CONTENTS

Title__________________________________________________________________________Page no.

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….5
2. Design Parameters…………………………………………………………………………..5
2.1 Haul Road Vehicles
2.2 Traffic Survey
2.3 Ground Survey
2.4 Geo-technical characteristics of Sub-grade & Road Materials
2.5 Drainage Characteristics
3. Design……………………………………………………………………………………………7
3.1 Geometric Design
3.2 design of haul road pavements
4. Construction of Haul Roads15
4.1 General Guidelines
4.2 Construction materials
4.3 Construction procedure
5. Stability of slope of Haul roads………………………………………………………19
5.1 Factor of Safety.
5.2 Protection of haul road slopes
6. Haul Road Lighting ..............................................................................................20
6.1 Types of Light Source.
6.2 lighting system.
6.3 Design Criteria for Lighting Design
7. Dust Control…………………………………………………………………………………...23
8. Traffic Control by Road Signs…………………………………………………………25
9. Haul Road Maintenance…………………………………………………………………26
10.Haul Road Drainage……………………………………………………………………….28
10.1. Side Drain
10.2. Cross Drain
10.3 Sub -Surface Drain
References …………………………………………………………………………………….…….32

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1.Introduction
India is rich with a total coal reserve of about 250 billion tonnes.It is
envisaged that with this reserve, the major share of country's energy needs
will be met from consumption of coal for few centuries. The production has
virtually increased on more and more emphasis on opencast operation.
The growth in open cast production has been possible by introducing
cost effective mechanization and with large capacity open cast mine s with an
annual production capacity of 10 to 11 MT. In this process, 85/120/170 tonne
dumpers are replacing 25/35 tonne dumpers. The higher capacity dumpers
with much higher axle load and larger geometric dimensions have become
critical in the planning, design, construction and maintenance of haul road.
"A vehicle of tomorrow is being driven on a road of yesterday by
today’s driver"-this phrase amply clarifies the present scenario of induction
of modern heavy earth moving machineries in opencast mines and outdated
haul road design criteria being followed by and large.
Study has revealed that a good haul road may increase production to
about 30%, increase of tyre life to about 30%, reduction in fuel consumption
to about 30% besides reducing mechanical wear and tear and driver’s fatigue.
A well designed, constructed and maintenance Haul road will also add to the
reduction in environmental problems.

2. Design Parameters
Identification of the Heavy earth moving machineries (HEMM) is a part of the
opencast planning which is conducted with due consideration to geo-mining
condition, targeted production, disposal of overburden materials and
envisaged location for coal handling plant, workshop etc.To commence with
the planning and design of haul road it is necessary to obtain detail
information about the following parameters:

2.1 Haul Road Vehicles

Haul roads are mostly used by rear discharge and bottom discharge dumpers.
While coal is hauled through both types of dumpers. besides the dumpers
there are other heavy earth moving machineries like bull dozer, excavators,
loaders, motor graders, water tankers etc., which is frequently ply on the haul
road. The dozer path calls for special attention because of the tracked wheels.
Otherwise the dumpers with their mammoth dimension and heavy axial loads

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govern the haul road design.

2.2 Traffic Survey

It is essentially that volume and composition of traffic are to be

properly identified before the planning and design of the road .In this regard
following aspects are to be carefully ascertained:
(a) Nature of traffic-permanent or temporary
(b) Movement of vehicles other than haulers
(c) Density of the vehicular traffic

2.3 Ground Survey

The location & alignment of road is determined by the general

topography & operational planning.
Following survey is required:
(a) Route survey
(b) Traverse survey
(c) Leveling
(d) Contour survey
2.4 Geo-technical characteristics of Sub-grade & Road Materials

The geo-technical characteristics of sub grade soil and paving materials are
important for the design of flexible and rigid pavements of roads and airfields.
The Soil/rock profile along with water table fluctuation shall also provide a
good data for assessing the performance of road. So far the construction of
haul road is concerned the locally available
Following points should be taking under the geo-technical
characteristics:
(a) Soil Exploration
(b) Soil Classification
(c) Compaction Characteristics
(d) California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
(e) Modules of Sub grade Reaction
2.5 Drainage Characteristics

The survey should include the drainage characteristics of the formed ground
as well as the information regarding the discharge of the drainage water. Any

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natural drainage course with its capacity shall be identified. Rainfall (run-off)
data for planning drainage is also needed. it is also of importance to obtain
information regarding fluctuation of water table and high flood level of any
nearby nallah/stream close to the Haul Road.

