construction, a suitable
objectivity in placing a value on the work, being target sample, reliable implementation and elaborate
swayed or biased by the neatness or otherwise of analysis of the outcomes.
presentations, and inconsistencies between markers
of papers. Rowntree (1985) has suggested that two
conclusions are appropriate:-
Peter Springett's career in the shipping industry began in 7972 as deck cadet with P&O Bulk Shipping. He also served with Sanko Line
Tankers and with Dart Container Line, on the North Atlantic, as second officer and relief chief officer.
In 7984, after gaining his Class 7 master's certificate, Peter transferred to the offshore oil and gas industry where he served as
control room and barge operator on semi-submersible and jack-up exploration units around the UK and in the South China Sea.
In 7986/7 Peter studied at Plymouth for a post-graduate Diploma in Management Studies (Shipping), which he gained with
distinction, and continued his career ashore as a freelance consultant until 7989. During this period he worked with Hamburg Port
Consulting GmbH on a major ship investment and containerisation project, researchedand co-authored (with Prof. David Moreby FNI
of Plymouth University) the 'UK Shipping Industry Critical Levels Report' and worked with UNCTAD on their MULTISHIP
software development program.
After taking up a teaching post with Fleetwood Nautical Campus at the end of 7989, Peter published an 'Introduction to Offshore
Safety and Survival' and went on to achieve his Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 7994. He then becameprinciPal lecturer
and section leader of the management group at Warsash Maritime Centre, develoPing and delivering management training programmes
for the shipping and port industries. He is now Managing Director of Odyssey Training Ltd ..
Introduction
The purpose of the chapter is to consider the role of In general, the maritime infrastructure needs
management training and development in the shipping managers with and without seafaring experience. This
industry, both afloat and ashore, and in so doing it means that there are probably three main pathways
aims to:- for management development; that of the seafarer who
rises to an appropriate rank onboard and remains
• Define the management development pathways there; that of the seafarer who reaches senior rank and
which exist in the industry. moves ashore to a management position within the
• Outline traditional and existing management framework of ship operations or to one in the wider
training provision. maritime infrastructure where seafaring knowledge is
• Profile the managerial skills needed at various levels required; that of the individual who enters the shipping
within shipping organisations. industry ashore and develops a career within it,
• Propose appropriate structures and content for progressing in areas where actual sea service is not a
development programmes. prerequisite.
• Suggest the most appropriate training
methodologies for facilitators. These career routes indicate that the development
• Examine possibilities for management skills of seafaring managers and shore based managers will
assessment. be quite different at the start of their careers, when
• Offer a framework for evaluation of management training is focused on the acquisition of technical skills,
development programmes. but should eventually merge at an appropriate level
when there is a shift in emphasis towards the
Management development pathways in development of higher level managerial skills and
shipping understanding.
Over the past decade there have been a number of However, until this point is reached it is important
important studies and reports into the decline of the that, although following different career pathways, all
UK registered merchant fleet, and one benefit we have individuals are provided with the essential foundation
gained from these is that we are now able to better stones of operational management.
appreciate the size and complexity of the shipping
industry and its diverse infrastructure. The implication It is even more important, in this capital intensive,
of this to management development issues on a global cost sensitive and highly competitive industry, that
basis is considerable. trainers rationalise their approach and provide focused
Stage 1 consists of consultation between training The result is that, in more recent times, little
provider and shipping organisation and identifies:- consideration has been given to the individual's ability
to administer complex management systems, deal with
• The rationale for the analysis. time, personnel and other resource related pressures.
• The scope and depth of analysis. Few have been formally trained with respect to the
• The methodology to be used. building and maintaining of effective working
• The deliverables and contractual details. relationships and organisational interfaces in what is
a multi-disciplined and multi-cultural, stress-filled
Stage 2 should be a review of relevant environment.
documentation which might include:-
To compound the problem, little thought has been
• Corporate policy / strategy documentation and given to the benefits of a formal foundation in business
organisational goals. management for those entering the industry ashore
• Organisation structures, roles and responsibilities. or moving ashore as part of their ongoing career
• Job descriptions, appraisals and training records. development.
Stage 3 will be an analysis, in the case of In short, the managerial skills gap and the human
management development, of the managerial skill resource shortages the industry will experience as it
needs based on stages 1 and 2 and may use:- enters the next century are representative of generally
poor manpower and succession planning and it is
• Staff questionnaires. becoming obvious that having the knowledge and
• Interviews with key individuals and / or groups. technical skills which provide the individual with a
certificate does not necessarily mean that the
Stage 4 will then determine the structure and individual can effectively apply them. The
content of management development programmes:- introduction of programmes which provide for the
development of generic management skills for
• In the short term. shipping personnel must, therefore, be a priority.
• In the longer term.
• And plan appropriate implementation. Vocational qualifications offer some hope for the
future, as does the inclusion of a number of
Traditional management development management related competencies in the STCW
convention and the trend towards more traditional
provision in shipping employment practices by some forward thinking
shipping companies.
The TNA can be used to identify technical skill gaps
and gaps in commercial knowledge as well as any
managerial skills gap.
The future
The first part of the question can be marked The benefits will normally be categorised under
objectively against known criteria and the second part headings such as:-
subjectively against a model which appraises the
quality of analysis, hypothesis and argument. • Voyages per year.
• Average load factors.
This type of examination can be supplemented by • Daily ship operating costs.
more modern methods for vocational assessment • Total fixed and variable costs.
which require candidates to build a portfolio showing • Net profit or return on capital employed.
- SECTION V -
Towards specialisation
Len Holder has been an independent maritime education and training consultant since 1989. Before that he was at Liverpool Polytechnic
for 24 years as lecturer, Head of Department andfinally as Director of the School of Engineering and TechnologyManagement. He was
President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996 and is currently Chairman of Videotel Marine International.
He was with Alfred Holt and Company from 1953 to 1965, gaining his Master's Certificate in 1962. He served in both the Blue
Funnel cadet shiPs M. V. "Calchas" and M. V. "Diomed", and as Tutor/Warden of ':4ulis", their shore-based training establishment.
Whilst at Liverpool Polytechnic he obtained an Extra Master's Certificate and a MPhil degree and continued carrying out research
and consultancy, as well as teaching on professional and academic programmes.
As an education and training consultant he has worked with shipping companies, government departments, the European Commission
and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) on projects related to the standards, quality and efficiency of maritime education
and training.
Introduction
order, to acquire professional and academic
Very few, if any, people set out on a seagoing career qualifications.
with the aim of becoming educational consultants. The
normal path into this work is through seafaring into In professional terms, unless you are seeking to
teaching, examining, college management and/or gain high academic qualifications in a specialist subject,
shore-based management of company training. such as the law, it is better to gain at least a master's or
chief engineer's Certificate of Competency as the
Through such a pathway, knowledge and skills are minimum professional level which is credible in
acquired which would probably include most of the consultancy or expert witness roles.
following:-
Academically, the minimum qualification is a first
• Basic seafaring, various ships and trades and the degree in a relevant subject, and for advisory work at
marine environment. university / higher education level, a higher degree is
• Professional competence(s). almost essential.
• Sea training (methods and effectiveness).
• Teaching and training ashore. There are really no short-cuts in achieving these
• Examination and assessment. dual qualifications, but there are some ways in which
• Development, organisation and management of life can be made slightly easier, through Credit
course programmes. Accumulation and Transfer Schemes (C.A.T.S.) and
• Monitoring of the quality, content and effectiveness Accreditation of Prior Learning (A.P.L.), which may
of programmes. allow some carry-over between the two pathways. It
• Organisation and management of education and is not only the paperwork (certification) which counts,
training centres. it is also the subjects which you learn and the skills
• Company personnel management with emphasis you acquire on the way. The most useful skills learned
on recruitment, selection, training, staff in the academic pathways are probably the acquisition
development, appraisal and counselling. of information, analysis and synthesis, presentation
and communication. The need for skilled use of
Most senior college staff and company training information technology and a high level of computer
managers have a mix of the above skills, but not all literacy go without saying in the modern world.
become educational consultants. There are a number
of other factors which can make a difference. Further qualifications and experience
of teaching and examining
Groundwork: professional and/or
academic qualifications There are a number of alternative ways of building
upon the basic qualifications. Those whose main aim
Seafarers wishing to follow a path into teaching and is a career in teaching are advised to gain a certificate
training must decide to which level, and in which or diploma in teaching, to understand the theory and
Captainjames F. Drahos (b. 7942), BS FNI, graduated from the Califtrnia Maritime Academy in 7965 and obtained his Us. C. G.
UnlimitedMaster licensein 7975. During that interval he sailed asjunior officeraboard reeferships, special-purpose vessels(oceanographic
research,seismic survey) and in the offshore industry (drillshiPs, including dynamic-positioned).jim also served ashore in personnel and
training while awaiting assignment as Second Officer of the HUGHES GLOMAR EXPLORER.
Since 7975, Captain Drahos sailed aboard Dutch, Liberian and us. flag vessels in the offshore industry, as well as in American
ocean-going tugs. He was in command jOr 75 years, serving as master of the GLOMAR EXPLORER (deep-ocean mining), the
OCEAN ENERGY CONVERTER (electricityfrom the temperature differencesin the sea), anchor-handling/tug/supply vessels(Argentina,
Borneo, Gulf of Mexico and Alaska) and a self-sustaining container shiP with ro-ro capability (US. East Coast to South America). He
also held endorsements as Offshore Installation Manager - Unrestricted and Federal pilotage, Any Gross Tons, in Alaska, Hawaii and
Califtrnia. He served as an expert witness and marine consultant, most notably in supervising the deep-water mooring of an experimental
kelp farm.
In 7988, Captain Drahos receivedhis initial license as an Alaska State pilot. During the next few years, his time offfrom sea-going
employment was spent in Alaska, working as contract pilot and obtaining additional endorsements on his State license. In 7997 he was
invited tojoin the Southwest Alaska Pilots Association (SWAPA). He completed his training in 7995, receiving an unlimited tonnage
Marine Pilot License with VLCC endorsement, and was voted a ftll member of SWAPA. Subsequently, he was elected a member of the
SWAPA Board of Directors and as Secretary/Treasurer for 7996.
Captain Drahos was a member of the American Pilots Association, a regular member of the Council of American Master Mariners
(CAMM), an individual member of the International Federation of Shipmasters' Associations (IFSMA) and a life member of the us.
Naval Institute. He wrote an irregular column jOr Seaways ('Us. News and views') and was selected as a speaker at several command
seminars. He served as Chairman of the IFSMA Committee jOr CAMM and wrote the quarterly reportjOr their journal, Sidelights.
Sometime during the foregoing events, the master The relationship between the master and the pilot is a
may ponder the question of the pilot's abilities. First special one, most likely even more sacred than that
impressions are important. The master, if making an between spouses. The trust is implicit and immediate.
initial acquaintance with the pilot, will wonder what Without ever having met the master before, the pilot
experience the pilot brings aboard and what training will depend upon the master to be honest in describing
the pilot has had. If the ship is a modem one, the the condition of the ship and any problems there might
master may be concerned that the pilot is capable of be. The master will depend upon the pilot to describe
utilising the high technology equipment installed on the transit honestly, any problems to be expected en
board. Subtle judgments will be made. Perhaps a route, the situation with the tugs, line handlers and
hesitation by the pilot in responding to a situation or shore facilities and to be knowledgeable of the local
in answering a question from the mate will cause the regulations. At least, between a husband and wife,
In many areas of the maritime world, pilots sit in Vessel Piloting, like most of the rest of the maritime industry,
Traffic System (VTS) control centres or conduct is changing. It is likely that pilots will always be a
remote pilotage, providing real time navigation and necessity, but just as ship owners equip their new ships
traffic advice to a ship entering a remote section of a with more capable technology and provide additional
pilotage area via VHF radio, from the shore pilot training for their crews properly to operate these ships,
station. There are probably many pilots who object pilots must ensure that their training and capabilities
to the necessity of the former. However it must be keep pace.
recognised, especially in the USA and other places
where the VTS personnel probably have little or no Individuals should be selected for pilot training
seagoing experience (and what little they have had is programs who not only possess the required
unlikely to have been aboard merchant ships!), that experience, but who will be temperamentally suited
any pilot input into VTS advice can only be positive. to their new calling. Ideally, each trainee will proceed
In today's world, where media sound bites have more through a program adapted to their experience and
effect on public opinion than facts, a pilot in the VTS ability, ultimately meeting specified skill levels. For
or only even having trained in the facility, will be pro- the foreseeable future, pilots will be trained by other
active and yield benefits far beyond the effort pilots in hands-on, supervised manoeuvres. Manned
expended. model courses and simulator training will be useful
under certain conditions. Continuing education "ill
Training programs should, at the very least, include become more important, as will the need for pilot
familiarisation sessions for all trainees and deputy associations to communicate to the public, the media
marine pilots in the relevant VTS or remote pilotage and the legislators/regulators that their skills constitute
centre. These sessions should be scheduled for full the first line of defence against pollution.
pilots, too, so that all personnel in the port or pilotage
jurisdiction who are involved in directing the safe The course is set. All pilots must accept and utilise
navigation of shipping have at least one common, new technology while still retaining the basic skills
informal and professional forum for discussing safety from times past, local knowledge from the present and
problems at the personal level, free of bureaucratic the prudent judgement that will withstand scrutiny in
impediments. the future. Adequate and proper training programs
will playa major part in assuring success in all three
Cyber pilotage areas.
