Chapter 9: Semiconductor Physics

Introduction Hour 1

Semiconductors are a class of materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a
conductor and of an insulator. At room temperature, the electrical conductivity of a typical
conductor such as a metal is about 10 8 siemens per meter while that of an insulator like diamond
is about 10-10siemens per meter. The conductivity of a semiconductor lies in the range of 10 5 to
10-4 siemens per meter. Semiconductors have the following additional characteristic properties:

1. Contrary to the positive temperature coefficient of resistance exhibited by a metal, a pure

semiconductor has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
2. Upon irradiation by light, a semiconductor shows a photo voltage or a change of
resistance.
3. Semiconductors have high thermoelectric power of signs both positive and negative with
respect to a metal.
4. The junction between a p-type and a n-type semiconductor processes rectification
properties.

Semiconductors are defined to have conductivity in between an insulator and a conductor. Due to
this property, semiconductors are very common in every day electronics since they likely will not
short circuit like a conductor. They get their characteristic conductivity from their small band
gap. A small band gap allows for the solid to have a strong enough flow of electrons from the
valence to conduction bands in order to have some conductivity. A semiconductor is a material
whose electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature. This broad definition
distinguishes semiconductors from metals, whose electrical conductivity decreases as the
temperature increases. In general, there are two basic classifications of semiconductors:
intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors. Unlike extrinsic semiconductors,
intrinsic semiconductors are naturally occurring elements within nature. The defining
characteristic of these intrinsic semiconductor elements is their four valence electrons each
occupying a different orbital. Unlike intrinsic semiconductors, which are naturally occurring
group 14 elements, extrinsic semiconductors are artificially doped. They have impurities
introduced to add additional electrons to the lattice, allowing increased conduction
Electrons in the conduction band become free from the nuclear charge of the atom and thus can
move freely around the band. Thus, this free-moving electron is known as a negative charge
carrier since having the electron in this band causes electrical conductivity of the solid. When
the electron leaves the valence band, the state then becomes a positive charge carrier, or a hole.
The key difference between semiconductors and conductors is that conductors have a
natural overlap between their valence electrons and the conduction band, while
semiconductors have a noticeable gap between the two. The result is that the electrons of
conductors are able to carry a current under any condition. Meanwhile, the conductive
ability of semiconductors requires energy to be put into the semiconductor material. As the
energy input into the semiconductor is increased, more electrons are promoted into the
conduction band, increasing the number of available conducting electrons. This energy
usually comes in the form of heat, which is why semiconductors are able to conduct more
effectively as they rise in temperature.
For intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and germanium, the Fermi
level is essentially halfway between the valence and conduction
bands. Although no conduction occurs at 0 K, at higher temperatures
a finite number of electrons can reach the conduction band and
provide some current. In doped semiconductors, extra energy levels
are added.
The increase in conductivity with temperature can be modeled in
terms of the Fermi function, which allows one to calculate the
population of the conduction band.
Common examples of semiconductors are germanium and silicon which have forbidden energy
gaps of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively. At temperatures above 0 0K some electrons are excited
to conduction band leaving behind positively-charged holes in the valence band as shown in Fig.
below. Note that only valence and conduction bands are shown since the lower filled bands are
not of any consequence. Silicon and Germanium are the most common elemental
semiconductors. Compound Semiconductors include InSb, InAs, GaP, GaSb, GaAs, SiC, GaN.
Si and Ge both have a crystalline structure called the diamond lattice.

Silicon Energy Bands

At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the conduction band and contribute
to current can be modeled by the Fermi function. That current is small compared to that in doped
semiconductors under the same conditions.

Hole Conduction
As heat is added to the semiconductor, electrons promoted to the conduction band leave behind
an empty spot in the lattice structure where they were previously situated. This concept of an
electron hole is an important one in understanding the mechanism by which lattice structures are
able recruit additional electrons for conductivity. By definition, an electron hole is the opposite
of an electron. It represents the lack of an electron where an electron could potentially be
situated or previously was situated in an otherwise full electron shell. In this case, electron holes
result from electrons leaving their place in the lattice structure.