3. Design
The design of haul road may be broadly classified into two categories that are
geometric and structural.

3.1 Geometric Design

For optimum efficiency in traffic operation with due consideration to

maximum safety and economy a proper geometric design of haul road is
essential. Geometric design deals with the layout and the dimension of the
haul road. A proper geometric design will ensure smoothness and continuity
in the haulage cycle which is one of the foremost requirements for better
productivity.
The various geometric designs of haul road are:
(A) Carriage way/ Road width
The width of carriage way should be sufficient for the design traffic and
should allow sufficient room for maneuvering of the vehicles to promote
safety and maintain continuity in the haulage cycle. The requirements must sit
the largest vehicle likely to ply on the road.
Different heavy earth moving machineries
manufactures and road authorities have recommended thumb rule or
determining the carriage way lane dimension. One such thumb rule
recommended by Bharat Earth Movers Limited, Bangalore is given below:
For single lane road:
Carriageway width = (1.75 W - 0.69 meter)
For double lane road:
Carriageway width = (2.0 W +3.6 meter)
Where W is the maximum width of the designed vehicle in meter.
Some recommendations for the carriageway width are
given below in table No.1:

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Table 1: Road width/ Carriage way of Haul Road

Types of vehicle Vehicle width in meter Carriageway in mine

Single lane Double lane
50 tonne dumper 4.41 8.3 14.5
85 tonne dumper 5.00 10.0 17.5

120 tonne dumper 6.27 12.5 22.0

170 tonne dumper 7.01 14.0 25.3

(B) Camber

A level haul surface appears to be the ideal one for even tyre loading and less
driver fatigue. But camber or cross slope becomes necessary for drainage of
water from road surface. The camber is designated either as ratio of vertical
fall on horizontal length or in percentage.
The recommended camber for haul road is given in table No.2:

Table 2: Recommended camber for Haul Roads

Types of Surface Recommended IRC recommendation

Camber for Highways
1)Moorum, gravel, stone 1 in 25 1 in 33
aggregate including OB material
2) OB and other material 1 in 33 1 in 40
resulting in smooth surface
3) Bituminous surface, concrete 1 in 40 1 in 50 to 1 in 40
road

Cambers may be provided in triangular, parabolic or a combination of both.

(C) Gradient

While aligning the road it is preferable to follow the

existing ground profile for economic reasons. But it is often becomes
necessary to lay the road to a grade and sometimes to provide vertical curve.

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A minimum gradient is also required for proper drainage. The road gradient is
designed in consideration of topography, nature & intensity of traffic,
drainage, obligatory points and access to adjoining properties.
Unless specially required no road shall have gradient
steeper than 1 in 14. A gradient up to 1 in 10 may be allowed for designing the
ramps. A minimum gradient of 1 in 200 is recommended for drainage.

(D) Road Curves

It often becomes necessary to provide horizontal as

well as vertical curves along the road alignment. In haul road vertical and
horizontal curves are to be laid in such a manner that it should provide
enough sight distance not less than 30 meter along the road. The calculation
for curves is based on the principle of circular curves due to the relatively
slow speed of dumpers, dozers, loaders etc.
* The minimum curves radius for a horizontal curve is
obtained by the following formula:
Rmin = Vmin2 /127 (e+f)
Where, Vmin = Minimum design speed in km/hr.
Rmin = Minimum curve radius in meter.
e = Rate of super elevation.
f = Co-efficient of lateral friction.

(E) Superelevation

While negotiating a horizontal curve, centrifugal force generated on the

vehicles trends to throw it off.Superelevation in the form of raising the road
surface towards the outer edge is provided to offset the effect of the
centrifugal force generated and for driving comfort.
The required superelevation for the horizontal curve is calculated from the
following formula -
e=v2/225R
Where, e = superelevation in meter/ meter.
V = Speed in km/hr.
R = Radius of the curvature in meter.
Provision of proper superelevation results in the following advantage:
(1) Smooth& safe movement of vehicles.

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(2) Introduction of centrifugal force to counteract the centrifugal force
permitting faster vehicle movement on the horizontal curves.
(3) Convenient drainage of water from road surface.
(4) Reduction of road maintenance cost at curves.