No discussion of pilot training would be complete Master's orders, pilot's advice - setting
without including the rapidly expanding role of the a course for safe navigation
Global Positioning System (GPS) capable laptop
computer designed to be carried aboard ship by the Increasing attention is being given toward the passage
pilot. While there are still a lot of operational of ships in pilotage waters. The master and pilot are
difficulties to be overcome, several pilotage the focal points for this specialised part of any passage
jurisdictions are already utili sing these very high tech. plan, which should integrate the expertise of both
navigational aids. In the USA, the maritime mariners. Problems can arise when language
administration and the American Pilot Association are difficulties, lack of familiarity with both port and vessel,
jointly funding a demonstration project involving pilot long-standing operational procedures or other
laptops in different parts of the country. presumed obstacles to co-operation are imagined or
encountered.
Training programs should be formalised to
incorporate such technology. This is likely to be less How can passage planning in pilotage waters be
necessary for younger pilots, but it should be improved? Can INTERTANKO's specific
considered for the benefit of older pilots, who may recommendations on pilotage in United States waters
not be as computer literate as their younger brethren. be implemented? This concept involves requesting
Such training should also focus on the shortfalls of information from the pilots and the harbour authority
this technology. GPS failures, although infrequent, or by fax or telex so as to enable the ship master to carry
irregularities in specific areas, can be expected. The out better pre-planning. What assistance can owners
pilot laptop will allow much more information to board provide their ships, officers and pilots to gain
with the pilot, but adequate training may be required improvements in pilotage?
to use it to its fullest advantage and the ordinary
practice of good seamanship should instill a prudence Certainly, there may be room for improvement in
and a healthy respect for the limitations of this some areas, if only because these problems have
navigation aid.
Care must be taken to reduce engine power, now One of the advantages to this form of pilot training
that there is less friction and angle holding the ship in is that the trainee will, in a well-designed training
place. Finally, the trainee must be able to lay the ship program, be exposed to each of the unlimited pilots.
alongside so that the after lines can be run, but under While a manoeuvre at any given port will produce
control and having due regard to the landing. Once the same results, there may be many ways to
the ship is secured, the trainee must advise the master accomplish it. Thus, the trainee will see how each of
on precautions necessary at the berth - shifting, ice, the unlimited pilots performs that manoeuvre and can
and so on. select the method that suits his or her own style best.
In a simulator, the trainee may well be limited by the
In the foregoing example of pilot training, the program, the instructor's experience or the skill/
transfer of knowledge and assessment of competency methods of the single attending pilot. It is also a benefit
has all been by supervised hands on experience of of supervised dockings that the trainee can proceed at
the trainee. Is there a possibility that alternative an individual pace. We all learn at different rates and
training can be applied? Perhaps, but for the moment, some trainees will take longer, and require more
no simulator or other training method exists, to my supervised manoeuvres, than others. Even after
knowledge, which can fully duplicate the functions, completion of training most pilots, if they are honest,
in the dual environments of the wheelhouse and bridge will admit that there was a period of time until they
wing, that will result in a demonstration of the skills became comfortable with working on their own.
necessary to assess the specified competency. The
transit to the berth, as well as the interaction between A training program may be quite lengthy. Is there
the trainee and the master, the deck officer briefing any way to speed up the process? Perhaps the more
and the assurance that the briefing is well understood proper question might be, is there any benefit to a
could certainly all be done in a simulator. shorter training program? One immediate concern is
the effect of a casualty. If the pilot involved had
This is basic stuff and BRM. Distances off, closing completed training within the past couple of years, it
rates and approach angle to the berth can all be will be difficult to justify any previous shortening of
ascertained by radar and could probably be duplicated the training process. While it would definitely be of
in a simulator. However, the use of distant natural considerable benefit to the trainee and, perhaps, the
ranges or back ranges to determine closing rate, for pilot association, to be finished with the training
example, in a simulator, would depend on the program, which may be measured in years, in a shorter
capability of the installation (computer capacity and period of time, the ultimate test is whether adequate
Captain Roberts served his apprenticeship with Elder Dempster Lines, remaining at sea with the Ocean Group for the next twenty-jive
years until they withdrew from shiP owning. He commanded Panamax Bulk Carriers with the International United Shipping Agency
of Hong Kong, and is currently Marine Superintendent of Cathcart Shipping Ltd. in London.
He is the author of The Nautical Institute publication "WatchkeePing Safety and Cargo Management in Port'~ is afounder Member
and Fellow of The Nautical Institute, and presently serves on its Council, Education and Training Committee, and the Bulk Carrier
Working Group.
All views expressed in this paper are entirely personal, and do not reflect those of his present or previous employers.
Introduction Background
Does a Master Mariner's Certificate of Competency The industry has endured an extended period of low
qualify its holder to command a ship? To the returns on capital employed. When economies were
examining authority, the answer appears to be yes. sought in order to improve profitability, one of the
To most informed observers in the marine industry, first casualties was the training budget. This has
the answer must be no, or at best partially. resulted in a manpower shortage both in terms of
quantity and quality. Although there is still a reluctance
The statutory certificate, or licence, on the part of many ship operators to invest in training,
demonstrates that the holder has a proven level of there are signs that resources are once again being
knowledge of the theory of the operation of a ship, made available. Without investment in all stages of
mainly from a safety and legal point of view. Important training, covering initial (pre-sea), intermediate (pre-
though these aspects may be, in order to effectively certification) and ongoing (updating), there will
and efficiently command a ship a lot more skills are continue to be insufficient properly qualified personnel
required. available to efficiently operate the world fleet.
Prominent amongst the skills which are usually In the past, those aspiring to command acquired
omitted from most courses for statutory certificates the necessary skills from the traditional training
are:- schemes of established ship owners. Whilst the fine
details of such systems changed over the years, the
Commercial awareness. end product was of a uniformly accepted standard.
General management abilities. As one rose through the ranks, often slowly, there was
Personnel management and inter-personal skills. time for everyone to be exposed to a wide variety of
Practical ship handling. events, and undertake a vast range of activities, which
provided the experience necessary to make reasoned,
So just how does the aspiring master acquire the informed decisions. Many of the newly emerging
training necessary for successful command? Some of nations followed a system adopted by one of the
the required knowledge can be obtained by reading traditional maritime powers.
and studying the published works of experienced
practitioners. Other skills can best be acquired by Today there is a whole range of different training
attending training courses, particularly those involving
schemes in place, with widely varying standards. With
simulators. However, there will always remain those
increased mobility oflabour, and the internationalising
most desirable attributes which can only be assimilated
of shipboard staff, it is difficult to know what skills are
by that great teaching method known as experience.
possessed by today's seafarers. Despite the recent
I believe this covers both job experience and
changes to the STCW convention, it will be a long
experience of life. Command is still one of the few
remaining true crafts, in the traditional sense. No time before the candidate for command can rely on
amount of formal qualifications can replace the an industry system to provide him with the education
breadth of knowledge that comes from doing the job and training necessary for him to acquire all of the
for an extended period, preferably under the guidance requisite skills.
of a variety of different experienced and professional
teachers - the true original craft master and his So, except for the few lucky seafarers employed
apprentice. by first class operators, most have to rely on their own
It has been suggested that all masters should The master needs to be a good organiser, and there
undertake a course in psychology and psychiatry to are various standard management tools which can
enable them to deal with the numerous personnel assist him with such tasks. Apart from reading through
problems which arise sometime on most voyages. standard textbooks on management skills, a good
Unfortunately, that is not a practical possibility for appreciation of the systems involved can be obtained
most, so that all the master has to draw upon is his by enrolling on The Nautical Institute's management
own strength of character, his experience of life, and self-development programme. This covers setting
good old fashioned common sense. objectives and planning, control, solving problems and
making decisions, leadership and motivation,
Perhaps this is a good point at which to consider delegation, time management, running meetings, and
what characteristics make a good shipmaster. training.
There will always be as many styles of command A knowledge oflogistics and stock control will assist
as there are styles of character. Some personal the master to control the stores in an economical
manner and maintain a realistic level of stocks. This
characteristics are genetic or acquired during early life.
means there will be sufficient spares available for use
Those desirable in a master include loyalty, honesty,
on the current voyage, without too many items being
integrity, humaneness, a sense of fair play and the
held in the stores, which means tying up capital - an
ability to command respect.
unnecessary financial burden on the ship owner.
The general lack of commercial awareness amongst How does the potential master acquire commercial
mariners has been addressed recently by the P&I awareness? Partly by continually observing all that is
Clubs, who ultimately pick up the bill for the mariner's happening around the ship and its operations, and
errors. They all issue newsletters, and have various thinking about the costs involved in each activity. No-
other programmes available to try to improve the one must forget that we are engaged in a competitive
mariners' knowledge of the commercial implications business, and for a commercial enterprise to succeed
of their actions, judgments and decisions. income must exceed expenditure to realise a profit.
Despite all the efforts that can be put into running a
The UK Club went further than most in sponsoring good ship, these will be fruitless if the ship does not
The Nautical Institute in the publication of two earn a profit for the owners, as ultimately it will be
practical guides aimed at raising the level of sold, and all the efforts will have been in vain.
commercial expertise amongst junior officers and
shipmasters. These textbooks can be wholeheartedly Guidance is given in two Nautical Institute
recommended to all seafarers, particularly those publications. These are' Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo
aspiring to command. Management in Porf, and 'Commercial Management for
Shipmasteri.
The subjects covered by the above publications
enable the mariner to make decisions and take actions Self study courses are also available, including a
onboard ship which will have a beneficial effect on range from The Nautical Institute. Of particular
the profitability of the voyage, and thus of the company interest in the present context is the Command
employing him. Space does not permit here to go into Diploma Scheme. This consists of a practical textbook,
much detail, but they give the reader a good with each chapter written by a specialist, many of
background to the law and practice of contracts used whom have served as shipmasters. It is supplemented
in the maritime industry. by a command logbook, in which the aspiring master
can record tasks and experiences as he understudies a
The master needs a good working knowledge of serving master. The logbook mainly covers practical
the documents used for the carriage of goods by sea. items which are not fully covered in statutory licences/
He will need to study the clauses of standard voyage certificates. I would recommend that all chief officers
and time charter parties, and bills of lading, and be undertake this diploma scheme. It is an excellent
aware of the responsibilities implied in each clause. method to ensure they have the maximum possible
He must know the exact division of responsibility experience before actually taking command. It is
between the ship owner and charterer, and fully absolutely jammed full of practical advice.
understand such standard clauses as the Interclub
agreement. He must appreciate what is involved in The Marine Society's Education Officer can assist
establishing cargo quantity and condition, and the use in identifying other courses which, although primarily
of a notice of readiness, statement of facts, letter of designed for other industries, may be suitable for the
protest and letter of indemnity. He should understand mariner. This organisation also provides the
delivery, lay time and weather working days. He must encouragement which many mariners need to
have a full working knowledge of the various surveys complete these schemes. The education provided by
which are regularly undertaken onboard his ship - the Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers as part of their
hold condition, on/off-hire, draft, cargo condition, flag membership entrance examination system is highly
and port state control, P&I condition, class and recommended to potential masters.
statutory surveys.
The shipowner's view
The master must ensure that full records are
maintained onboard, and he should be aware of the What does the ship owner require from his master?
documents required both for routine operations and
following an incident. The Nautical Institute 1. First and foremost, someone who will look after
publication' The Mariner's role in Collecting Evidence' is the owner's interests above all else. A person who
highly recommended. is dedicated to the success of the business.
3. A skilled negotiator. Someone who can deal with 4. Read, read, read: 'M' notices, IMO publications
surveyors, inspectors, officials, and the crew, and (new international regulations), Lloyds List, Seaways,
the problems these create. The ability to deal with any other nautical magazines which come to hand
corruption in a sensible manner. and as many commercial and management
textbooks as possible. Keep up to date.
4. A decision maker. Someone who can weigh up the
pros and cons of a situation, make a reasoned 5. Continually watch what is happening both onboard
decision, and act upon it. your own ship, onboard others you come across,
and around all the ports you visit. Be aware of
5. A good personnel manager. Maintain a happy, developments by personal observation.
healthy, disciplined and efficient crew, who give a
fair day's work to the best of their ability. Deal with 6. Enrol on self-tuition courses. Interactive schemes
all shipboard problems without involving the office. using onboard PCs are especially useful.
6. A good communicator. Know just how much to 7. Discuss experiences with contemporaries. Everyone
say, to whom, and when. Know what not to say has something to learn from other people's
and when! Understand all the implications of that experiences and it is always best if someone else
famous expression "economical with the truth". makes the error. Nautical Institute events are useful
meeting points.
7. A good accountant. Maintain the vessel's accounts
for wages, victualling, bond, cash, stores and general 8. Read the instruction manuals of all new equipment
expenditures. Stock control. Do not order large fitted to your ship and ask the manufacturer for
quantities of items which will remain unused for background literature (in English and other
some time, so that large quantities of capital are languages used onboard).
tied up in idle resources.
9. Attend as many updating courses as possible.
8. A good operations manager. Someone who can
exercise the correct balance between what should 10. Attend all seminars and industrial exhibitions you
be done, what could be done, and what needs to are able.
be done.