Germanium Energy Bands

Fig 3. Energy band diagram for Germanium semiconductor
 Fig 4. Energy band diagram for Silicon semiconductor

Electron holes have an important role in increasing the conductive abilities of semiconductors.
Hole conduction first requires an electron to experience excitation in order to leave its valence
band to the conduction band. Once the valence electron has left, neighboring electrons are
pulled into the electron holes, filling existing electron holes while creating new neighboring
ones. Once heat is put into the semiconductor and electrons begin continually crossing into the
conduction band, hole conduction begins constantly moving electrons across the semiconductor,
adding to the overall electron flow. This increases the conductive ability of the semiconductor,
constantly allowing new electrons to cross into the conduction gap.
If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole current can contribute to a small
current flow. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be modeled in terms of the band theory of
solids. The band model of a semiconductor suggests that at ordinary temperatures there is finite
possibility that electrons can reach the conduction band and contribute to electrical conduction.

Intrinsic Semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses poor conductivity. It
has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes). A silicon crystal
is different from an insulator because at any temperature above absolute zero temperature, there
is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will be knocked loose from its position,
leaving behind an electron deficiency called a "hole".
Pure semiconductors in which its properties are solely based off of the material itself. Here, the
number of electrons in the conduction band equal the number of holes in the valence band.
Theses semiconductors are also known as i-types.
The term intrinsic here distinguishes between the properties of pure "intrinsic" silicon and the
dramatically different properties of doped n-type or p-type semiconductors.

Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor:

Let EC and EV be the energies at the conduction and the valence band edges, respectively this is
shown in figure 5. .The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is depicted in fig.5(b).At the absolute
zero temperature , the probability of an electron occupying a state in the conduction band is zero,
the valence band being totally full.The Fermi level E F which can be the highest occupied energy
level at T= 0K lies near the middle of the band gape for an intrinsic semiconductor. The FD
distribution function f(E) at T=0K is ploted in fig 5(b). At room temperature some of the
electrons jump into the conduction band from the valence band and fill the states near the bottom
of the conduction band. The tail of f(E) now extends into the conduction band, the probability of
occupancy of states there being nonzero. An equal number of holes exists near the top of the
300k,the distribution function f (E) takes the shape shown in fig 5(b). .The Fermi energy E F is
now the energy level at which the probability of occupancy in half and it lies near the middle of
the band gap.

Class :7

Fig. 5.(a) Energy band diagram and (b) the FD distribution function f€ for an intrinsic
semiconductor.
 Chapter 9: Semiconductor Physics

Extrinsic Semiconductors Hour 2

Impure semiconductors are those which are "doped" in order to enhance its conductivity. There
are two types of the extrinsic semiconductors: p-type and n-type. A "dopant" atom is added to the
lattice in order to draw electrons from valence band. This atom is referred to as an acceptor. As
more acceptors are added to the lattice, the number of holes will begin to exceed the number of
negative charge carriers, eventually leading to a p-type (positive type) semiconductor. N-type
semiconductors have a large number of donors, "dopant" atoms that donate electrons to the
conduction band.

N-type semiconductor Let a small amount of a group 15

element such as P, as or Sb be added to a
Ge or Si crystal. The size of the
impurity atoms is similar to that of Ge
or Si atoms, so that the impurity atoms
will displace some of the Ge or Si atoms
in the crystal lattice. Four of the five
valence electrons of the pentavalent
impurity atom will form covalent bonds
with the four valance electrons of the
neighboring host crystal atoms(Fig.6(a)

Fig. 6(a) Crystal lattice with a Ge atom

substituted by pentavalent Sb atom.

The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom is loosely bound to it. Therefore, this electron can
be easily detached from the atom and set free. The energy necessary for the purpose is about
0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV for Si. This energy is much less than the band gap E g which require to
rupture a covalent bond. This small energy to release the fifth valence electron from the impurity
atoms is readily provided by the thermal agitation of the crystal. The electron is released from the
impurity atom, the latter becomes a positive charged immobile ion. Since the impurity atoms of
concern here donate excess free electrons, they are known as donors or n-type impurities. The
electron being negatively charged particles, the semiconductors containing donor type impurities
are referred to as n-type semiconductors.
 Fig. 6(b) Donor level in the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor
When donor impurities are added to the semiconductor, an allowable energy level corresponding
to the loosely bound valence electron is introduced in the forbidden gap just below the
conduction band. Since the impurity atoms are located far apart in the crystal, their interaction is
negligible. Therefore the new allowable energy level is a discrete level, called the donor level. In
fig. 6. (b) .the donor level is represented by dashed line.