(F) Sight Distance

For the safe movement of vehicles, the aspect of visibility plays an important
role. The driver of a vehicle should be able to see clearly at least a certain
portion of the road length to avoid accident. It is therefore a necessity that the
sight distance is sufficient to enable a vehicle traveling at a certain speed stop
before reaching the hazard. Sight distance comes under two categories:

1. Stopping Sight Distance -

The absolute minimum road length clearly visible to the driver to stop his
vehicle to avert accident is known as stopping sight distance. The total time
for stopping the vehicle includes brake reaction time i.e. application of the
brake after sighting the hazard and the actual braking time to stop the vehicle
from certain speed. This time is generally accepted as 20 seconds.

Table 3: Travel speed versues safe vehicle interval of 20 second

Vehicle speed in Distance between
Km/hr vehicles in meter
10 56
20 111
30 167
40 222
50 278

For general guidance sight distance diagram at curves indicating possible

means of improvement is shown in fig.

2. Overtaking Sight Distance -

It is the minimum sight distance that should be available for a driver on a two-
way road to enable him to overtake another vehicle safely. The optimum
condition for the road design is one in which the overtaking driver can follow
the vehicle ahead for a short time while he assesses his chance for overtaking,
pulls out his vehicle, overtakes the other vehicle at the design speed of the
road and returns to his own side of the road allowing for any oncoming
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vehicle from the opposite direction traveling at the same speed to pass safely.
Overtaking sight distance for various vehicle speeds is given in.
Table 4: Overtaking sight distance for various speeds

Vehicle Time component in seconds Safe overtaking

Speed in For For Total distance in
Km/hr Overtaking Opposite meters
maneuvers Vehicle
20 9 6 15 135
15 10 7 17 235
10 10.8 7.2 18 300
5 11.5 7.2 19 340

Fig: SIGHT DISTANCE DIAGRAM

(G) Special Safety Measures

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Safety in the haul road is the paramount importance. In the geometric design
it is advisable to incorporate some of the safety measures as discussed below:
1. Sidewalk-
A paved sidewalk may be provided for the movement of the people for the
safety of the persons and also to help unhindered movement of the vehicles. A
paved sidewalk shall be at least 1.5 meter wide but preferably 3.0 meter in
width.
2. Road Signs-
Adequate road signs and signals are to be provided in the turning points
curve road crossing, railway crossing, important building, school etc. Vertical
post with proper indicator signs should be provided to guide drivers for
positioning the plying vehicles on the exact lane over the road particularly
during the night shift.
3. Median-
Medians are raised islands placed in between carriageways for up and down
traffic. This should be as wide as possible but on economic considerations may
be kept 3.0 meter wide. The height of median should generally be 400 mm
above pavement level.
4. Lighting-
To improve the transportation of mining material and overburden material
more efficiently, the adequately lighting arrangement is to be provided on
haul road and especially at the strategic points.

5. Parapet Wall-
Strong parapet walls or dwarf embankment of height not less than 1 meter in
height is to be provided where a haul road above the level of the surrounding
area for preventing vehicle getting of the road.
6. Lay Byes-
These are required on temporary haul road because of their narrower
roadway width to serve the following requirements:
(a) To facilitate crossing of vehicles approaching from
opposite directions.
(b) To tow aside a disabled vehicle so as not to crate
hindrance to the traffic movement on the main roadway.
7. Design Ramps-
Ramps are normally to be provided for marching of HEMM from one bench to
another. The stable width of a ramp should not be less than the outer distance
between track chains or tyres 3m on either side or it should be worked out
accordingly. As far as possible the ramp should straight and it should have

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uniform gradient not exceeding 1 in 10.

(H) Road Intersections

Road junctions or intersections describe all roadway situations where two or

more roads meet or cross one another at the same or different elevations.
Following are the general principles to be observed in the design of the
intersections:

(a) Angle of Crossing - Road should be made to meet at right angles as far as
possible

(b) Camber - Camber should be avoided as far as possible. The whole areas
of road intersections should be in one level.

(c) Channelization - There should be proper channelization of traffic to

minimize the points of conflict .A properly channelized road junction allow
smoothness in right traffic movement & makes wrong traffic movement
difficult.

(d) Entry Speed - high entry speed should be discouraged.

(e) Gradient - road intersections should be located on level ground to the

extent possible.

(f) Visibility - high level of visibility should be provided so that each driver
approaching the intersection can see vehicles approaching from other
directions.

3.2 design of haul road pavements

(A) Objectives of Pavements:

The surface of the road way should be stable and non-yielding to allow heavy
wheel loads of traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. Thesimply
earth road may not be able to fulfill the requirements during varying
conditions of traffic loads and weather. At high moisture content the soil
looses its strength in higher order and starts yielding under heavy loads. Due
to this it produces uneven and undulated surfaces and causes vertical

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oscillations increasing the fuel consumption. This also increases the wear and
tear in the vehicle including operation cost.
With view to the above to provide a stable and even
surface for the traffic the road is suitably designed and pavement structure
constructed. Thus the pavement is a structure consisting of one or more layers
of processed materials and constructed over a prepared sub grade to serve as
a carriageway.

