St.

clares convent school

Claraganj ,Hardoi road ,
Lucknow

Investigatory project on
“The preparation of soaps”
Guided by- Mrs. Pooja Shukla
Submitted by- Farhan Ahmad
CLASS- XII B
YEAR- 2019-2020
SUBJECT- Chemistry
 Bonafide certificate
This is to certify that Farhan
Ahmad student of class XII Non-
Medical worked on project
titled-“The preparation of soaps”
held in St. clares convent school,
Claraganj, Hardoi road, Lucknow
during the academic year 2019-
2020.
He worked sincerely under the
guidance of faculties and
prepared this desertion.

Principle sign
Teacher’s sign

Examiner’s sign
 Acknowledgement-
First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty
god for his blessings and grace without which I
could not have undertaken this task and my efforts
would never have been a success.
I humbly consider a privilege and honor to
express my heartiest and profound gratitude to
Rev. Sister vineeta, principle St. clare’s convent
school, claraganj , Hardoi road, Lucknow. For her
appropriate direction, valuable suggestion, judging
assistance so generously extended to me.
I wish to express my deepest feelings of
gratitude to Mrs.Pooja Shukla chemistry teacher.
For her erudite involvement and sustained
guidance which has been pivotal in my project
work. His minute observation, precious insight,
critical comments have indeed greatly helped to
shape my ideas.
 This guidance and support received from all my
friends who contributed and who all are
contributing to this project, is vital for success of
this project. I am grateful for their constant support
and help.
I also owe sense of gratitude to my parents for
encouragement and support throughout the
project.
-Farhan Ahmad

Contents.
Serial Title Page No.
number
1. Introduction 1
2. History of 2
cleaning soap
3. Micelle 3
4. The making of 4
 soap.
5. Properties 7
6. The universe 9
of soaps.
7. Biodegradabl 12
e and non-
biodegradable
soaps.
8. Difference 14
between soap
and
detergents.
9. Experiment. 16
10. Conclusion. 18
11. Bibliography 19

Introduction:-
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid.
Soap are mainly used as surfactants for
washing, bathing, cleaning.
Fats and oils are composed of
triglycerides; three molecules of fatty
acids are attached to a single molecule of
glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is
often called lye, brings about a chemical
reaction as saponification.
They have a polar end which is hydrophilic
(water loving) and a long non polar chain
which is hydrophobic (water hating). As a
consequence, they can form emulsion by
suspending oil in water.

Fatty end of water soluble end

CH3(CH2)n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because
soap molecules have both a hydrophilic
end, which dissolve in water, as well as a
hydrophobic end which is able to dissolve
non-polar grease molecules.
History of
cleaning soap.
Early history
The earliest recorded evidence of the
production of soap like material dates back to
around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon clay tablet
around 2200 BC.
The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates
the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and
combined animal and vegetable oils with
alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance.
Egyptian documents mention a soap-like
substance as used in preparation of wool for
weaving.
In the region Nab nidus (556-539 BC), a recipe
for soap consisted of uhulu, cypress and
sesame”for washing the stones for the servent
girls”.

Ancient Rome
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in
pliny the elder’s historia naturalis, which
discuss the manufacture of soap from tallow
and ashes, but the only use , it is as pomade
for hair.
A popular brief claims soap takes its name
from a supposed mount Sapo, where animal
sacrifices were supposed to have taken place.

MICELLE.
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule
dispersed in a liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having
polar or charged group and non-polar regions
(amphiphilic molecules) form aggregate called
micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads form
an outer shell in contact with water, while non-
polar tails are sequestered in the interior.
Hence, the core of micelle, being formed of
long non-polar tails, resembles an oil or
gasoline drop. The number of amphiphilic
molecules forming the aggregate is called
aggregation number; it is a way to describe
the size of the micelle.

The making of soap.

There are three main ingredients in plain soap;
they are oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other
ingredients may be added to give the soap a
pleasant odor or color, or to improve its skin-
softening qualities. Some soap is better made
using soft water, and for these it is necessary
to either use rainwater or to add borax to tap
water.
CAUTION
Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on
the skin and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If
drunk, they can be fatal. Care is needed while handing lyes
and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are only two types of soap: - Soft
and Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold
process or a hot process, but hard soap can
only be made using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the
lye, mix it with the fat or oil, and stir the
mixture until saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or
even months, depending upon the strength
and purity of the ingredients, whereas hot
process takes place within few minutes to few
hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully
outdoors; do not put them in drain.

Several things may cause problem with the

normal action of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over
starting material. Extra fat will make the soap
feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with
negative end of the soap molecule, either
 precipiting the molecules completely, or
interfering with the ion-dipole interactions
between the soap molecules and the water.

 1.4 Million deaths can be prevented each year

by hand washing with soap
 Children under 5 who wash with soap can
reduce their risk of pneumonia by 46%.
 1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S.
 10 billion pounds of soaps are produced each
year.
 The average person encounters 100 chemicals
before breakfast.
 The largest soap was created on October 9 th,
2005 and measured 105.4 cubic feet. If you
could fill it with baseballs it would hold 13.627
of them.
th
 October 15 is global hand washing day.