11. Try to gain as much practical experience as possible.
9. A professional master mariner. A qualified and Never miss an opportunity to participate in an
experienced seafarer who will conduct the voyage unfamiliar activity.
with due regard to the safety of the ship, her cargo
and her crew and all relevant international 12. Personnel skills are learned from your very first
regulations. voyage. Getting on well with people means that
you will be able to get the best out of people, which
Conclusions also helps you to do well. Treat others just as you
would like to be treated yourself.
How does one train for command?
13. Try to appreciate the benefits of tact and diplomacy.
Learn to engage brain before engaging mouth.
Northstar Consultants
Robert Tallack is a Master Mariner who followed service on a variety of general cargo, passenger and refrigerated vessels with wide
experience of commercial and technical management within the shipping industry. He graduated in maritime studies following a course
in commercial shipping at Cardiff University after which hejoined Lambert Brothers as a Sale and Purchase broker.
He was then appointed a general manager for the Maersk Company and subsequently as managing director of a short-sea ferry
operation. Two years establishing ajoint venture in Romania and subsequently acting as advisor to the Minister of Shipping brought an
understanding of both the problems and the potential of working within centralised economies.
Robert Tallack now runs Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy. He is both a vocational assessor and an ISM/ISO
auditor.
Introduction
Every two months or so, an hour before dawn, the
There is a commercial dimension to virtually every headman of a village some twenty miles inland from
action taken by a seafarer and especially so at the the port loaded the village's output of several bales of
command level. This chapter considers four key skins on to his ox cart and set off for the port. When
areas:- he arrived, he reported to the agent and then moved
his oxen into the shade of a godown and waited
The customer, using an understanding of patiently. Eventually he was called forward and the
international maritime trade, of which the vessel is village's bales of skins were swung into the appropriate
but one part, albeit an essential one, to focus on 'tween deck under the watchful eye of the deck officer
the needs and expectations of the customer. on cargo watch. The stow was noted on the tally sheet
The owner's role, drawing some correlations and a mate's receipt prepared.
between commercial management and the
application and implications of the International Since the headman was well known in the port
Safety Management (ISM) Code. and a regular customer, the chief officer would give
Risk - how it arises and how it and safety can be him his mate's receipt after agreeing to the condition
managed. and quantity of the skins. Accompanied by the agent,
Management - the professionally competent officer the headman would climb the three decks from the
needs to be able to manage in a way which allows cargo office to the master's cabin. The master would
him to meet both his commercial and his technical carefully make out, stamp, date and sign three original
responsibilities. bills of lading which he exchanged for the mate's
receipt. After a few minutes' polite conversation, the
International trade and the customer headman would set off for the Post Office. There he
would post two of the bills of lading, each in a separate
It is difficult to find a better illustration of the essence envelope, to his buyer in Leicester, England, a centre
of trade and the requirements of the customer than of the leather and shoe trade, knowing that the village's
the following scene which must have happened produce was in safe hands and would, against the
countless times around the world and continues to appropriate freight, be delivered by the master at the
happen, in one form or another, despite the rapid agreed destination (Hull) to the consignee on
technological changes over the last three decades. presentation of one of the original bills of lading.
During the early part of the sixties, a large and The headman could then start the slow journey
well established liner company made a (fairly) regular home, content that the village's livelihood was safely
call to a small port not far from Co chin on the south entrusted to the care of the master.
western coast of India. The sailing date and itinerary
were well published by the local agent and his cargo The point of this story is to emphasise one crucial
canvassers. Freight rates were available on demand. point in a world of increasing regulation, which focuses
The company was acting as a common carrier. seafarers inwards on to the operation of the vessel.
The owner and the ISM code managers who, having received the contract through
competitive tender, are concerned, hopefully, about
Where, then, does the owner fit into all this activity? safety but certainly about performing within a
In some companies, the owner's influence, corporate predetermined budget.
or personal, is very clearly felt throughout the
organisation. Priorities and the operating ethos are A major factor within that budget will have been
both known, even though technical and/or presenting economical crew costs often, but by no
commercial managers undertake some of the functions means always, at the expense of quality. It should be
which are run by internal departments in those no surprise if crew loyalties tend towards the crew
companies which retain a strong vertical integration. supplier who will provide the next employment rather
than the vessel and its anonymous owner. At the other
However, a number of factors have combined over end of the spectrum, the commercial operator, often
the past three decades which have radically altered in the guise of a chartering department, will be exerting
the structure and operation of many shipping its pressure on the master for the timely (as opposed
companies. All too frequently, seafarers find to economical - or let us be honest, cheap)
themselves employed by crew managers and performance of the current charter party or other
subcontracted to technical managers, sailing on a contract of affreightment.
vessel with other officers and ratings of various
nationalities with levels of competence and experience And finally, there are the shipper and the consignee
which may be very varied. who are involved in a different transaction established
by the sale contract between them and for whom the
For the master - and to an extent the chief engineer sea transport leg is but one, albeit the most important,
- this poses particular problems, for the master is, or link in a chain. They too have their agenda and impose
should be, responsible for the safe, economical and their demands upon the master in the form of
effective performance of the vessel as a whole. To responsibilities which find their focus in that
whom does he look for guidance? The technical mysterious document, the bill oflading.
How, then, are these various pressures prioritised main, found wanting. The international shipping
and managed? Sadly, all too often experience has industry is now at a watershed, and three initiatives,
shown that the master's dilemma, as illustrated in all emanating from the International Maritime
figure 36.4, is that no-one conducts the orchestra - Organization, illustrate the way ahead.
with an absentee landlord, he must respond to
whoever shouts the loudest or is able to exert the most Developing in the background is a concept called
pressure. Since this is frequently the technical Formal Safety Assessment (FSA). Its aim is to develop
superintendent, in pursuit of his budget, where crew a proactive or forward looking method of framing
costs, training and maintenance are always vulnerable, international safety regulations which is based on risk
it is not surprising that commercial awareness, the assessment followed by risk management. All too
provision of a service to our customers, the very reason often, international, and national, legislation has been
that the vessel exists, has fallen in the order of framed as the result of a major disaster. The Exxon
priorities. Valdezwhich led to double-hull tankers, and the ferry
Estonia are two prime tragic examples of marine
The result, in an industry which is becoming accidents giving rise to reactive legislation. The Exxon
technically more complex, both in the vessels which Valdez is a good example of this reactive, one might
it needs to operate and the cargoes which it carries, almost say knee-jerk, approach which can result in a
has been a steady and inexorable rise in the quantity less than optimum solution. It is an interesting
of national and international rules and regulations. speculation to consider which might be the safer vessel,
This, in turn, has produced an equally inexorable rise a 20 year old single hulled VLCC under its third
in the quantity, if not necessarily the quality, of ownership or a 20 year old double hulled tanker under
operational policies and procedures produced by its third ownership. Time will doubtless tell us.
worthy (and sometimes bought off the shelf by
unworthy) ship managers - in effect replacing effective Formal Safety Assessment is a method of managing
management and training. risk, and risk at sea is largely the result of commercially
generated activity. The second strand of development
The experiment of managing a vessel from ashore, is contained within the 1995 Amendments to the 1978
relying on devolved responsibility but curtailed Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
authority combined with the wonders of modern and Watchkeeping (STCW). At their core, is an
communications technology has been tried and, in the endeavour to ensure that a competent officer is
A vessel may be purchased, stored and manned - In the face of these changes - and the need to
fully o~erational and ,ready to sail. It lies in harbour manage continuing change - it is hard to argue that
pres,entmg no great nsk to anyone except, perhaps, the traditional, hierarchical merchant navy
the mvestors who backed her purchase. As soon as management style is the most appropriate. New and
that vessel has a commercial task to fulfil, sh<:must more appropriate management skills are needed and
start to move to meet a schedule, to catch a tlde, to '
" personne 1 managers nee d t 0 prOVId e th e necessary
make a cancellmg date. TIme is exerting a pressure ." . , ' .
' ' . ' · ' ' trammg m order that shIps officers gam h t ese ski lIs m
an d th e 1eve 10f ns k ISmcrease. d W Ith m th IStIme sca 1e, , "
' ' preparatlon for command, A good startmg pomt ISan
anum b er 0f t ask s mus t b e carned ou t w h ICh pace 1
d eman d s upon th e crew an d upon th e mas t'er s understanding of the cost of Operating the vessel for
managemen t sk'1ll s, on this knowledge and the confidence which should
worked and what was expected of them and help a manager improve his own effectiveness
everybody came from a similar cultural background. although there is not time to discuss them in detail
In many ways, a strong hierarchical management here. As well as the appraisal of his team, he needs to
structure worked well. develop skills in motivation and negotiation, in
delegating and decision making and, indeed, in the
Today, this situation has changed radically in many delegation of decision making. If the master is not used
companies. Not only do masters work with people to this approach to management and leadership, or if
from different cultural backgrounds, in companies he is newly promoted, it may well feel very strange
which mayor may not have a strong internal structure and difficult. This is because it represents a change:
(see figure 36.4, the master's dilemma), but people's
social outlook and expectations and the way in which FROM TO
they react to authority has also changed. Doing the job An uncertain supervisory
role, relying on the skill of
Under these conditions it can be argued that a others
different kind of management is essential. Changing
from a hierarchical approach to a team management Using. well ~nderstood L~arning new managerial
approach can be one of the most difficult challenges techmcal skills skIlls
which a master faces, especially if there is little or n~ Doing it yourself Delegating tasks to others
support from shore management. To many masters It receiving delegated tasks
can feel like an abdication of authority for it means
giving information (and as we all know, information Following routine Planning and initiating
is Power) and listening to - and even accepting - ' ·· '
C on tro 11mg th e resu It BemgJu d ge d on th e qu alIt y
advice from one's subordinates. It means learning to
an d ou tpu t 0 f your t eam
assess the on board management team in a new way
- judging their real strengths and their real weaknesses Having knowledge Managing others, who may
rather than their paper qualifications. It means using have more specialist
and developing these strengths - which may be knowledge
unexpected when we really look - and it means
working with individuals to help them to overcome From this it becomes apparent that the master must
their weaknesses and exploit their dormant potential. make time for proper management by stepping back
from many aspects of the technical day to day
These analyses must also be applied, honestly and management of his vessel. In addition, team
critically, not only to the crew but also to the person management demands open planning and effective
the master will sail with on every single ship and who communication. Planning can be summarised by the
will form part of every team he is in. It is, as the ancient five 'Ps':
Greeks carved above their temple doors, essential to
'Know Thyself'. There are many techniques which can Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance
Risk assessment is another tool that is too little used The second important aspect of communication is
in the planning process and which can improve the effectively illustrated by the fact that we are all given
quality of the decisions made by the master and his two ears but only one mouth as a reminder that we
team. This is the area where commercial pressures should be listening more than we are talking. Sir
can be correlated with safety requirements. All of us Winston Churchill, an English prime minister, put it
apply a degree of risk assessment every time we take another way when he wrote 'I am sorry that I have
a decision, or at least a decision which we have presented such a long paper, I did not have time to
carefully thought through. We will have identified write a'short one.'
potential hazards and assessed the likely risk associated
with those hazards under certain circumstances in This seems like a very good time at which to
terms of likelihood and severity We then move on to conclude. In shipping, time represents money and it
the process of developing alternative ways of is the time pressure which increases the level of risk
managing the risk, which may range from additional which it is the master's duty to manage. He must do
insurance through changed operating procedures to a this, using to best effect the resources available to him,
decision not to carry a particular cargo or trade in human and otherwise, whilst balancing the sometimes
particular areas of the world. conflicting demands of shippers, charterers and cargo
owners - for these are the people who are our
customers and our only source of income.
Chapter THIRTY SEVEN
Captain Bailey started his career at sea with BP Tanker Co. Ltd. in September 7977 and stayed with them until gaining his mate's
certificate. During this time, he served on all classes of vessels within the BP fleet, ranging from clean oil tankers of 76,000 dwt to
VLCCs of275,000 dwt.
In the heady days of the late '70s, when jobs were easier tofind, hejoined Sea Containers on their fleet of innovative self-sustaining
ro-ro/container shiPs. This represented a very significant changefrom oil tankers. With all ships chartered to a variety of operators,,he
fOund it most interesting to work in a very different commercial environment. He studied fOr his Master's Certificate at Plymouth in
7982 and gained his first command in 7983.
After a period with the National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia as chief officer on their ro-ro/container vessels and a period
ashore as a marine and cargo surveyor covering South Walesports, hejoined Sealink British Ferries in 7988.
Since then he has worked at every Stena Line UK port - probably the only person in their currentfleet to have done so. In 7990,
the company introduced their own guidelines on working hours and fatigue and, as one of the first mate/masters appointed in the
company, he took command of the ship while the day master took his eight hour break. Captain Bailey was promoted tofull master in
7992.
He gained fast craft experience with Hoverspeed on the introduction of the Hoverspeed Great Britain at Portsmouth in 7990 and
with Stena Line when the Stena Sea Lynx was introduced to Holyhead in the summer of 7993. Before transftrring to the HSS, he was
senior master on the Stena Cambria - one of the multi-purpose ftrries operatingfrom Holyhead to Dun Laoghaire.