P-type semiconductor
Let small amount of group 13 element like Al, B or In be added to an intrinsic Ge or Si
semiconductor. If a trivalent impurity atom replaces a host crystal atom, only three of the four
covalent bonds can be filled. As a trivalent impurity atom can accept one electron, at the
position indicated by the open tiny circle X in fig .7 (a) valence electron from a neighbouring Ge
(or Si) atom,such as at position Y, can move into X to fill the covalent bond.
The energy required for this purpose is about 0.01eV
for Ge and can therefore be readily provided by the
thermal energy. As the electron jumps from Y to X, it
breaks its original covalent bond and creates a hole at
Y. As the impurity atom accepts an electron, it
becomes a negatively charged immobile ion. Since
the impurity atoms in question accept electrons, they
are called acceptor or p-type impurities. These
impurities produce excess holes which carry positive
charges. Therefore the semiconductor containing
acceptor type of impurities are known as p-type
semiconductors.

Fig.7(a) Crystal lattice with a Ge atom substituted by a trivalent In atom

The unfilled energy level produced by the introduction of p-type impurities in semiconductor lies
just above the valence band. This allowable energy level is called the acceptor level and is
represented by a dashed line in fig 7. (b)
 Fig. 7(b) Acceptor level in the energy band diagram of an p-type semiconductor

Chapter 9: Semiconductor Physics

P-N Junction Hour 3

If a block of P-type semiconductor is placed in contact with a block of N-type semiconductor in

Figure 8. (a), the result is of no value. We have two conductive blocks in contact with each other,
showing no unique properties. The problem is two separate and distinct crystal bodies. The
number of electrons is balanced by the number of protons in both blocks. Thus, neither block has
any net charge.
However, when a P-type semiconductor is brought into contact with N-type semiconductor as the
process of crystallisation is taking place, the resulting combination is called a P-N junction. This
junction has important properties and is, in effect, the basis of modern semiconductor theory and
practice. Most semiconductor devices contain one or more P-N junction. The most important
characteristic of a P-N junction is its ability to conduct current in one direction only. In the
reverse direction it offers very high resistance.

Fig. 8. (a) Blocks of P and N semiconductor in contact have no exploitable properties. (b) Single
crystal doped with P and N type impurities develops a potential barrier.

Fig 9. shows a P-N junction just immediately after it is formed. There is no external voltage
connected to the P-N junction. Since N-type material has a high concentration of free electrons
while P-type material has a high concentration of holes, the following processes are initiated:

Fig. 9. A P and N semiconductor junction.

(i) At the junction, holes from the P region diffuse into the N region and free electrons from the
N region diffuse into the P region. This process is called diffusion. Holes combine with the
free electrons in the N-region whereas electrons combine with the holes in the P-region.
(ii) The diffusion of holes from P region to N region and electrons from N region to P region
across the junction takes place because they move haphazardly due to thermal energy and also
because there is a difference in their concentrations in the two regions. The P region has more
holes whereas N region has more free electrons.
(iii) As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, positive donor ions are
uncovered, i.e., they are robbed off free electrons. Hence a positive charge is built on the N-
side of the junction. At the same time, the free electrons cross the junction and uncover the
negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore, a net negative charge is established
on P-side of the junction. When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered,
further diffusion is stopped. The thin layer of the crystal lattice between these charges has
been depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as the depletion region. It is because now, a
barrier or depletion region (Fig. 10(a)) is set up against further movement of charge carriers.
This is called potential barrier or junction barrier. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1
to 0.3 volt. Fig. 10 shows the electrostatic potential difference across the P-N junction. How
this potential barrier is developed? When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is
uncovered, further diffusion is prevented. It is because now positive charge on N-side repels
holes to across from P type to N type and negative charge on P-side repels free electrons to
enter from N type to P type. Because of this a difference in potential exists between the two
sections, which inhibits further electron-hole combinations at the junction, and the Fermi
level of the two sides is in the same level as shown in Fig. 10 (c).
(iv) The region across the P-N junction in which the potential changes from positive to negative
is called the depletion region (Fig. 10(a)). The width of the region is of the order of 6 × 10–8
m. Since this region has immobile (fixed) ions which are electrically charged, it is also called
as the space-charge region. Outside this region on each side of the junction, the material is
still neutral.
(v) The potential barrier for a silicon P-N junction is about 0.7 V, whereas for a germanium P-N
junction it is approximately 0.2 V. The potential barrier stops the diffusion of majority
carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free
electrons in the P region and few holes in the N region) to drift across the junction. The
minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy. But electric current cannot
flow since no circuit has been connected to the P-N junction.
 Fig. 10. Potential Barrier across P -N junction without any external biasing