(B) Types of Pavements:

Based on the structural behavior the pavements are

classified as follows:
1.Flexiblepavements: it generally consists of a sub-base, Base and the Surface
layer as illustrated in fig.
In case of pavement with OB material there may be only two layers i.e. the
Base course and Surface layer.
2. Rigid Pavement : Design of rigid pavement for
dumper movement is presently limited within the workshop area only
because of high capital cost involvement.

FIG: ROAD BED DESIGN

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4. Construction of Haul Roads
Construction of haul road should be carefully planned and implemented to
satisfy all the design requirements. Attention should be given to the proper
selection of materials as pr the design, compaction of different road layer and
providing a smooth top surface with appropriate camber. Motor graders, road
rollers, vibratory compactors and rollers are very useful for construction of
haul road. A dozer can also be used for leveling, crushing and compacting
layers of Over Burden rocks used for road stratum.

4.1 General Guidelines:

The haul roads are constructed in cutting, filling or in partly cutting and partly
filling. The principal features of these three variations are illustrated in fig.

Fig: TYPICAL HAUL ROAD SECTION

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The points to be noted and implemented in the construction in elaboration of
the above figure are furnished below in table:

Carriage width Design is based on width of largest vehicle,

number of lanes & requirement of Dozer path.
Width from edge of This is calculated from the depth of ditch at its
carriageway to center center line and ditch slope adjacent to the
line of ditch carriageway.
Road Thickness Designed based on maximum wheel load, geo-
technical properties of the sub-grade and road
materials.
Ditch out slope Depend on the natural angle of repose of the
rock/earth
Safety Berm Height of Safety Berm will depend on the radius of
largest tyre of the vehicle envisaged to ply over the
road .the width of Berm will depend on its height.
Full Slope Depends on natural angle of repose of fill material.
Fill Bench Benches are provided for steep slope of original
ground of 1: 1 or greater.

4.2 Constructionmaterials:
Selection of appropriate materials is very important for road construction.
The selection is based on material properties such as grain size distribution,
compressive strength, weathering characteristics and rigidity.

(A)Surface Layer Materials:

When considering surface material for construction of haul roads, the

following types of material can be used:
•Compacted gravel
•Crushed stone
• Asphaltic concrete
• Roller compacted concrete (RCC)
• stabilized earth

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Table5. Advantages and disadvantages of various road surface materials

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Compacted gravel & Relatively smooth, stable
Crushed rock surface
Relatively low construction
cost
Low deformation under load
Ease of construction
Low rolling resistance
Frequent maintenance
required
Source material may
require
screening/crushing
Dust problems in dry
weather
Erodible if flooded
Potential frost action
(fines > 10%)

Asphaltic concrete High coefficient of adhesion Ices easily in cold

Minimal dust problems
Smooth, stable surface
Low rolling resistance
Low maintenance cost
High vehicle performance
speeds
Low deformation under load
weather
Needs base layer with
CBR = 80+
High construction cost
Specialized construction
Impractical for tracked
vehicles

Roll concrete High coefficient of adhesion High construction costs

Very low rolling resistance Impractical for tracked
Minimal dust problems vehicles
Smooth, stable surface
Very low maintenance costs
High vehicle speeds
Very low deformation under
load

Stabilized earth Can decrease sub-base Not suitable as surface

thickness layer
Stabilize weak sub-grade

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(B)Materials for Base and Sub-Base Layers

Base and sub-base layers are generally constructed from locally available
materials, but stabilization of locally available materials is required when the
design with current materials yields unacceptable thickness of layers and/or
the suitable construction materials are uneconomic to use (due to distance or
depth limitations or environment restrictions). Generally, pit run gravel is
used for the base layer. The sub-base is often constructed from interburden,
sand, siltsor sandy till, or other suitable materials. Usually the materials used
in base and sub-base layers are not crushed thus a particular particle size
distribution is difficult to enforce. However, the maximum particle size should
be limited to the 2/3 of the lift thickness. This can be achieved through
screening or visual inspection.