Figure 37.2 identifies the scope of the training Control of water-jet propelled craft is rather
required for type rating training - the column headed different from that of conventional vessels and it was
Type Rating Training represents the time required on considered desirable to purchase a ship handling
board the craft for familiarisation with the equipment, simulator to train the masters and first officers in the
systems and so on. handling characteristics of the craft. Most of the
masters and first officers had had experience of ship
Type rating training was carried out on board the handling the smaller Lynx type craft but the control,
craft immediately after its arrival in Holyhead. All crew power and manoeuvrability of the HSS are
members were given an introductory tour of the significantly different to the Lynx. Additionally, the
respective parts of the craft and they were required to HSS is fitted with a bow thruster in each hull which
complete and return a checklist of all relevant items greatly assist the manoeuvrability of the craft.
before being considered to be type rated. It was not,
however, just a simple matter of ticking off the boxes An introductory course to the simulator was run
on the checklist. Extensive questions were asked by by SSPA, a Swedish maritime consultancy who had
the on board trainers and, if there was any element of
worked closely in the development and design of the
doubt, candidates were not type rated. As in oral
HSS. Using the data gained from tank testing of the
examinations, candidates can be referred or failed and
hull models and of the propulsion systems, SSP A
this has proved to be a valuable incentive to all crew
designed a PC-based program that is operated by a
members to complete their type rating training
mock-up control station similar to that installed on
conscientiously.
the bridge. The VDU display of the simulator shows
an overview of the HSS on an electronic chart with
Section 18.3.3 of the HSC Code details the
predictions of the ship's position at selected intervals
requirements for training and qualifications of all
During the building process, all chief engineers and The lifesaving appliances for the craft are solely based
most of the second engineers had spent time away on four MES systems, incorporating a degree of
from the shipyard on courses related to the engineering redundancy such that, if one system fails to operate,
outfit of the craft. In particular, they attended training the full complement of passengers can still be
courses with KvaerneriGeneral Electric for the gas evacuated safely by use of the other three systems.
turbines, with KaMeWa for the water jets, with Unlike MES systems fitted to conventional ferries, the
Cummins Diesels for the generators and with Lyngso liferafts form an integral part of the package, in that
Valmet relating to the complex Integrated Automation the boarding platform and two 135-man rafts are
System (IAS). packed together with the slide. Additional rafts are
stowed adjacent to the MES units on board and are
This latter system allows the chief engineer to be released into the water, as required, by the crew
on watch in the engine control room which is nowhere member at the top of the slide.
near the engine room. It is situated at the after end of
the wheelhouse so that the chief engineer has Training in the use of these systems is
continuous contact with the master and the first officer. complementary to type rating training. It is a
It is also possible for the IAS to be displayed on the requirement that any crew member serving on board
bridge conning display. Perhaps this is a further a vessel fitted with MES has received appropriate
example of the changing attitudes to traditional roles training, including participation in a wet deployment
brought about by the introduction of the HSS. where possible. All crew members received instruction
in the construction and operation of the MES systems
In addition to the specific training courses run by before the craft arrived, with theoretical instruction
the equipment manufacturers, the engineering staff supported through use of a large scale model provided
achieved their own hands-on training through by the manufacturers. Video footage of the
commissioning trials while the ship was in the yard, deployments of the system carried out in the shipyard
along with developing close working relationships with was also used in the pre-delivery training programme.
the various service engineers that have attended the
craft since its introduction to service. During the period between the arrival of the craft
into Holyhead and entry into service, a number of
Integrated bridge systems MES deployments were carried out by the
manufacturers. Where possible, the duty crew for the
For many years, technical journals have had nice day carried out these deployments under instruction
glossy photos of equipment manufacturers' ideas of and supervision from the manufacturers and the MSA.
how an integrated bridge system should look. Now This gave opportunities to appreciate the complexity
we have the opportunity to use one for real! The of the systems, the potential problems and the degree
technical details of the system itself are worthy of an of physical effort required to retrieve a liferaft. To
article in their own right and are omitted here for ensure that these trials were realistic, the duty crews
simplicity. nominated MES station teams who, once the craft
went into service, would be designated these particular
Safety representatives course This course was run for Stena Line by outside
consultants away from the port of Holyhead in a closed
Another training innovation. This is a course devised environment. Management teams of masters, chief
to give those crew members who represent their engineers, on board services managers and shore
colleagues on the safety committee an insight into the managers were brought together, developing their
legal obligations and requirements of safety management skills as well as developing the team
representatives. approach. Although the course principally extolled
the tenets of management skills taught on other
The course was run by the National Sea Training management courses, the tutor's particular style
College but, again, was actually held in Holyhead. This encouraged delegates to develop those skills in a
course has also led to Institution of Occupational manner such that, whatever aspect of management
Safety and Health (IOSH) accreditation for the they were required to perform, they would do so
delegates - something new to marine training and better, faster and more effectively and more efficiently
extending the recognition of shore based bodies to than previously.
our own particular world.
The course was run in two parts. The first was a
Additional safety training five-day intensive programme followed up
approximately six weeks later by a review weekend
Although the HSS represents the latest development when delegates had to stand up and be counted - how
in maritime technology, there is still the need to ensure had their styles changed/improved in the intervening
that operational staff are trained in traditional skills. period and could this change be maintained?
Staff were sent on Certificate of Proficiency in Survival
Craft (CPSe), Efficient Deck Hand (EDH), First Aid Vocational training
and Ship Captain's Medical Certificate courses, as
appropriate, along with some staff attending the Trainer mentors are senior members of staff with
relatively new EDH(fc) course, a qualification based specialist skills in customer service who will remain
on the traditional requirements for the issue of an EDH in contact with the operating staff to ensure that the
Fred fVeeksjoined the then British Tanker Company in 1948, serving with them until 1960, when he left to commence his career in
nautical teaching. He has made frequent voyages during vacations on a variety of shiPs.
Fred first became involved with the teaching of Nautical English in 1973 when he tutored a two week course in Helsinki for the
Finnish Government. Subsequently he was awarded a Winston Churchill Fellowship to research the subject and ran a series of post
graduate courses in Nautical English in the now Plymouth University. He founded the International Maritime Lecturers Association,
now a Consultative Organisation at IMO, and wrote the book 'Wavelength' to illustrate the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
in 1981.
He led the team which produced "Seaspeak" in 1984, and continued teaching special courses in Nautical English in many countries
throughout the world. Currently he acts as consultant to several international organisations and has led several communications
researchteamsfor the European Community, The International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (/ALA) and commercial companies.
Captain fVeeks has an Extra Master's Certificate, and Masters and Doctor of Philosophy Degrees in Applied Linguistics from
Exeter University.
The problem
The task is massive, but must be tackled if young
Although the number of native English speaking
mariners are to obtain work with owners who demand
mariners is relatively small compared to the world total
a good standard of English on their ships. Authorities
of mariners, there is no doubt whatever that English
such as the United States Coast Guard (USCG) will
is the language of the sea. Without it, it is impossible
refuse to allow a passenger ship to sail unless the crew
to pursue a seafaring career.
have such a standard. Good planning, good facilities
and excellent teaching are required to solve the
There are many reasons for this simple truth, some
problem, and to produce seafarers of the right calibre.
of which are quoted below:-
Generative safety English By 1993 the SMNV (1985) was again found not to
This is simply general spoken English applied to a contain a phrase for all seasons, and IMO decided
safety situation, with the addition of certain linguistic that a complete revision was necessary. This time the
devices to make the meaning of the message crystal net was thrown much wider, with many more specialist
clear, and with the addition of all of the procedures sections included, not necessarily dealing with safety.
and protocols demanded by the International The resulting new IMO Standard Marine
Telecommunications Union (ITU). Communication Phrases (SMCP)(9)will be in final draft
in Summer 1997, when two years of trials will
This approach allows the person in difficulties a commence. During this time, IMO is open to
certain degree of freedom in the vocabulary that he suggestions concerning the phrases.
uses, but insists on the deletion of complicated verb
forms and sentence structures. It is best epitomised Professor Doctor Peter Trenkner, of Germany, has
by the system described in the Seaspeak Training completed the almost impossible task of bringing
ManuaF5), which takes into account all of the ITU together a comprehensive set of phrases which cover
Rules(6), and employs a series of linguistic devices to almost every aspect of maritime activity in the greatest
make the mariner's task more simple and detail. The resulting volume is many times larger than
straightforward. Tests carried out in Canada have the SMNV(1985), and may present many difficulties
shown that Seaspeak is especially effective when used by being so comprehensive in its cover. Certainly, it
by middle achievers in safety communications. It is is so voluminous that there can be no hope oflearning
fully approved by 1M 0 as a training tool. the phrases by heart, and some sort of reference
technique will have to be employed if they are to be
The use of generative safety English produces a used for voice communication (see the appropriate
good reaction amongst students, because they feel that section for teaching hints). Perhaps a generative
they are using the English language in the way that approach, with the appropriate vocabulary, would
they have been taught, that is to carry out successful have been a better solution to the problem, but IMO
and extremely important communications. has decreed otherwise.
4. They are often not given the same opportunity to 9. Standard Marine Communication Phrases,
gain higher qualifications as their specialist (forthcoming), IMO, London.
colleagues.
10. On Board Communications for Passenger Care, MSC/
5. They often come at the end of the queue for new Circ 673. IMO, London.
equipment when funds are scarce.
11. Weeks, F.F., The Use of Marine Simulators in English
So what can be done? National administrations and Language Training, Duke of Edinburgh's Prize Essay,
their maritime colleges should realise that the success ESU, 1975.
of their seafarers in the international market place very
largely depends upon their ability in the English 12.VTS Functions - sub division for communication
language. Administrations and colleges should make purposes, Nav 36/ INF. 8 IMO, London.
every effort to encourage maritime English lecturers
in the difficult task that they have. 13. Understanding English on board ship (Video and Study
Notes), Videotel Marine International, London.
Ultimately, however, success depends on the
expertise and enthusiasm of the lecturers themselves. 14. Detailed Teaching Syllabuses, Frameworks of Model
Without it, nothing will happen. Courses and Specimen Examination Papers, based on
the 1978 STCW Convention and Associated
References Conference Resolutions, IMO, London.
1. Standards of Training, Certification and WatchkeePing
Convention (1995), IMO, London. 15. Niinisalo, L., Nautical Texts, Ammattik-
asvatushhallitus Valtion Painatukeskus, ISBN 951
2. Van Ek,J.A., The Threshold Levelfor Modern Language 859 468 6.
Learning in Schools, Longman.
16. Leinslie, J., Seafaring Life Reader, Aschehoug,
3. English Language Testing Service (ELTS), Norway, ISBN 82 03 122248.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations
Syndicate, Cambridge, England. 17. Blakey T.N., English for Maritime Studies, second
edition, Prentice Hall International, Britain, ISBN
4. TOEFL (Teaching of English as a Foreign 0 13281 3793.
Language) administered by Educational Testing
Service (ETS), Princeton, New Jersey, USA. 18. Strevens, P., New orientations in the TeachingofEnglish,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0 19 437076 3.
5. Weeks, F.F. et aI, The Seaspeak Training Manua~
Weeks, Plymouth, England, ISBN 0 08 031555 O.
5-5-2 SPECIFIC NOTIONS FOR THE MARINE 2.2.1 Ship type: Precise description of ship type i.e.
ENVIRONMENT Tanker or v.L.C.C. (Very Large Crude Carrier)
type with double bottoms throughout
2.1 Personal Identification (Ship Identification) strengthened for navigation in ice. Seek similar
Learners should be able to give information about information from others.
their own ship, and if applicable, about other ships,
and to seek such information from others with 2.2.2 Main components of ship structure: describe
regard to:- main components of own ship structure. That
is, whether ship has forecastle, amidships or aft
2.1.1 Ship's name: Spelling out if required in phonetic accommodation, bulbous bow, any cargo
alphabet. handling equipment. Seek similar information
from others.
2.1.2 Port of Registry: Spelling out if required in
phonetic alphabet. 2.2.3 Items of ship's structure: Describe any item of
ship structure which affects normal operation
2.1.3 Call-sign: Internationally allocated ship's call of ship, or which has possibility of damage
sign, including Inmarsat or Intelsat call number during accident. Seek similar information from
if allocated, spelling out if required in phonetic others.
alphabet.
2.2.4 Location of items of ship's structure. Describe
2.1.4 Date and place of build: Spelling out in phonetic exact location in ship of any item of ship's
alphabet if required. structure. Shell expansion. Seek similar
information from others.
2.1.5 Age
2.2.5 Propulsion: Describe main and auxiliary
2.1.6 Type: general definition of ship type i.e. general propulsion machinery, steering gear, generators
cargo, tanker, barge carrier, container, Ro-Ro, and all machinery concerned with propulsion
passenger etc. (See 2.2.1). of the ship and essential main services, i.e.
electrical supplies. Seek similar information
2.1.7 Speed: maximum speed of which ship is capable from others.
in good conditions. Appreciation of speed in
prevalent weather conditions. 2.2.6 Machinery concerned with berthing the ship.
Winches, capstans, windlasses and where they
2.1.8 Nationality: Flag nationality of country in which are located. Seek similar information from
ship is registered. others.
2.3.1 Ship's lifeboats: Number, capacity (number of 2.5.1 Warnings. Information given or received which
persons each boat is capable of carrying), is likely to affect the immediate safety of own
Propulsion. Special features. ship or any other ship for any cause whatsoever.
Navigational hazards, warlike activities, collision
2.3.2 Inflatable liferafts: Number, capacity of each raft. hazards etc.
Whether davit lowered or not.