To prepare a sample of soap and

to examine its properties.
Equipment’s:
 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 Saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Lab burner
 Calcium chloride(5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
 Filter flask and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
 Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames

Procedure:
1. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker.
Add 20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium
hydroxide solution. Stir the mixture in beaker.
Place the beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand
and heat gently.

CAUTION
Heat this solution gently, keep the flame
away from the top of beaker to prevent the alcohol
from catching on fire.
2. Heat until the odor disappears.
 3. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool
down.

4. Move it safely to bench top.

5. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your

soap preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.

6. It is used to remove the soap from water,

glycerol, and any excess sodium hydroxide
present.

7. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration

apparatus and wash once with ice water.

8. Weigh your dry soap and record the weight.

Properties
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your
hands with it. It should later rather easily if soft water
or use deionized water.
Record your observation.

Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing
10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or
suspension of tiny oil droplets in water and shake to
mix. Emulsion or suspension of tiny air droplets in
water will be formed. Let this stand for a few
minutes.
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients
and also add a small portion (1/2g or so)of your
soap. Shake to mix. Compare the relative stability of
the two emulsions.

Hard water reaction.

Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of
water in a 100ml beaker.
When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution,
pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three test tubes with 10 drops of 5%
CaCl2 solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl 2
solution and one with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your
observations.

Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very

damaging to skin, silk, or wool.
It’s Test -Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15 ml
of ethanol and then add two drops of
phenolphthalein. If the indicator turns red; the
presence of free alkali is indicated.
 Fats and oils are hydrolyzed (split) with a high
pressure of yield crude fatty acids and glycerol.
  The fatty acids are then purified by distillation
and neutralized with an alkali to produce soap
and water (in liquid form).
 Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
 Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
 The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable
oils), the harder is the soap. Fatty acid+ KOH >
glycerol+ potassium soap potassium soap are
softer and are found in some liquid hand soap
and shaving cream.

The universe of different types of

soap.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and
detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and
they are formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid
particles and hard-to-remove stains. The cleansers
come in many different types depending on the types
of abrasives they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergent are made to remove tough grease
and release the solid dirt particles in the foam that is
produced by the detergents: machine dishwasher
detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.
Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease,
solid particles and organic compounds from clothes.
They can be found in liquid, powder and gel forms.

Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulation to clean
grease and soil. The difference between cleansers
and cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning
soaps don’t contain harsh abrasives.

Personal soaps
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special
formulations for specific personal hygiene needs.
One type of the personal soap is antibacterial soap
that is made to prevent bacteria and viruses from
spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that
have mix of ingredients that clean both the hair and
skin.

Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are specially manufactured for the kids
and include the soap in the shape of various items,
such as a rubber ducky or the-soap-on-the-rope.
They are made not only to clean dirt and grime , but
for amusement and enjoyment as well.

Perfumed soap
These are prepared by adding a few additional
amounts of ingredients and perfume.

Guest soaps
These are miniature soaps that are made and shaped
into attractive shapes and they are basically
designed for the use by guests either in the main
bathroom or the separate guest bathroom. Popular
and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shell
and rounds.

Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive
fragrances, and ingredients for a variety of skin
types. They can feature glycerin, or special oil
blends.

Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar.
Unlike original soap, medicated soap has the addition
of antiseptics and disinfectants.

Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of
soap production. Soaps which include glycerin in
them tend to make your skin moister.
Transparent soap
These uses slightly different ingredients and usually
some form of alcohol to alter the process which is
also conducted at higher temperature. Not all
transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.

Liquid soaps
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult and many of
the commercial liquid soaps are just in fact
detergents.

 2.6 million bars of soaps are discarded daily by the

hotel industry in the U.S. alone
 Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the three
leading killers of children under the age of five in the
world-pneumonia , which can be prevented by good
hand washing and better hygiene; diarrhea, which
comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of
sanitation. With good quality water, sanitation, and
hygiene, children’s lives can be saved.
 Hand washing by birth attendants before delivery
reduces mortality by 19%.
 Liquid soap was patented by the American William
Sheppard in 1865.
Biodegradable and non-
biodegradable soap.
Biodegradable soap:-
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that
can decompose naturally over time. These soaps can
help reduce environmental impact when hikers,
backpackers, and campers need to bath or clean
their belongings.
Depending on th3e formulation of soap that is
purchased, it can be used on the body, face, hair,
hands and objects such as dishes and clothes.
Non toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as
to remain environmentally friendly. Oils can be used
in soap formulations not only to provide nice
fragrance, but also as part of a therapeutic bathing
experience. For example, lavender and peppermint
oils can help relax tense hikers. Tree oil, eucalyptus
and pumice ingredients can help soothe aching feet.
Jojoba, castor and almond oils are other common oils
used in soap formulations.
It is important for individuals to realize that using a
biodegradable soap does not necessarily mean that
the soap is safe to use around all water sources.
These soaps degrade over time, but they require soil
to do so. If it isn’t used at least 200 feet (60.96m)
from water sources, it can pollute them and make
them unsuitable for other uses.
 Non-biodegradable soap;-
Non-bio degradable soaps are cleaning agents which
cannot decompose naturally over time. This kind of
soap can be a threat to earth, it can cause soil,
water, other types of pollutions.
This kind of soap feels good while using but they can
cause some kind of side effects to applied surface
(skin). Normally professional and instant beauty soap
are made with toxic9non-biodegradable) material.
Its formulations depend upon the kind of area in
which they are going to be used. Soaps with strong
smell and constant exposure to it can even cause
nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines. The
three harmful ingredients present in these toxic
soaps are parabeans, sulfates and triclosan.
Let me explain what triclosan / triclocarbon can do
with us. The chemicals react with chlorine in tap
water to produce dioxins. Dioxins are neurotoxins
that can cause cancer, nerve disorders, and immune
system disorders. The chemicals are endocrine
disrupters, blocking thyroid hormones metabolism
and attaching to hormone receptors to block
hormones. According to the EPA, the chemical can
cause developmental reproductive toxicity. They are
carcinogens. They contribute to antibiotic resistance
in bacteria that cause infection in humans. According
to natural resource defense council (NDRC), in survey
of the American population between the ages of 6
and 65, 75% have residues of triclosan in their
system.