(C)Compaction Requirements

Good compaction contributes to material stiffness and strength. If compaction

is not well executed at the construction stage, then subsequent traffic will
complete the job, usually in random manner, leading to deformation of the
running surface and possible structural break down of the layered cross-
section. Poor compaction in the lower layers cannot be fixed later by applying
heavy compaction effort to the finished road or by road maintenance
activities.

4.3 Construction procedure:

1. Proof roll the proposed road alignment with a loaded haul truck. Any soft or
weak areas that are observed should be excavated to competent ground and
backfilled with suitable material placed in 0.2m thick lifts and compacted to
95% of Standard Proctor maximum dry density.
Compaction will probably require about six passes of a loaded haul truck.

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2. After proof rolling, the top 0.15m of the roadbed sub-grade should be
scarified and recompacted 95% of Standard Proctor using a sheeps foot or
vibratory compactor.
3. The road sub-base will typically consist of granular material placed in 0.2m
thick liftscompacted to 95% of Standard Proctor maximum dry density
utilizing about 6 passes of a vibratory compactor.
4. The road base consists of well-graded gravel placed in 0.15m lifts and
compacted to 98% ofStandard Proctor maximum dry density using a smooth
drum vibratory roller. The surface orwearing layer consists of a 0.3m to 0.5m
thickness of well-graded crushed rock placed in0.15m lifts and compacted to
98% of Standard Proctor maximum dry density using the smooth drum
vibratory roller. The surface layer compaction can be increased to 100%
Proctor if required.
5. During road construction, continuously monitor compaction and moisture
contents using anuclear densometer. For each material used in the road there
will be optimum moisturecontent that will yield the highest density and
hence, best resulting material properties.
Therefore, the construction materials should be compacted near their
optimum moisturecontents. A small deviation from optimum water content is
tolerable but wide deviations willlead to trouble.
6. Crown the completed road surface at about 2 to 3% slope to facilitate
drainage and slope the road sides at 3H:1V.
7. Provide drainage ditches on both sides of the road to ensure good drainage.

5. Stability of slope of Haul roads

The failure of a mass of soil in a downward and outward movement is called a
slide or slope failure. Slides are visually caused by excavation, undercutting
the foot of an existing slope, by gradualdisintegration of the structure of the
soil, by increase of the pore water pressure or by shock that liquefies the soil.

If the soil mass is located below the ground water level or under steady
seepage , it is necessary to consider the effect of pore water pressure,
effective stress should be used instead of total stress.

Stability analysis determines whether the given or proposed slope meets the
safety requirement: soil mass under given loads should have an adequate

16
factor of safety with respect to shear failure and the deformation of the soil
mass under the given loads should not exceed certain tolerable limits.

5.1 Factor of Safety:

The concept for determining the factor of safety is based on the
Coulomb Law and the ratio of required shear strength (t) to available shear
strength (S),

FOS = S/t

Similarly the factor of safety with respect to friction angle (φ) and with
respect to height (H) is also mentioned below:

FOS =tanφc/tanφ& FOS = Hφ/H

5.2 Protection of haulroad slopes:

Haul roads are constructed on embankments or cuttings. In addition to
slope stability problem for haul roads, the problem of soil erosion is one of the
major problems due to surface water runoff. This results in formation of
gullies and erosion ditches and ultimately endangers slope failure problems..
To stabilize such slopes some corrective methods are suggested below:

(1) Geometric methods in which the geometry of slope is changed.

(2) Hydrological methods in which the ground water table is lowered or
the water content of the soil is reduced.
(3) Chemical & Mechanical methods in which the shear strength of slide
mass is increased.
(4) Bio-Engineering methods inwhich the inclusion of grasses, shrubs,
trees, & other types of vegetation to improve strength and protect
slopes from erosion.

The standard protective and stabilization methods are to be adopted to

avoid any slope failure in haul road embankment either in filling or
cuttings.

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6. Haul Road Lighting
The night use of haul road has considerable increased. A proper road lighting
system is a means of improving convenience and safety of night traffic
operation. The aim of providing fixed lighting system is to have suitable light
distribution to cover the road way, uniformity of illumination and avoidance
of excessive glare. The important factors considered in lighting design are the
following:

1. Contrast.
2. Glare.
3. Lighting layout.
4. Luminance distribution of light.
5. Lateral placement of lighting poles.
6. Mounting height and overhang.
7. Selection of luminaries.
8. Initial cost.
9. Service life and maintenance.