2.5.2 Assistance. Detailed knowledge of all
2 3.3 Other flotation apparatus: Buoyant equipment, operational phrases used or likely to be used in
Igloo etc. requesting or rendering assistance of any kind
from or to another vessel. Language procedure
2.3.4 Pyrotechnic equipment: Safety (distress) rockets, for cases of foundering, collision, fire, man
line throwing rockets. overboard and dangerous cargo hazard.
Language procedure for use in conjunction with
2.3.5 Radio equipment: Radio telegraphy, radio ships, lifeboats (ship and shore based), liferafts
telephony, V.H.F. equipment, with available (own or other ship), helicopters, aircraft and
frequencies. Radio direction finding equipment. shore based line throwing rocket teams.
Telex and Sat. Com.
2.5.3 Radio Procedure. A full knowledge of ship radio
2.3.6 Fire fighting equipment: Details of all equipment procedure.
carried on board including portable and fixed
installations, of all kinds. Availability of this 2.6 Navigational Operations
equipment to assist other ships. Connections
available for attachment of shore hoses. Learners should be able to exchange information with
other ships or shore stations on the following topics.
2.3.7 Other safety equipment: Such as compressed
air, breathing apparatus, special clothing etc. 2.6.1 Anchoring equipment. Weight of anchors.
Length of cable available. Number of anchors.
2.4 Navigational Equipment
2.6.2 Anchor operations. Terms used in anchoring.
Learners should be able to exchange information on Dropping and heaving up. Dragging anchor.
the navigational equipment carried on their own ship Buoying anchor. Mooring. Length of cable to
and other ships. use. Anchor position. Slipping cable. Dredging
anchor. Foul anchor etc.
2.4.1 _C_h_a_rt_s.
Details of charts carried and charts
required for a specific area. 2.6.3 Arrival equipment. Ropes and wires, their size,
2.6.15 Pilotage. To be capable of providing all 2.7.4 Tropical storms. All terminology associated with
information required by Pilots, and to such storms. Position, direction and speed of
understand all information and orders given by centre. Path and track. Hurricane warnings.
Pilots. Pilot ladders and gangways. Pilot hoists.
Pilot boats. 2.7.5 Ice breakers. All language needed when
communicating with an ice-breaker, as detailed
2.6.16 Position. Give and receive position in terms of in Standard Marine Communication Phrases.
latitude and longitude or bearing and distance
from known point. State how position found. 2.8 Helicopters
2.6.17 _R_a_d_a_r.
Give and receive radar information Learners should be able to communicate with
according to current practice and as outlined in helicopters under normal and emergency
Standard Marine Communication Phrases. circumstances.
2.8.2 Landing. To give and receive landing and 2.11 Salvage and Towage
hovering details to and from helicopter.
Learners should be able to deal with the more simple
2.8.3 Wind and weather. Give and receive weather aspects of salvage and towage.
details from helicopter. Surface wind and
visibility. Relative wind. Relative wind speed. 2.11.1 Salvage agreement. Give and seek information
on whether salvors are prepared to agree to
2.8.4 _H_o_is_t.
Give and receive details of hoist Lloyds Salvage Agreement.
operation, including medical details.
2.11.2 Salvage and towage operations. Give and
2.9 Fishing receive details of equipment to be used to
expedite operation. Number and position of
Learners should be able to communicate with fishing tugs, position of wires etc.
vessels and exchange information.
2.12 Port Entry
2.9.1 Questions. Regarding position, length and
direction of nets, position of fishing boat Learners should be able to deal with Port Entry
concentrations, special fishing operations. requirements.
2.10 Medical and welfare 2.12.2 Port Regulations. To seek and understand details
. of port regulations, prohibited anchorages,
Learners should be able to deal with various aspects prohibited times of entry, blockades etc.
of medicine and welfare. To exchange information
with trained medical staff ashore or on other ships. 2.12.3 Customs. To seek and understand customs
directions and requirements. Special restrictions
2.10.1 Parts of the body. Refer to parts of body after and regulations.
consulting medical literature carried on board.
2.12.4 Immigration. To seek and understand
2.10.2 Ailments. accidents. Report illness, injury, immigration restrictions and requirements. To
accident. Say whether patient has been ill before seek and understand landing restrictions, special
and whether he has been operated upon. Say passes etc.
whether patient has had to take medicine
regularly, if so, what medicine. 2.13 Cargo operations
2.10.3 Personal comfort. Say whether patient Learners should be able to deal with cargo operations,
comfortable or the reverse, whether hungry or particularly those aspects which are most likely to be
reverse, tired or reverse. discussed over the radio.
2.10.4 Medical services. Inquire about medical services 2.13.1 Cargo equipment (dry cargoL Describe exact
available from shore or from other ship, either location of all derricks to be used, and make of
by radio (advice) or helicopter, lifeboat, or other rig employed. Weight capacity of each derrick.
means. Ability of ship to use all derricks or not.
Maximum single lift possible. (See 2.2.7).
2.10.5 Medical advice. Using medical literature carried
on board, carry out directions of doctor, for 2.13.2 Cargo equipment (Bulk cargo). Position, type
treatment of patient. (Directions received by and capacity of gear. Items capable of being
direct contact or by radio). handled. Special shore facilities required.
2.13.6 Cargo (bulk). Nature, weight and disposition of 2.13.17 Ship's Agency. The communications normally
cargo. Whether grabs may be used. Receive given to and received from the ship's agent.
similar information, with destination, for cargo
to be loaded. 2.14 Public Safety
2.13.7 Cargo (Tankers). Nature (type of oil or chemical), Learners should be able to deal with matters involving
place of origin, weight, volume, specific gravity public safety, and react to instructions from Authorities
and temperature. Receive similar information, aimed at minimising danger.
with destination, for cargo to be loaded.
2.14.1 Oil Pollution. To give precise information on
2.13.8 Cargo (special shiptypes). Describe exact nature, time, position, amount and nature of an oil
size, weight and number of items to be spillage into the sea, and the probable direction
discharged, and method to be used. of movement of slick. Give information on
probable continuance/non-continuance of leak
2.13.9 Ship condition. Any list, loll or trim that may giving rise to spillage.
affect the ship's ability to discharge or load her
cargo, or give rise to problems during entry to 2.14.2 Gas Pollution. To give precise information on
berth, or at the berth. time, position, amount, nature and toxicity of
gas leak. Whether flammable or not. Whether
2.13.10Arrival time. Arrival time at anchorage or berth, evacuation of downwind locations necessary.
to count as presentation of Notice of Readiness Give information on probable continuance/non-
to discharge or load cargo. continuance ofleak giving rise to gas pollution.
2.13.11 Delay time. Delay, after arrival and before 2.14.3 Dangerous Chemicals, Explosives. To give
commencing cargo due to ship's fault. Explain warning of leakage or unstable condition of
reasons such as engine repairs, faults in cargo dangerous chemicals or explosives. Warning of
gear, lack of fuel etc. possible effects on human, animal or marine life.
Advisability of evacuation of locality.
2.13.12 Readiness for Cargo. Reasons why the vessel
cannot first present Notice of Readiness such as SUGGESTED METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
tanks not clean, ballast not discharged (tankers)
holds not swept clean, grain shifting boards not Of the time allocated to this subject, three quarters
rigged (cargo ships). should be spent in class work and one quarter should
be consolidation in a language laboratory. The staff!
2.13.13Bunkers. Discuss bunker requirements, amount, student ratio will depend on the teaching methods
grade, time required and how to be brought to employed. Ideally this should be limited to a ratio of
ship. Hose connections, speed of delivery. 1:15, but this would be determined by the size and
nature of the language laboratory used.
Captain Graham Botterill has over 40 years continuous experience in the shipping industry. He spent 33 years at sea with Port Line
(Cunard), serving in all ranks through to and including command, sailing on reeftr shiPs, bulkers, tankers, ro-TOand container shiPs.
He then came ashore tojoin the management of Cunard, responsible over a period of 70years for marine superintendency, saftty, fleet
personnel, industrial relations, chartering and operations. This culminated in his becoming Operations Director.
Captain Botterill has had many years experience in develoPing quality/saftty management systems and develoPing them. Following
his 34 years with Cunard, and together with a long term colleague and partner, Graham set up Ferriby Marine offering a full range of
marine consultancy services, and is himself a registered IRCA Lead Auditor for both quality assurance and ISM Code - Maritime. He
was appointed Specialist Advisor on Ship Saftty and Technology to the House of Lords in 7997. This committee was instrumental in
recommending the ISM Code to the IMO.
Ferriby Marine, having assisted over 700 shipping related companies in achieving quality (ISO 9000) and ISM Code certification,
was selected by the International Shipping Federation to assist with the writing of the guidelines for the universal application of the
ISM Codefor shiPowners and managers. The company provides IRCA Lead Auditor training courses worldwide, and has recently been
appointed as a Recognised Organisation for the verification audits of ISM Certification on behalf offlag administrations.
Background
The operation of merchant shipping is specialised and While statistical analysis suggests that around 80%
complex being governed by comprehensive rules and of all shipping accidents are caused by human error,
conventions developed by national and international the underlying truth is that the act or omission of a
authorities. human being plays some part in virtually every
accident, including those where structural or
With the passage of time, vessels have increased equipment failure may appear to be the initial cause.
in number, become larger, faster, sophisticated and However human error is a management failure.
expensive. They tend to be operated by smaller
numbers of crew and their effect upon the Therefore, the task facing all shipping companies
environment has become progressively greater. is to minimise the scope for poor human decisions or
performance, which contribute to a casualty or
The result has been more accidents and combined pollution incident.
with greater media coverage - a significantly greater
public interest. There is a growing pressure for change After many years, during which administrations
- the public are more aware of and concerned with have concentrated on ships and their equipment, the
environmental matters and are demanding focus of international discussion has now moved
improvement, protection and in the event of an distinctly towards the management of ships and the
accident - recompense. human issues which therefore includes the training of
seafarers and the exercise of responsibility by the
In the final analysis, whilst the master is clearly company operating the vessels.
responsible for the safety of the vessel, cargo and crew,
the overall responsibility for the administration and The achievement of efficiency in any organisation has
safe operation of each ship rests with the owner, a beneficial effect on the company's financial
manager or bareboat charterer, who assumes the performance, however the effect of safety on profits is
responsibility from the owner, for the operation of the still, to a great extent, ignored.
vessel, whoever that may be.
However if you think that adopting quality or safety
The development by IMO of the International management systems are expensive and time
Safety Management (ISM) Code is an indication by consuming - try accidents!
governments that decisions taken ashore in ensuring
the safe operation of vessels are just as important as The ISM Code, along with the existing conventions
those taken onboard. represents an adequate set of requirements to
Just as in quality management systems it is The safety management system is the process by
necessary to document your policies, procedures and which the company will achieve the aims of the policy.
operating instructions to ensure that every person in A well run company will have nothing to fear from
the company, both ashore and at sea, understands the the ISM Code, since it will be already operating a
company's wishes to operate and meet statutory safety management system both ashore and at sea.
requirements. Once procedures are in place it is easy
to show objective evidence to a third party Setting out the required documentation,
independent body that you conduct your affairs in a conducting internal safety audits to verify their
planned, controlled and effective manner. procedures are being followed and ensuring the
necessary records of objective evidence are maintained
Most well run companies meet ISO 9002 and ISM will not be demanding for such companies.
Code standards. The only thing they need to do is to
document the system. Those that are not so well organised will find the
task more difficult and will require to devote much
Essential advice time and effort into developing the required
documentation, training and the safety ethos within
There appears to be plenty of advice available now the organisation especially with regard to ships' crews.
on why a company must plan and implement a safety
management system, but there appears to be little The five basic rules to ensure successful
advice available regarding the difficulties in setting implementation of the SMS are:-
up and maintaining an effective SMS and how to avoid
the pitfalls that will inevitably arise. 1. Say what you do.
2. Do what you say.
Just as a prudent navigator plots his course before 3. Record what you do.
commencing a voyage, so successful implementation 4. Check on the results.
of a Safety Management System (SMS) will be best 5. Take action on the difference.
achieved by careful planning. The navigator will,
throughout the voyage, check his position and make The secret to improvement is through well planned
corrections to the course where necessary, in order to internal audits. The major problems the author has
avoid danger and arrive safely at the chosen encountered before audits are:-
destination.
(a) Lack of involvement of management.
Maintaining an SMS is no different - the voyage (b) Manuals distributed, but no staff training on the
of safety is not without its perils and in this context it implementation of procedures.
is worthwhile to remember the old saying - Nobody
plans to fail, but many fail to plan. The critical steps towards ISM Code success are:-
Gaining certification for the ISM Code does not 1. Management commitment.
mean that a company's systems are perfect, far from 2. Motivation of the shipboard team.
it. The ISM Code has been developed to establish a 3. Project co-ordinator (designated person).
minimum standard for the safe operation of ships by 4. Detailed action plan.
imposing a requirement on all companies operating 5. Action plan ownership and regular review.
ships over 500 gross tons to implement an acceptable 6. Effective communications - company-wide.
safety management system for the company and its 7. Awareness of the ISM Code with both shore and
ships. sea staff involvement.
8. Guidance and training on:
It is just the first step up the ladder in the long and Objectives and policies.
never ending road to excellence. There are no short Procedures and systems.
cuts on this voyage, but sensible planning will certainly Instructions and auditing.
If the SMS is going to operate as a management The author, having assisted many companies
process involving the activities of many shore and sea around the world to set up their quality and/or safety
a) Established and implemented the appropriate The company, by ensuring the selected shore and
quality and/or safety and environmental policy. sea staff project team attend such recognised training
b) Selected the designated person(s). courses, will save much time and cost in documenting
c) Selected the shore staff project team. their own system.
d) Selected the sea staff project team.