Difference between soap and

detergent.
Soap: -
There are a variety of soaps. Soap is metal salt of a
fatty acid.
The metal may be a alkali metal such as sodium (Na)
or potassium (K). These metals are found in the first
column of the periodic table of the elements. Or, the
metal can be a alkaline earth metal, such as calcium
(Ca) or magnesium (Mg). These metals are found in
the second column of periodic table of the elements.
A fatty acid is a organic compound most often of a
animal or plant origin. A fatty acid contains a long-
chain aliphatic carbon skeleton with a carboxylic acid
group (-COOH) at its end.
An example of soap is potassium palmitate;
CH3(CH2)14-COO-K+

DETERGENT:-
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of
synthetic origin. They are not made insoluble by
mineralized (or hard) water. Also instead of
carboxylic acid group, a detergent contains a more
highly ionic group. It may have a sulfate or sulfonate
group (-OS(O)2–OH).
In addition, detergent can include one or more
aromatic rings. Detergents offer added properties.
They can be used as surfactants and foaming agents.
There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents
other than water, such as gasoline. These often
include a ring as a part of its structure. Such
compounds are not only detergents, but dispersants.
An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate;
CH (CH) –OS(O) –O Na

Soap and detergent properties in hard water.

The most important difference between a soap and
detergent is their behavior in water. A big drawback
of washing with soap is that it forms a scum in hard
water, which is not easy to clean and is known to
turn laundry into a hue.
Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy
to rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a grayish
hue. The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a
residue on the laundry same like as would see in
shower stall where hard water is present. On the
other hand, detergents react less to minerals in
water hence does not leave this residue. In case you
are living in an area , where the water is soft, a soap
will work satisfactorily, but even then a gradual build-
up of calcium and magnesium ions (also called
‘curd’) will be left on the fabric.
Another important difference between soaps and
detergents is sensitivity of soaps to acidic conditions.
On putting a soap into a acidic (pH<4.5), it
protonates the carboxylate group.

Experiment.
Objective ;-
To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.

Requirements :-
1. Five 100ml conical flask
2. Five test tubes and stands
3. 100ml measuring cylinders
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water and tap water

Procedure :-
 i. Take five 100ml conical flask and number
them 1,2,3,4,and 5. Put 16 ml of water in
each flask and add 8 gram of soap.
ii. Warm the content to get a solution.
iii. Take five test tubes: add 1 ml of soap
solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the
process for each soap solution in different
test tubes.
iv. Close the mouth of test tube and shake
vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all
test tubes and with equal force.
v. Start the timer immediately and notice the
repeat of disappearance of 2mm of forth.

Observations :-
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of
the experiment.
Observation table
1.Dettol 8ml 16ml 11’42”
2.Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”
3.Wildstone 8ml 16ml 5’10”
4.Savlon 8ml 16ml 15’32”
5.Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”
Result :-
The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in the order:

Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Wildstone >

Lux
Savlon is the winner……..
From this experiment, we can infer that savlon has the
highest forming capacity.

CONCLUSION.
in conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble
sodium salts of fatty acids, that is used to remove dirt
and grimes from a surface. Its molecules have a long
hydrocarbon chain doesn’t interact with water
molecules that form micelles. The soap micelles repeal
each other and stay dispersed in water. New micelles
that having soiling molecules in the center. The dirt
gets attached to them and can be rinsed away.
From this project we concluded that, since soap is
started to be consumed it has changed our lives
drastically.

We should say thanks’ to soap’s…because

without soaps this world literally will not be
existing.

Bibliography
This project would have been
nearly impossible if I had not
used the information provided by
the following sources-
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.seribo.com
 www.meritnation.com
 www.britania.com
 www.anybook.com
 NCERT Chemistry class 12
 Reference Pradeep class 12
My special thanks for the up
loader of information on these
websites. If considered I have
used everything that Google
had shown me.