6.1 Types of Light Source:

Light source is the most important element of the illumination system. The
performances of various types of available light sources are compared on the
basis of the following four major characteristics:
1. Luminous efficiency.
2. Colour radiation or quality of colour.
3. Lamp life in number of operating hours.
4. Optical control

Various types of light sources presently used are:

 Mercury vapour lamp.
 High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) Lamp.
 Low Pressure Sodium Vapour (LPSV) Lamp.
 Metal Halide Lamp

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 6.2 lighting system:

There are four main types of lighting systems –

(a) Flood lighting –It is used where the length & breadth of the area to
be illuminated are quite large and of about the same order of
magnitude.
(b) High Mast Lighting –This type of lighting combines some of the
features of Flood lighting with that of Conventional lighting.
(c) Conventional Lighting – It is more flexible and cheaper in
comparison to the previous two systems. This system suits with
most part of the haul road because of comparatively low traffic
volume and few traffic intersections.
(d) Mobile Lighting –These includes emergency and rescue work for
dumper fallen in a ditch, advancing the coal face till permanent
lighting is arranged, fire fighting operation and other activities
requiring temporary area lighting

6.3 Design Criteria for Lighting Design:

It is necessary to evolve the most effective lighting in respect of following

requirements.

(A) Lighting needs.

(B) Illumination level.
(C) Luminaire design & placement.
(D) Spacing of lighting source
(E) Lighting fixture

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7. Dust Control
Considerable dust is generated in open cast mining due to drilling
and blasting as well as due to spillage from dumpers and abrasion and suction
under wheels of heavy earth moving vehicles. A heavy cloud of dust in the
atmosphere on dry haul roads results into poor visibility and also tends to
damage the delicates parts of the machinery besides being a health hazard.
Some of the important measures of dust control are given below-

(1) Water Spraying – Regular spraying of water on the haul road

surface reduce the dust formation and related problems.
Overwatering should be avoided as it makes the road slippery and
unsafe.
Water spraying for the dust suppression is implemented by
the following two techniques:
(a) Vehicle Mounted Sprayer
(b) Water Sprinkler

(2) Chemical Treatment – Dust can be controlled by providing a

mixture of water and Calcium or Sodium chloride on the road
surface. This stabilizes the road surface. Chloride salts also keep the
road surface moist and dust free in the dry weather. With the
chlorides salts roadway stabilization is also achieved as an
automatic by-product of dust control. Dust particles are kept on the
roadway to add density and act as binder materials.

(3) Mechanical Sweeping – It can be used for removal of dust from the
road surface manual sweeping will be time consuming and liable to
be a safety hazard.

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8. Traffic Control by Road Signs
The road signs or traffic signs although quite important are most
used and least costly. Generally the signs are located on the left hand side of
the road. The roads signs come under following three categories:
(a) Guide or informatory signs.
(b) Regulatory signs.
(c) Warning or cautionary signs.

Fig: Road Signs

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9. Haul Road Maintenance
 Regardless of how meticulously a haulage road is planned and
constructed, its surface is bound to be deformed by the constant
pounding of haulage vehicles. Although deterioration may be controlled
to a great extent by the type of surface material employed, the mine
operator must still regard a road maintenance schedule as necessary to
safety and economics.

 Dust, potholes, ruts, depressions, bumps, and other poor surface

conditions can and will occur on any road surface. If left uncorrected,
they may impede vehicular control and damage haulage machinery.

 When a rolling tire encounters a surface scar, there is a tendency

to deflect from its normal direction of travel. Thus, the driver is forced
to compensate for the abnormality by increasing his steering effort. If
surface deformation is too great or if the driver is not aware of it before
impact, complete loss of control may result. Often, even though the
driver is able to negotiate a surface irregularity by steering, the
22
tendency to overcompensate immediately after the danger has passed
could again result in loss of control.

 In addition to degrading safety, road deterioration can be costly

from a maintenance standpoint. Although surface mining equipment is
designed to accept considerable abuse, its life can be increased if rough
handling is kept to a minimum. The wear on virtually every component
is increased significantly when a vehicle travels rapidly over a rough
surface. If the vehicle must constantly brake to negotiate poor areas,
unnecessary lining wear occurs as well.

 When machinery must operate in dusty areas, the maintenance

problems are compounded. Dust may infiltrate brakes, air filters.
Hydraulic lifts and other critical components. The abrasive effect of this
fine material is apt to result infrequent and costly cleaning or
replacement of these items.

 Essentially, the items related to deterioration of road surfaces are

weather, haulage vehicles consistently following a similar path in the
haulage lane. And spillage. Because these factors are definable, road
maintenance should begin with an intensive effort to incorporate
preventive rather than corrective procedures.