Many people, quite correctly, say keep the system
Then, the next step is for the company to arrange simple. Unfortunately most people do not know how
for the designated person(s) and the steering to keep it simple. Remember the words at the start of
committee to undertake training on the requirements this chapter "make the system work for you, not you
of:- for the system".
1. ISO Quality Standards (ISO 9000 series). The project team shore and sea staff, by developing
2. The ISM Code requirements. their own company's system, will then ensure that they
3. Objectives and policies. do what they say and will be able to prove they have
4. Procedures and systems. done it.
5. Instructions and auditing techniques.
6. Motivation skills. Many companies fall into the trap of management
7. Appraisal skills. producing manual after manual or even buying some
8. Problem solving. other company's system and thinking this will do the
trick. All this does is provoke resentment and rejection
There are a number of good training courses on by both sea and shore staff. The system will not work,
ISO and the ISM Code around the world, but the the company will fail its third party audit, and it will
company should make sure that the training courses become a complete waste of time and cost for the
chosen are internationally approved and recognised. company.
The five day Lead Auditor combined ISO 9000 and
ISM Code International Register of Certificated There must be ownership of the system by both
Auditors (IRCA) registered course has become a shore and sea staff. In other words, they must be
popular and most beneficial training course for involved during the development of the system. The
companies to use. involvement of a good outside consultant working with
the project team may help to keep the system simple
The benefits of attending such a course at the and speed up the implementation. This will save the
commencement of the project, enables the selected company a lot of money. However, it must be
team to:- remembered the steering committee must be involved.
a) Be able to plan a simple practical quality/safety If the documented system is kept to a minimum at
management system. the start, internal audits will then indicate whether it
b) Understand the history, requirements and should be increased or decreased as non-conformances
implications of the ISM Code. are identified or reports, accidents, hazardous
c) Interpret and understand the ISM Code and the occurrences or customer complaints indicate
inter-relationship with ISO 9002. weaknesses in the system.
d) Be able to write and develop procedures/plans.
e) Plan, perform and report on audits relating to both Remember that the more you write, the less chance
ISO and the ISM Code standards. there is of anyone ever reading it and, of course, there
f) Conduct in-house training courses for shore and will be more to prove with objective evidence that
sea staff to ensure everyone is aware of the IS1'1 your company actually does all these things.
Code and the company's own SMS.
g) Organise in-house briefings which will then lead to The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and
the involvement of all shore and sea staff the International Shipping Federation (ISF) have
understanding and working with the company's published a book called "Guidelines on the
SMS. Application of the ISM Code". This book is a must
h) Enable shore and sea staff to have the confidence for all companies to use to assist in developing their
to query the findings of third party auditors who own SMS.
raise non-conformances when they audit the office
and the vessels for the Document of Compliance There are some other excellent technical references
(DOC) and Safety Management Certificate (SMC) available throughout the industry that describe how
respectively. shore and sea staff should do things. If there is a good
book then take everyone to the book and bring the
Ongoing training The requirements to make sea and shore staff aware
of a company's SMS and the ISM Code means
With the arrival of the ISM Code and the revision training has to be established. The only practical and
and adoption of the 1978 STCW (Standards of cost effective way forward is for companies to return
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Convention) to policies which were generally common practice,
companies are being forced into looking more closely such as continuity of employment, and cadet ships
at their resources and personnel. For example, the ISM which in turn promote loyalty, safe working practises
Code ensures the master now has the tools to do his and safe well run ships.
job properly, has the support of the management
ashore and the authority to act in his best judgment Training of sea and shore staff to meet the
for the safety of the ship and protection of the requirements of the ISM Code should then start with
environment. the designated person and the selected project team
who in turn having been trained themselves and
This requires the company to ensure that he has involved in developing and implementing the SMS,
the physical, financial and personnel resources can then ensure that all remaining shore and sea staff
available in sufficient quality, quantity and are trained in house.
competence.
The documented system must be:-
The master must be fully conversant with the
company's SMS and, more importantly, the company a) Kept simple and to a minimum.
must establish in the SMS that the master has the b) Accurately describing how activities are carried out.
overriding authority and responsibility to make c) Cover the requirements of the ISM Code.
decisions with respect to safety and pollution d) Practical and easy to understand.
prevention. The ISM Code, further strengthened by
the revision to STCW, places additional If a company keeps producing manual after manual
responsibilities on the company. For example:- of procedures, then careful thought should be applied
to the legal requirements such as:-
a) The company is to be held responsible for assigning
properly qualified, experienced and medically fit • Due diligence.
seafarers to their ships .• Seaworthiness.
b) Documentation and records relevant to all their • Disclosure of documents.
seafarers must be readily accessible .• Privity and liability.
c) Seafarers assigned to vessels must be familiarised
with their specific duties and with the vessel's Whilst training and implementing a safety
arrangements, installations, equipment, procedures management system incurs additional costs for the ship
and vessel characteristics relevant to their routine owner, once the system is in place and working
or emergency duties. effectively, accidents will decrease, efficiency increases
d) The company should ensure that all personnel and the Accountants will begin to realise that quality
involved in the SMS have an adequate and safety can be managed!
understanding of relevant rules, regulations, codes
and guidelines. In the past, economic and commercial pressures
e) The company should provide training for all have caused many companies to slash their crew and
personnel. maintenance budgets, which has resulted in some sub-
f) The company should ensure that personnel receive standard ships and management, which has brought
the relevant information on the SMS in a language about the enforcement of the ISM Code world-wide.
understood by them.
g) The company should ensure that sea staff are able Perhaps the ISM Code should have been called
to communicate effectively in the execution oftheir the "International Save Money Code"!
1.1 The success of any enterprise depends heavily on 2.3 The course syllabus should be discussed with the
sound and effective preparations. teaching staff who are to present the course, and
their views received on the particular parts they
1.2 Although the IMO model course "package" has are to present. A study of the syllabus will determine
been made as comprehensive as possible, it is whether the incoming trainees need preparatory
nonetheless vital that sufficient time and resources work to meet the entry standard. The detailed
are devoted to preparation. Preparation not only teaching syllabus is constructed in "learning
involves matters concerning administration or objective" format. Each specific objective states
organization, but also includes the preparation of precisely what the trainee must do to show that the
any course notes, drawings, sketches, overhead objective has been achieved. An example of a
transparencies, etc., which may be necessary. model course syllabus is given in Annex 2. Part 3
deals with curriculum development and explains
2. General Considerations how a syllabus is constructed and used.
2.1 The course "package" should be studied carefully; 2.4 The teaching staff who are to present the course
in particular, the course syllabus and associated should construct notes or lesson plans to achieve
material must be attentively and thoroughly studied. these objectives. A sample lesson plan for one of
This is vital if a clear understanding is to be obtained the areas of the sample syllabus is provided in
of what is required, in terms of the resources Annex 3.
necessary to successfully implement the course.
2.5 It is important that the staff who present the course
2.2A "check-list", such as that set out in Annex 1, convey, to the person in charge of the course, their
should be used throughout all stages of preparation assessment of the course as it progresses.
to ensure that all necessary actions and activities
are being carried out in good time and in an 3. Specific Considerations
effective manner. The check-list allows the status
of the preparation procedures to be monitored, and 3.1 Scope of course
helps in identifying the remedial actions necessary
to meet deadlines. It will be necessary to hold In reviewing the scope of the course, the instructor
meetings of all those concerned in presenting the should determine whether it needs any adjustment in
course from time to time in order to assess the status order to meet additional local or national requirements
of the preparation and "trouble-shoot" any (see Part 3).
difficulties.
3.2.7 The course objective, as stated in the course 3.5.7 The course designers have recommended
material, should be very carefully considered so that limitations regarding the numbers of trainees who
its meaning is fully understood. Does the course may participate in the course. As far as possible,
objective require expansion to encompass any these limitations should not be exceeded; otherwise,
additional task that national or local requirements the quality of the course will be diluted.
will impose upon those who successfully complete
the course? Conversely, are there elements included 3.5.2 It may be necessary to make arrangements for
which are not validated by national industry accommodating the trainees and providing facilities
requirements? for food and transportation. These aspects must be
considered at an early stage of the preparations.
3.2.2 It is important that any subsequent assessment
made of the course should include a review of the 3.6 Staff requirements
course objectives.
3.6.7 It is important that an experienced person,
3.3 Entry standards preferably someone with experience in course and
curriculum development, is given the responsibility
3.3.7 If the entry standard will not be met by your of implementing the course.
intended trainee intake, those entering the course
should first be required to complete an upgrading 3.6.2 Such a person is often termed a "course co-
course to raise them to the stated entry level. ordinator" or "course director". Other staff, such
Alternatively, those parts of the course affected as lecturers, instructors, laboratory technicians,
could be augmented by inserting course material workshop instructors, etc., will be needed to
which will cover the knowledge required. implement the course effectively. Staff involved in
presenting the course will need to be properly
3.3.2 If the entry standard will be exceeded by your briefed about the course work they will be dealing
planned trainee intake, you may wish to abridge with, and a system must be set up for checking the
or omit those parts of the course the teaching of material they may be required to prepare. To do
which would be unnecessary, or which could be this, it will be essential to make a thorough study of
dealt with as revision. the syllabus and apportion the parts of the course
work according to the abilities of the staff called
3.3.3 Study the course material with the above upon to present the work.
questions in mind and with a view to assessing
whether or not it will be necessary for the trainees 3.6.3 The person responsible for implementing the
to carry out preparatory work prior to joining the course should consider monitoring the quality of
course. Preparatory material for the trainees can teaching in such areas as variety and form of
range from refresher notes, selected topics from approach, relationship with trainees, and
textbooks and reading of selected technical papers, communicative and interactive skills; where
through to formal courses of instruction. It may be necessary, this person should also provide
necessary to use a combination of preparatory work, appropriate counselling and support.
and the model course material in modified form. It
must be emphasized that where the model course 3.7 Teaching facilities and equipment
material involves an international requirement, such
as a regulation of the International Convention on Rooms and other spaces
Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping (STCW), the standard must not be 3.7.7 It is important to make reservations as soon
relaxed; in many instances, the intention of the as is practicable for the use of lecture rooms,
Convention is to require review, revision or laboratories, workshops and other spaces.
increased depth of knowledge by candidates
undergoing training for higher certificates. EquiPment
3.4 Course certificate, diploma or document 3.7.2 Arrangements must be made at an early stage
for the use of equipment needed in the spaces
Where a certificate, diploma or document is to be mentioned in 3.7.1 to support and carry through
issued to trainees who successfully complete the the work of the course. For example:
course, ensure that this is available and properly
worded and that the industry and all authorities .1 blackboards and writing materials
concerned are fully aware of its purpose and intent. .2 apparatus in laboratories for any associated
demonstrations and experiments
John Habberley has served in cargo vessels, tankers, passenger shiPs and cross channel ferries culminating in command. He has worked
ashore on simulation projects with Marconi Space and Defence Systems, with navigation systems manufactured by Nor-Control A/S
and since 7987 has been on the lecturing staffofthe nautical collegein Warsash, Southampton. He has taught mariners on the manned
model courses and ship simulators and for four years was the College's Research Leader. He is now in charge of Warsash Maritime
Centre's Simulation Section. His first degree was awarded by the University of Wales, and his Master of Philosophy from the University
of Southampton. His research interests are collision avoidance and simulation.
The author would like to thank Dr Don Taylorfor his considerable assistance with the completion of this chapter.
Brian Thomas was born in the Welsh steel producing town of Port Talbot where he attended the local comprehensive school. He studied
History at the University of Reading, after which he trained as a teacher at Swansea, University of Wales.
In 7979 he entered Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, as a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy s Instructor branch. After his
training he taught at the new entry establishment of HMS Raleigh in Cornwall before moving to the Artificer Apprentices Training
College, HMS Caledonia in Rosyth.
His service was punctuated by spells at sea in HM frigates Leander and Minerva and an appointment as Education Officer in the
aircraft carrier HMS Hermes where he gained his bridge watch-keeping certificate. From 7982-84 Brian was the Base Education
Officer at HMS Vernon in Portsmouth. He completed his naval commission as Director of Studies at the Royal Navy s Engineering
College of HMS Sultan at Gosport.
During 7986 he became a Lecturer in the Education Department at Swansea Institute of Higher Education. Since 7987 Brian has
held the post of Head of Education at The Marine Society in London.