In Figure 11 (a) the battery is arranged so that the negative terminal supplies electrons to the N-
type material. These electrons diffuse toward the junction. The positive terminal removes

Figure 11: (a) Forward battery bias repells carriers toward junction, where recombination results in
battery current. (b) Reverse battery bias attracts carriers toward battery terminals, away from
junction. Depletion region thickness increases. No sustained battery current flows.
electrons from the P-type semiconductor, creating holes that diffuse toward the junction. If the
battery voltage is great enough to overcome the junction potential (0.6V in Si), the N-type
electrons and P-holes combine annihilating each other. This frees up space within the lattice for
more carriers to flow toward the junction. Thus, currents of N-type and P-type majority carriers
flow toward the junction. The recombination at the junction allows a battery current to flow
through the PN junction diode. Such a junction is said to be forward biased.

If the battery polarity is reversed as in Figure 11 (b) majority carriers are attracted away from the
junction toward the battery terminals. The positive battery terminal attracts N-type majority
carriers, electrons, away from the junction. The negative terminal attracts P-type majority
carriers, holes, away from the junction. This increases the thickness of the nonconducting
depletion region. There is no recombination of majority carriers; thus, no conduction. This
arrangement of battery polarity is called reverse bias.
The diode schematic symbol is illustrated in Figure 12(b) corresponding to the doped
semiconductor bar at fig 12 (a). The diode is a unidirectional device. Electron current only flows
in one direction, against the arrow, corresponding to forward bias. The cathode, bar, of the diode
symbol corresponds to N-type semiconductor. The anode, arrow, corresponds to the P-type
semiconductor. To remember this relationship, Not-pointing (bar) on the symbol corresponds to
N-type semiconductor. Pointing (arrow) corresponds to P-type.

Fig 12. (a) Forward biased PN junction, (b) Corresponding diode schematic symbol (c) Silicon
Diode I vs V characteristic curve.

If a diode is forward biased as in Figure 9 (a), current will increase slightly as voltage is
increased from 0 V. In the case of a silicon diode a measurable current flows when the voltage
approaches 0.6 V at (c). As the voltage is increases past 0.6 V, current increases considerably
after the knee. Increasing the voltage well beyond 0.7 V may result in high enough current to
destroy the diode. The forward voltage, VF, is a characteristic of the semiconductor: 0.6 to 0.7 V
for silicon, 0.2 V for germanium, a few volts for Light Emitting Diodes (LED). The forward
current ranges from a few mA for point contact diodes to 100 mA for small signal diodes to tens
or thousands of amperes for power diodes.

When the diode is reverse biased then only leakage current in the intrinsic semiconductor flows.
This is plotted to the left of the origin in Figure 12(c). This current will only be as high as 1 µA
for the most extreme conditions for silicon small signal diodes. This current does not increase
appreciably with increasing reverse bias until the diode breaks down. At breakdown, the current
increases so greatly that the diode will be destroyed unless a high series resistance limits current.
We normally select a diode with a higher reverse voltage rating than any applied voltage to
prevent this. Silicon diodes are typically available with reverse break down ratings of 50, 100,
200, 400, 800 V and higher. It is possible to fabricate diodes with a lower rating of a few volts
for use as voltage standards.

We previously mentioned that the reverse leakage current of under a µA for silicon diodes was
due to conduction of the intrinsic semiconductor. This is the leakage that can be explained by
theory. Thermal energy produces few electron hole pairs, which conduct leakage current until
recombination. In actual practice this predictable current is only part of the leakage current.
Much of the leakage current is due to surface conduction, related to the lack of cleanliness of the
semiconductor surface. Both leakage currents increase with increasing temperature, approaching
a µA for small silicon diodes.

For germanium, the leakage current is orders of magnitude higher. Since germanium
semiconductors are rarely used today, this is not a problem in practice.