 Roadside ditches and culverts should be periodically inspected

and cleaned to insure that no obstructions are present. If not cleared,
the drainage facilities may overflow in wet weather and cause erosion of
the road surface or saturation of sub base materials. Maintenance crews
equipped with hand tools or machinery such as dozers, loaders, and
scrapers should be deployed at predetermined intervals to see that all
ditch flow lines are free of debris.

 If heavy haulage vehicles continue to use the same path in their

respective haulage lanes, the concentration of load will eventually
create ruts or furrows. To prevent this condition, mine operators should
encourage drivers to use different areas of the haulage lane.

 Spillage of material from overloaded haulage vehicles is a

significant problem at many mines. If spillage is not prevented or if the

23
material is allowed en remain on the haulage route, unnecessary bumps
or mounds will exist. Therefore, every effort must be made at the
loading point to prevent equipment from being heaped beyond the limit
that can be held within the containing vessel.

 During periods of dry weather, or in consistently dry

environments, dust may become a problem, especially ongravel or
crushed stone surfaces. To alleviate this situation, water trucks fitted
with special sprinkler systems should beemployed. If dust problems are
severe, the operator should consider applying chemical additives. The
incorporation ofchloride salts with gravel or crushed stone surfaces will
enhance moisture retention and eliminate the need for frequentroad
wetting.

 Adherence to the preventive measures discussed can significantly

reduce haulage road maintenance problems.However, they are not a
complete solution. Abnormal surface conditions will occur periodically
that require additionalroad maintenance procedures.

 On more permanent surfaces such as asphaltic concrete, surface

depressions should be corrected with asphalticpatches and either hand
tamped or rolled into place. When severe, depressions occur on well
packed gravel surfaces; thesurrounding area should be scarified, filled,
and recompacted to an even consistency.

 A motor grader should be used continually to maintain cross

slopes, remove spills, and to fill and smooth surfacedepressions as they
occur. Whenever the motor grader is used, care must be taken to avoid
pushing waste into drainage facilities and the protective faces of safety
breams. Accumulated material from the procedure should be removed
to specially designated areas.

 All areas where loose material is employed to increase rolling

resistance and vehicle retardation (escape lanes, median breamssss)
should be periodically checked for loose consistency. If these areas
become compacted, a bulldozer equipped with scarifying equipment
should be used to break the surface.

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10. Haul Road Drainage
The importance of efficient drainage is paramount for the life of haul road.
Adequate road drainage is an important factor governing stability and load
carrying capacity. The complete and rapid disposal of all surface water and
prevention of entry of sub-surface water into the road structure are basic
considerations.
Following are the sources of water finding passage into the road
structure:
(a) Capillary lift of water from the sub grade below.
(b) Overflow of bridges & culverts during very heavy
rainfall.
(c) Percolation of rain water directly falling on road surface.
(d) Flow of rain water from the surrounding areas.
Improper road drainage leads to deterioration of the road in the
form of following:
(a) Washing out of road material.
(b) Damage to the road edge & shoulders.
(c) Failure of the bitumen surface at the top due to
stripping.
(d) Failure of earth slope of embankment.
(e) Softening of the road structure due to submergence.
Essential requirements of good road drainage are the following:
(a) Surface water run-off from the surrounding areas should
be prevented access to the road.
(b) Water directly falling on the road surface should be
quickly drained off.
(c) The carriageway should be well above the highest flood
level.
(d) All accumulated water should be quickly carried away
by well designed drainage system.
Drainage of the road should be good enough to keep the foundation
dry under the base & sub base even under heavy sustained rainfall. To ensure
this, side & cross drains are necessary besides proper camber & gradient.
Regarding the drainage of the haul roads following points are worth
considering:
(a) On benches the cross slope should drain inwards with
drain excavated along with the toe of slope above. In cuttings the drain
should be excavated on both sides of the haul roads.
25
 (b) On field materials the drain should be provided on each
side of the embankment accommodating the haul road.
(c) The space between the road edge & the drain should be
graded towards the drain without any obstruction in between.
(d) The side slops of the drain should be 4:1(4 horizontal: 1
vertical) where possible with 2:1 (2 horizontal: 1 vertical) as a minimum.
(e) The drain cross section should be designed to handle the
predicted run-offs with due consideration of the material in which the drain is
excavated. For drains in weak erodable materials the flow rate should be low.
The flow rate may be controlled by appropriate gradient of grains.
The recommended gradients are as under:
Weak materials - 3%
Strong clats - 4 to 5 %
Crushed rock - > 5 %
(d) Lengths of downgrade haul road should not be too long;
this should be intercepted by lengths of flatgrade. At these places the drains
should be diverted to the natural drainage system or pit sump.
(e) Drains should be diverted by culverts at regular
intervals to the natural drainage system or a pit sump to reduce the flow in
the haul road drains.
(f) To minimize the erosion that my result from high flow
velocities of rain water, lining materials should be incorporated as the grade
increases. Liners may not be required for grade up to 3% excepting extremely
erodable materials such as sands, silts or highly weathered shales. At 3% to
5% grade the drain slopes may be protected by cross lining or turfing.At grade
over 5% the lining should consists of dumped rocks placed evenly on both
sides to a height not less than 150mm above the anticipated highest water
level.