Introduction
Self-development is taken as meaning a wish to For many groups in society, however, choice and
develop one's ability to learn, to change and to thereby opportunities for self-development are constrained by
realise one's potential. Self-development is therefore circumstances. The lifestyle and working conditions
essential adequately to address the challenges of the of seafarers are not conducive to the realisation of
future. potential in terms of self-development and, to be
successful, the seafarer has to surmount many obstacles
Self-development is not a one-off process. It's not not experienced by his shoreside counterparts.
something one does once and then settles back secure
in the knowledge that it doesn't have to be done again. Such barriers to development can be described as
Self-development is a recurring process during which structural in that they are inherent in the occupation
we learn from our experience and build upon this for of seafaring. Among the most obvious are unremitting
future development. noise and perpetual motion; intense and often unsocial
work schedules; limited privacy; restricted access to
Underpinning the premise that our ability to reflect learning materials; and lack of motivation
critically on ourselves, to learn from experience and compounded by feelings of isolation.
to build that learning into future actions, is the notion
that people play an active role in shaping their own There is little a seafarer can do about such barriers.
futures. As the social paternalism of former generations The best that can be hoped for is, perhaps with outside
recedes, there is a genuine global trend for the help, to ameliorate their most damaging effects. It is
individual to accept responsibility for his own learning. therefore so easy for seafarers to choose from a range
of ready-made excuses for their inertia when it comes
It seems that everything one reads these days to self-development.
discusses the fact that there is no longer a guaranteed
job for life in any profession, and that people need to But there are also barriers to growth and
be adaptable, flexible and able to respond rapidly to development which are personal. They are to do with
change. Literacy and numeracy, interpersonal skills, the beliefs about ourselves which we carry around with
the will and ability to assimilate advances in us.
information and communication technology, are
illustrations of what are often described as transferable Some beliefs are positive, such as "I can do
core skills. An ability to demonstrate to an increasingly anything if I really set my mind to it". Others are
high order such transferable core skills has become negative, such as "I'll never get through this course, I
as desirable as evidence of academic distinction. never seem to finish anything I start". Negative or self-
The key components in a seafarers' self- Once the personal barriers to self-development have
development plan ought to be: been tackled the seafarer can turn his attention to what
I have referred to as the structural barriers: those which
exist as a direct consequence of earning one's living
from the sea. And here a quite different set of tools
and skills are brought to bear.
• Look at alternative strategies for achieving goals. The Open University isn't only about
• Identify all possible sources of help. undergraduate study: diplomas, personal and
Distance learning used to be a last resort for those How can a seafarers' knowledge and skills be assessed
denied access to college or university. Now the trend and recognised?
is for students to opt for this method as their first choice
because it offers flexibility and a guarantee of quality. Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) - what is
Colleges and universities themselves are becoming it?
more resource-centred and less teacher intensive to
meet the burgeoning demand. For them the trend The answer to the question "how do I gain this
towards proliferation of distance learning is motivated qualification?" used to be, "you take the course and
by the ability to deliver more for less: how to save sit the exam". Learning outcomes are changes brought
money, but still deliver high quality learning. about by education, training or experience. The
explicit statement of learning outcomes as a
Distance learning and technology description of what is required in order to achieve a
particular qualification opens up the way for people
Developments which have led to cheap and rapid to gain credit for their prior learning. If someone can
communications mean that the preferred dialogue demonstrate that they are up to the standard described
between tutor and taught is increasingly electronic. in the learning outcomes, they are entitled to the credit
It's a trend that is likely to continue. The electronic - i.e. the qualification. It doesn't matter whether they
downloading of texts in place of acquiring books is acquired their learning from experience at work, or
already commonplace, particularly on technology- from training courses or from self-study, as long as
related and business study programmes. Video- the outcome can be shown to be of the appropriate
conferencing is an increasingly used option, as is the standard. It is the learning which is being credited,
electronic transmission of assignments and the use of not the experience. This is not a soft option giving
e-mail and faxes for routine correspondence. credit for life events. The evidence proving prior
learning is often collected into a portfolio which is
The Open University, for example, is investing submitted for accreditation.
£610 million over five years developing new
approaches to teaching and learning through its new Credit Accumulation and Transfer Schemes
Knowledge Media Institute, set up in 1995. New (CATS)
materials are being created to replace paper and talk.
There is even an Open University virtual summer Related to APL, CATS is an alternative way of
school which electronically links a group of students achieving academic awards. Instead of studying on a
from different countries. designated course at a single institution students are
able to negotiate their own programme from a range
For the seafarer such advances in technology can of courses on offer and at a pace which suits them. A
present special difficulties to be overcome. But the learning contract is often worked out between the
resourceful seafarer who embraces the electronic student and the institution concerned. Students are
revolution can reap rich rewards from its effects. For able to carry their credit to other institutions as they
example, if he has the facility to download texts build towards a final qualification.
electronically, his problem of isolation and lack of
access to learning resources is alleviated. Access to It should be noted that both APL and CATS are
the Internet and the World Wide Web provides appropriate for developing a seafarer's academic and
potential access to the world's accumulated store of general education, rather than his professional
wisdom. Ifhe can send his assignments electronically, development.
he is no longer dependent upon the vagaries of mail
drops and snail-mail for contact with the outside world. The Marine Society is currently working towards
For the first time in history there is the potential for the successful implementation of both APL and CATS
the problem of isolation at sea to be relieved. for seafarers on a routine basis. At present seafarers
have to convince those who hold access to educational
Seafarers are potentially well placed to benefit from programmes and qualifications of their merit on an
the technology revolution given that all deep-sea individual basis. In future it is envisaged there will be
vessels carry the necessary hardware and, usually, a clearly defined procedure and universally
human expertise. It is also the case that either as a acknowledged criteria to evaluate and award credits
result of direct training or as a consequence of for seafarers' experience and qualifications.
professional exposure to it, seafarers tend to be better
informed about developments in information
technology than their shoreside counterparts.
The Author
An ex-cadet (7963-7967 batch) of the Marine Engineering College, Calcutta, Mr. Chugani worked fOr Scindia Steam Navigation
Company until 7977 moving up to the rank of 3rd Engineer, and later served with Indo China Steam Navigation until 7974 as Chief
Engineer. He attended a full time course at Plymouth Polytechnic towards a Diploma in Management Studies (Shipping) and worked
as Superintendent fOr a brief period befOrejoining Singapore Polytechnic in 7975. He continued with Singapore Polytechnic until early
7978 with a break of one year's sea service with Arya National Shipping Lines.
On returning to India, Mr. Chugani worked as a lecturer at Vivekanand Education Society Engineering and Polytechnic. There
fOllowed a brief sabbatical sailing experience with Tolani Shipping befOreswitching to Essar Shipping as a Deputy General Manager,
Q,AQ,Cwith involvement in INS A's training committee work and visiting faculty at LBS college.
A call from the International Labour Organisation provided invaluable experience of participation in and management of an
institutional development project at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania fOr the development of Bandari College.After nearly fOur year with ILO,
Mr. Chugani had a short assignment as a consultant with TRANSNET of South Africa befOrereturning to India in 7995. He joined
Training Ship RahaTT/llnat Bombay as Chief Engineer and re-established the Advanced Fire Fighting Course and the Fire Fighting
Complex. He continues to serve the cause of training of seafarers through his own establishment "Marine Personnel Development
Services", which was initiated inJune 7996 at Mumbai.
Introduction
The design, development, implementation and
evaluation of distance education for training on board
Distance education is an evolved form of
is discussed at length. Adoption of distance education
correspondence education but with a wide application
schemes as a part of the training of seafarers is
of the concept. Though not so popular in India as yet,
recommended with due justification and possible
the concept of distance education is widely used in
options.
developed countries to the extent of degree
programmes. Correspondence courses on board have
To segregate somewhat theoretical concepts from
been a part of the training for deck and engineer cadets
practical aspects of the theme, this chapter is divided
in Singapore, the United Kingdom and perhaps in
into two parts as follows:- Part 1: Teaching, learning
other countries. It is only recently, owing to very short
and distance education. Part 2: Distance education and
pre-sea training or direct entry of deck cadets, that
its application on board.
some employers in India have started giving notes,
books and assignments in addition to a record book.
However, there is very little, if any, help given to new Part 1. Teaching, Learning, and
engineers on board. Structured training on board for Distance Education
radio officers, catering officers and ratings is virtually
nonexistent. Acknowledgement: This part of the chapter draws
heavily upon the works of Phil Race from his book
The advantages and importance of well trained "The Open Learning HandbooR', Kogan Page, London,
officers and crew is a fact that needs no elaboration. 1994 and of D.R. Garrison from" Understanding
Whatever the reasons, it is encouraging to see greater Distance Education - A Framework for the Future",
participation by employers in the process of training. Routledge, 1989. The definition of some of the relevant
With the advent of Standards of Training Certification terms is included in the Annex to this chapter.
and Watchkeeping (STCW), the International Safety
Management Code (ISM), and the quality assurance Traditional vs non-traditional processes of
standards of ISO, employers and the regulatory education
authorities have a greater onus to ensure quality of
manpower, whether on board or ashore. In any process of teaching, it is learning we wish to
achieve. The process of instruction is a means whereas
This chapter attempts to highlight various aspects acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes are the desired
of 'teaching', 'learning' and of 'distance education'. end. An inherent aim is to make the process oflearning
For specific topics, supplementary notes should be 5. Trainee attempts suggested exercises and
provided and text books be recommended for assignments.
reference where necessary. (cooperation and guidance from seniors desired on
board)
Instructions need to be clear and concise with the
aim of guiding trainees on how to go about learning 6. Trainee sends a first set of completed
and doing. Learning can be induced through probing assignments to the institution.
questions and exercises with the intention to stimulate along with feed back (comments) on the aspects of
inquisitiveness for effective absorption. Trainees the course material and experiences and a review/
should be guided to reflect upon the working comments from the Master/Engineer on the
environment and actual equipment on board. progress made by the trainee.
(in case of delays the institution to send a reminder
Trainees can be expected to devote an average of to the trainee)
about 6-8 hours per week towards this type oflearning
and feedback other than normal duties on board. They 7. Institution to assess the assignment and revert
have to provide evidence of learning on board by to trainee/Master/Company.
completing assignments in the form of a record book (assignments to be retained with the institution)
for the purpose.
8. Trainee continues to learn further and sends
The instruction material must place utmost next batch of assignments.
emphasis on safety and prevention of pollution, and (reminder from the institution if necessary)
provide basic instructions for guidance. To avoid
conflict with standing orders on board, and assuming 9. The process 6-8 repeats as the trainee
that the trainee has previously received instruc~ion on progresses with the course.
such topics, the instructions should lead the tramee to
the application of safe practices. The train~e is 10. On leaving a ship, trainee collects a fmal report
expected to adopt safe working procedures contamed from the Master/Chief Engineer.
in safety manuals, operation manuals, and through
other directives on board. 11.On receiving and assessing final set of
assignments, the institution to compile a final
Implementation report on the progress made by the trainee
and issue an appropriate certificate.
The programme is not likely to achieve its objectives
without the cooperation and support of supervisors 12.Trainee proceeds for other requirements under
on board. Procedures and guidelines must be Certificate of Competency Examination.
developed for the smooth implementation and control
of the entire programme. Coordination between the 13.Trainee appears for CoC Examinations.
trainee, shipboard supervisors, shore based
management and the training institution is vital for 14.The cycle can repeat for the next stage.
the desired outcome. A flow chart of expected events
follows.
• from Lawton, D. and Gordon, P., The Dictionary of An ideal premise of Industrial Relations (IR) is that
Education, Hodder & Stoughton, 1993 the government, industry, and the employees are
members of this society with similar interest and stakes
Distance Learning .. (prosperity, security, progress). However, the success
The most obvious kind of distance learmng IS the of such a relationship depends upon ethics and values
correspondence course, but the term now includes adopted by each member for which rationality of
other media besides the written and printed word such common objectives becomes an inherent requirement.
as TV, video, radio programmes and computers. What benefits one leads to the benefit of the others as
Distance learning is based nominally on a pre- well, and vice-versa, and unless this is appreciated by
produced course which is self-instructional but where the members, the process will tend to drift downwards
organised two way communication takes place until a major upheaval (revolution as against
between the student and a supporting institution. evolution). Thus, the process of industrial relations
Distance learning is now seen as a useful adjunct to becomes self-defeating if any of the members ignores
face to face learning. The Open University (in the UK) the interest and existence of the others.
is a good example of this form of learning and it has
long been common in Australia. Openness, fairness, counsel, leads to mutual
cooperation, control and progress; whereas, fear,
• from Ellington, H. and Harris, D., The Dictionary of mistrust, coercion, deceit and unfair protectionism are
Instructional Technology, Kogan Page, New York, some of the negative elements for loss of direction
1996. and self destruction. So let us all look within and come
together to derive or to revise our system to make it
Student Centred approach, learning, teaching more productive on the basis of rational objectives.
An approach to instruction that concentrates on the
needs of the individual student or in which the teach:r/ For our strengths, the world is looking unto us,
instructor and the host institution play supportIve whereas, for our weakness we are driving others away.
rather than central roles. Sometimes, our strengths too become shackles. The
question is what do we desire?
Distance Education, learning, teaching
An instructional system in which the learner is Selfishness is a virtue of rationality otherwise it is a
geographically remote from the body or person curse.
organising the instruction as, for example, in a
correspondence course. Maritime Training Decisions
. " Though the approach is academic in nature, an attempt
Open Learnmg, flexible Learnmg, has been made to write a concise chapter on,the
Correspon~ence Course ... importance of evaluation and decision making for
An instructIOnal system whIch removes tradItIonal matters related to maritime training. Terms of
barriers to learning such as fi~ed time and. place of maintenance management have been used to
instruction and rigid .entry reqUIrements, placmg many emphasise some ofthe ideas. For the sake of simplicity,
aspects of the learnmg process u?der the control of word subjects have been used to represent different
the learner. The latter usually decIdes, .what, how and sections of people and bodies like industry, training
when to study under some form of gUIdance. institutions, society, government, unions, and so on.
As shown. in figure 43.4, f~r ~ successful and Ideally, we need a realistic assessment of the
sustainable fIre we need contInUIty of the three situation on the basis of an accurate analysis with a
reasonable synthesis to arrive at a pragmatic solution
to the problems facing the maritime fraternity.
Decision making with the techniques of problem
solving should lead us to a lasting solution. Therefore,
it would be prudent to refrain from decisions (action
plan for a change in this case) until we are sure that
we have not made any mistake in identifying the
problem.
For a decision related to education and training we Whether we are in a new situation, or reviewing
need to appreciate the term curriculum which is as an ongoing one, it is essential to have clarity of goals
diverse and difficult to define as the term management. or needs at the very start. Such goals need to be
However, there is virtually no difference between the absolutely free of ambiguities and ulterior motives.
process of the two, and a basic comparison of elements Indeed, it is easier said than done when it comes to a
is presented in a simplified form in figure 43.5 complex situation, particularly when there are several
subjects at national and international level. No matter
As can be appreciated, the elements of the process how hard and time consuming it may be, any decision
of curriculum and that of management are extremely which ignores the views and values of any of the
interdependent and cannot be looked at in isolation. subjects will lead to more problems than it attempts
Similarly, the outcome of such a process depends upon to solve in the first place. A step towards such a change
initial parameters (inputs) in terms of need analysis, requires an in-depth appreciation of all the factors and
clarity of goals, resources, etc. As can be seen, the people that can influence education and training at
process of curriculum and that of management are tertiary level and employment of the product. It may
dynamic in nature and require constant monitoring be easy to launch a new training programme, but it is
and control. Though all the elements are very difficult to withdraw once the resources have been
important evaluation is perhaps the most crucial one utilised.
of all for curriculum. If we attempt to stretch our
imagination a bit further we can appreciate it more We can all appreciate the importance of right
by comparing the processes of management and decisions in anything that we do, so let us hope that
curriculum with that of process control in automation the decision makers will take care of all aspects which
in which feedback plays a crucial role in the overall influence the training of seafarers, and thus the
performance. performance of the shipping industry and the nation.
Effective education is not easy to achieve, but it pays
Systematic evaluation of an education and training back by having produced a valuable member of
programme is a complex activity (research) and society.
Mr. Cj. Parker obtained his Master's Foreign-Going Certificate in 7967, having served in cargo shiPs and tankers in various ranks. He
then obtained a BSc in nautical science at Liverpool Polytechnic studying naval architecture, marine engineering and control systems.
In 7970 he was appointedAdministrative Staff Officer of the Ocean Group, Britain's second largest shipping company. During this
appointment, Mr. Parker studied to become a qualified industrial training officer at theJohn Dalton College at Manchester Polytechnic.
In 7972 he was appointed the first full time Secretary of the newly constituted Nautical Institute. In 7982 he was elected a Fellow.
Since then the membershiP has expanded from 7,500 to over 7,000 and continues to grow internationally. The Institute's primary
aim is to promote high standards of knowledge, competence and qualification amongst those in control of seagoing craft. The Institute's
journal Seaways is recognised as the authoritative voice of the qualified mariner.
Introduction
will enable them to earn higher salaries as qualified
If you have reached the last chapter in this book you officers. They also want a certificate with an established
have already achieved a measure of continuous reputation as this will enhance career prospects.
professional development. If I was a lecturer I would
write on your paper "well done". However, I also share The college principal wants to ensure a viable
the frustration which many lecturers feel because there college and, to do this, he or she will usually have to
are no opportunities for advancement, either through optimise the relationship between governmental
lack of funding or through changes in government education funding policy, the shipowners' pressures
policy and therefore you may be worried that this final for cost effective training, the seafarers' expectations
contribution may be just academic. Not so. Read on. and the need to attract good quality teaching staff who
will want to be associated with a successful
This section then, is for those who want to get on, establishment.
but who need support and a few useful techniques to
overcome the forces of organisational inertia. But first The examiner, usually from the transport
let us consider the enemy, or the disturbing influences ministry, sees his task as setting and assessing
in maritime education and training. To do this we need examinations in accordance with prescribed guide
to start by identifying the key players in any certificate lines covering defined functions and competency
structure and consider what they (and probably you) standards. Some of the testing may be delegated to
believe makes them successful. the college staff but the level and quality standard to
be attained is controlled by the chief examiner.
The Key Players
The college lecturer in this environment has
The employers, whether owner, manager or certain aspirations but, to be successful, he or she has
manning agent, are looking for competence at to deliver results. What are these results? Inevitably
minimum cost. Voyage contracts mean that turnover they are "consistently good standards of examination
is not particularly expensive. On the other hand they passes" for without this, the whole system fails. The
prefer trainees and officers who come back and who college does not become attractive, the students choose
have enough self motivation to take their certificates another and the pass rate falls so that the owners are
of competency on their own. Some employers pay displeased and the examiners have to spend more time
full cost for training, some a contribution and some, to achieve the same result. It is this overriding pressure
nothing at all. which must be recognised before continuous
professional development starts to have any meaning.
The seafarers who are increasingly being asked
to pay for their own shore based training want good The problem is implicit in the system. It starts with
efficient tuition directed at passing examinations. This the IMO which prescribes functions and standards of
In an industry which confers competencies by Without leaving the college campus there are
qualification at the age of about 28 for ship masters, it countless improvements which can be made to
is surprising that very little provision is made in the communication, design, teaching techniques, course
STCW Convention for updating training. Sadly the structures, the measurement of attainment and the
prevailing ethos by employers is that unless there is a transfer of skills from ashore to the sea.
mandatory requirement for extra training, then no
extra training will be paid for. Co-operative meetings between owners, examiners
and training staff meet the criteria for CPD and of
This is not to imply that all employers adopt this course seminars and conferences provide
view. Just look at Captain Trevor Bailey's chapter to opportunities for learning about new aspects of the
Aims of CPD from The Engineering Council It may not be possible to specify a fixed amount of
It IS' ' ' ' , CPD, but relevant benchmarks such as Occupational
essen t la 1 th a t engmeers an d t ec h mClans
· l" Standards can be valuable for defining needs and
con tmue th e prolessIOna 1 d eve 1opmen t process a fter ,
't t·
R egIs ' achIevements.
ra IOn an d th roug h ou t th elr careers.
The four main elements of Nautical Institute policy Each department will hold for staff and students as
can be summarised as follows:- appropriate a series of not less than three discussion
seminars per annum designed to give lecturers the
1. Provide a journal devoted primarily to keeping the experience of discovering new information and
nautical profession up to date. imparting it to colleagues and, where appropriate,
students.
2. Publish operational guide books to enhance
professional practice with respect to maritime, The college positively encourages membership of
technical, commercial and educational activity. professional associations and the attainment of
qualifications as indicators of capability and
3. Provide distance learning support for those who suitability for advancement.
want to develop their careers into complementary
nautical disciplines e.g. surveying, pilotage, These staff development initiatives are not a
command or education. substitute for organisational management which will
continue to be the responsibility of the head of
4. Support forward looking policies and professional department linked to the strategic objectives of the
values in industry committees both nationally and College".
internationally.
This rather specific set of criteria can, on the one
The Maritime Lecturer hand, appear costly and a drain on maximum teaching
It is now possible to bring the concepts, practices time. Looked at in terms of the long term such
and resources to bear on the maritime lecturer. It is measures encourage acceptance of change, a modern
hoped that the college will have its own staff and attractive approach for prospective students,
development policy. An example of a policy statement commitment to common aims and enhanced team
might be as follows. work.
Modularisation is an inevitable trend as the Looking to the future there is so much excitement
"knowledge explosion" continues to expand into vast and much opportunity for personnel to develop
proportions. It shows no sign of slacking. The only effective responses to the demands of the industry and
way to control learning and demonstrate progress is they are most likely to succeed if the individuals
responsible for bringing on the next generation have
themselves the habit of renewal.
- APPENDICES -
Appendix I Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers
Appendix III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development
Sources of information
of particular value
to maritime lecturers
It will surprise many readers to see just how much 6. Professional Associations produce their own
information there is on all aspects of education and specialised material and anybody who wants to be
training. I have selected UK based publishers not considered a true professional should join and
because of a parochial outlook, but because they are support their own professional organisation or
in my opinion the best for English speaking people. learned society.
1. Kogan Page have a formidable array of The main international maritime professional
educational books and some of these are listed in associations are as follows:
Appendix II.
* The Nautical Institute, 202 Lambeth Road,
2. The Institute of Personnel and Development London SEI 7LQ Publishes Seaways monthly,
(35 Camp Road, Wimbledon, London SW19 4UX) membership based upon nautical qualifications,
produces an excellent journal called Personnel career development schemes available, runs
Management and has a well edited selection of briefs, seminars and conferences and is a major publisher
papers and publications which cover the interface of nautical books.
between industry and the education and training
world (see Appendix III). * The Institute of Marine Engineers, 76 Mark
Lane, London EC3R 7JN. Publishes Marine
3. The Warsash Nautical Book Shop (6 Dibles Engineers Review, has a comprehensive information
Road, Warsash, Southampton S03 9HZ) produces service, membership based upon marine and
an extraordinarily detailed bibliography of engineering qualifications, runs conferences,
maritime books which can be of great value to publishes books on marine engineering and related
lecturers. subjects.
4. The World Maritime University (Citadellsvagen * The Royal Institution of Naval Architects, 10
29, S.20124 Malmo, Sweden). Inaugurated in 1983 Upper Belgrave Street, London SWIX 8BQ.
by the IMO, the WMUprovides senior maritime Publishes The Naval Architect, has a comprehensive
personnel, particularly from developing countries, conference programme, encourages excellence in
with two year Master of Science Degree Courses design and produces many specialist publications.
in General Maritime Administration, Maritime
Safety Administration, Maritime Education and * The Royal Institute of Navigation, 1 Kensington
Training and Technical Management of Shipping Gore, London SW7 2AT is more a learned society
Companies. for all those interested in the subject. It publishes
TheJournal of Navigation and an A4 Navigation News.
The WMU plays a leading role in co-ordinating The coverage of navigation makes this a valuable
the other specialist IMO training centres, helping source of information for those teaching and
to develop model courses, undertaking research and developing new systems.
running seminars and short courses on specialised
maritime subjects linked primarily to the work of The International Maritime Lecturers
the IMO. Association (IMLA), Secretary, c/o World Maritime
University, PO Box 500, Malmo 20124, Sweden, is a
5. Witherby Publishers (32-36 Aylesbury Street, voluntary organisation whose members are maritime
London ECIR OET). Publishes a wide range of teachers. The organisation provides a forum for the
industry guides, including the ICS Bridge Procedure exchange of views and new techniques and the
Guide and the ISGOTT Guide. Of particular interest international nature of the organisation means that it
is their book entitled Training and Assessment on Board can debate the merits of different national training
which is a guide to seafarers and managers on how systems to great advantage. IMLA organises
to make best use of opportunities for practical international conferences.
training and assessment of competence on board
ship.
D I
Designing and Delivering Training for Groups IdentifyingTargetedTrainingNeeds - a practical guide
David Leigh; October 1996; ISBN 0 7494 2062 6 to beginning an effective training strategy
Sally Sparhawk; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1682 3
Designing Competence Based Training
Shirley Fletcher; 1991;ISBN 0 7494 0430 2 The In-House Trainer as Consultant
Mike Saunders and Keith Holdaway; October 1996;
E ISBN 0 7494 2029 4
The Effective Delivery of Training using NLP (neuro-
linguistic programming) Investing in Training and Development
Ted Garratt; March 1997;ISBN 0 7494 2142 8 Tony Pont; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1524 X
o Q
One-to-One Training and Coaching Skills Quality Assurance in Training and Education
Roger Buckley and Jim Caple; October 1996; ISBN Richard Freeman; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0868 5
o 7494 2065 0
S
One Day Workshop Packages (trainer's guide and Speedtraining - Systemsfor Learning in times of rapid
participant's guide) change
• Coaching and Counselling Skills Jim Stewart; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 0887 1
Phil Lowe; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1290 9
• Communication Skills The StaffDevelopment Handbook - An Action Guide
Wendy Carter; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1467 7 for Managers and Supervisors
• Competitor Analysis Peter Sheal; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0419 1
Wendy Carter; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 11716
• Creativity and Problem Solving How to Develop and Present Staff Training Courses
Phil Lowe; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 1088 4 Peter R Sheal; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1231 3
• Customer Care
Wendy Carter; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 0926 6 Strategies for Learning at Work
• Delegation Skills Julie Cotton andJoe Trotter; March 1997;ISBN 0 7494
Rob Baston; 1991;ISBN 0749404582 21460
c
Continuous Development
edited by Sue Wood; 1988; ISBN 0 85292 405 4
Cultivating Self-Development
David Megginson and Vivien Whitaker; October
1996; ISBN 0 85292 640 5
D
Designing Competence-based Training
Shirley Fletcher; 1991; ISBN 0749404302
Designing Training
Alison Hardingham; 1996; ISBN 0 85292 644 8
E
Effective Change - 20 ways to make it happen
Andrew Leigh; 1988; ISBN 0 85292 412 7
Evaluating Training
Peter Bramley; September 1996; ISBN 0 85292 636 7
I
Identifying Training Needs
Tom Boydell and Malcolm Leary; 1996; ISBN 0
85292 630 8
J
Job Analysis - a manager's guide
M Peam and R Kandola; 1993; ISBN 0 85292 542 5
M
Making Meetings Work
Patrick Forsyth; 1996; ISBN 0 85292 637 5