10.1. SIDE DRAIN:

Side drain should be located beyond the shoulders so that water flowing
through the drain does not enter the drain structure. Thesedrains are also
useful in intercepting water flowing from the adjacent lands toward the road.
These drains are constructed with parabolic, trapezoidal, triangular
'V' shaped cross section. The parabolic section is hydraulically best & the most
erosion resistant .The trapezoidal section is easier to constructs& makes &
adequate & stable drain at most locations. The triangular shaped drain is
easily blocked with debris& is susceptible to erosion. As such the trapezoidal

26
shape is most widely used.
The side slopes of the drain should generally be flat (4 horizontal
to1 vertical to2 horizontal to 1 vertical depending on soil characteristics) &
their intersections smoothly rounded. The bottom of the drain may be 0.3m to
1.0 m wide depending on the hydraulic design parameters like quantity of
water flow ,gradient &length of the drain .In general the drain gradient follows
the road gradient .The drain bottom is kept 0.3m to 1.0m below the shoulder
level to keep the road dry & stable.
As a rule, drains satisfying these criteriashall have adequate
capacity. Furtherjudgment of their capacity can be made simply by observing
drains during &after intense rains. If necessary, the drain sections may be
increased based on the observations, otherwise hydraulic design will be based
on hydrological studies. The capacity of a drain can be increased as & where
found necessary. Uniform increased of the drain section through the entire
length is often not necessary.

10.2. CROSS DRAIN:

A systematic cross drainage system is provided to collect water from the side
drains & discharge the same to the waterways. The cross drainage entails
designing of culverts located at natural stream crossing, low ground on haul
road alignment & crossing of road drain. The culverts are designed for the
anticipated moving loads with suitable allowance for impact due to
acceleration &braking .The requirement for RCC slab culverts for different
spans are furnished in Table 16 based on the following parameters.
(a) 170 Te rear discharge dumpers are the heaviest vehicles to pass
over theculvert after at least one year from the date of completion of
construction.
(b) The design strength of concrete is 20% more than its 28 days
strength.
(c) Concrete is of M20 grade.
(d) CTD bars conforming to IS 1786 are used as reinforcement.
(e) Live load impact factor is 20%.
(f) Density of wearing course is 2.2te/cu.m.
(g) The contact length of dumper wheel is 1.28m & the clear
distance between the wheels is 2.24m.
(h) The rear two heels along with the gap are considered to transmit one
indivisible load of 80 to having contact width of 2.18m.
(i) The load distribution is as per IRC specification. Load dispersion

27
through the wearing course is not considered.
(j) The culvert width is either 35m or 38m with no longitudinal joint
within this width.

10.3 Sub -Surface Drain

Sub Surface Drain where required shall be of close jointed

perforated pipe or open jointed imperforated pipe surrounded by granular
material laid in trench or aggregate drain. Geo-synthetic material may also be
used for sub drain.
Thickness of backfill material around the pipe shall not be less than
150 mm. backfill material shall consists of sound, tough, hard, durable,
particles of free draining sand-gravel material & shall be free of organic
materials, clay ball or other deleterious matters.

28
References
1. www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/pubs
Search for ‘IC8758.pdf1977 USBM haul road design guidelines

2. www.smenet.org

SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, 2011, Ch

10 Mine Haul Roads

3. www.circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/id/90332/Haul_Road_Design_Guidelines

4. www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/pubs/hrdcf
Search for ' Dust Control'

5. Dr. U.N.Sinha: Guidelines for Planning, Design & Construction of Haul

Road.”Coal Mining Technology & Management, Oct 2006”, pp-9-39.

6. Dr. U.N.Sinha: Guidelines for Planning, Design & Construction of Haul

Road.”Coal Mining Technology & Management, Feb2007”, pp-12-33.

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