Professional Documents
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Humanities: Humanities Are Academic Disciplines That Study Aspects of Human Society and
Humanities: Humanities Are Academic Disciplines That Study Aspects of Human Society and
Humanities: Humanities Are Academic Disciplines That Study Aspects of Human Society and
Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and
culture. In the Renaissance, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to
what is now called classics, the main area of secular study in universities at the
time. Today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and
sometimes social sciences, as well as professional training.[1]
The humanities use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a
significant historical element[2]—as distinguished from the mainly empirical
approaches of the natural sciences,[2] yet, unlike the sciences, it has no central
discipline.[3] The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature,
philosophy, history, human geography, law, politics, religion,[4] and art.
Contents
Fields
Anthropology
Archaeology
Classics
History
Linguistics and languages
Law and politics
Literature
Philosophy
Religion
Performing arts
Visual arts
Origin of the term
History
Today
Education and employment
In the United States
In Europe
In Asia
Philosophical history
Citizenship and self-reflection
Humanistic theories and practices
Truth and meaning
Pleasure, the pursuit of knowledge and scholarship
Romanticization and rejection
See also
References
External links
Fields
Anthropology
Anthropology is the holistic "science of humans", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the
integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic
disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws
through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature,
music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. The social sciences have generally
attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods
distinct from those of the natural sciences.
The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or
chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology
(like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or
more of these domains.[7] Within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology, physical or
biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate
institutions. The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek for "human being" or "person". Eric Wolf described sociocultural
anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences".
The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists
generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any
problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within
anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes
called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior".[8] Today, anthropologists use terms
such as "less complex" societies, or refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or
"horticulturalist", to discuss humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of
great interest within anthropology.
The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data
alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.[9] In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a
culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing
anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic
relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local
observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.[10]
Archaeology
Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record
consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social
science and a branch of the humanities.[11] It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing
past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.
Archaeology is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States,[12] while in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its
own right, or grouped under other related disciplines such as history.
Classics
Classics, in the Western academic tradition, refers to the studies of the cultures
of classical antiquity, namely Ancient Greek and Latin and the Ancient Greek
and Roman cultures. Classical studies is considered one of the cornerstones of
the humanities; however, its popularity declined during the 20th century.
Nevertheless, the influence of classical ideas on many humanities disciplines,
such as philosophy and literature, remains strong.
History
History is systematically collected information about the past. When used as the
name of a field of study, history refers to the study and interpretation of the
record of humans, societies, institutions, and any topic that has changed over
time.
Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the humanities.
In modern academia, history is occasionally classified as a social science.
Bust of Homer, the most famous
Greek poet
Linguistics and languages
While the scientific study of language is known as linguistics and is generally
considered a social science,[13] a natural science[14] or a cognitive science,[15] the study of languages is still central to the
humanities. A good deal of twentieth-century and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language
and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we
use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have
studied the development of languages across time. Literature, covering a variety of uses of language including prose forms (such
as the novel), poetry and drama, also lies at the heart of the modern humanities curriculum. College-level programs in a foreign
language usually include study of important works of the literature in that language, as well as the language itself.
Literature
Literature is a term that does not have a universally accepted definition, but
A trial at a criminal court, the Old
which has variably included all written work; writing that possesses literary
Bailey in London
merit; and language that foregrounds literariness, as opposed to ordinary
language. Etymologically the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura
"writing formed with letters", although some definitions include spoken or sung
texts. Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction,
and whether it is poetry or prose; it can be further distinguished according to
major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often
categorised according to historical periods, or according to their adherence to
certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).
Philosophy
Philosophy—etymologically, the "love of wisdom"—is generally the study of
problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, justification, truth,
justice, right and wrong, beauty, validity, mind, and language. Philosophy is
distinguished from other ways of addressing these issues by its critical, generally
systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned argument, rather than
experiments (experimental philosophy being an exception).[23]
Since the early twentieth century, philosophy in English-speaking universities has moved away from the humanities and closer to
the formal sciences, becoming much more analytic. Analytic philosophy is marked by emphasis on the use of logic and formal
methods of reasoning, conceptual analysis, and the use of symbolic and/or mathematical logic, as contrasted with the Continental
style of philosophy.[25] This method of inquiry is largely indebted to the work of philosophers such as Gottlob Frege, Bertrand
Russell, G.E. Moore, and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Religion
New philosophies and religions arose in both east and west, particularly around the 6th century BC. Over time, a great variety of
religions developed around the world, with Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism in India, and Zoroastrianism in Persia being some
of the earliest major faiths. In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These
were Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism. The Confucian tradition, which would attain predominance, looked not to the force of
law, but to the power and example of tradition for political morality. In the west,
the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by the works of Plato and
Aristotle, was diffused throughout Europe and the Middle East by the conquests
of Alexander of Macedon in the 4th century BC.
Performing arts
The performing arts differ from the visual arts in so far as the former uses the
artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials
The works of Søren Kierkegaard
such as clay, metal, or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create some
overlap into many fields of the
art object. Performing arts include acrobatics, busking, comedy, dance, film,
humanities, such as philosophy,
magic, music, opera, juggling, marching arts, such as brass bands, and theatre. literature, theology, music, and
classical studies.
Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers,
including actors, comedians, dancers, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are
also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.
Performers often adapt their appearance, such as with costumes and stage
makeup, etc. There is also a specialized form of fine art in which the artists
perform their work live to an audience. This is called Performance art. Most
performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of
props. Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the Modern dance era.
Musicology
Musicology as an academic discipline can take a number of different paths,
including historical musicology, ethnomusicology and music theory.
Undergraduate music majors generally take courses in all of these areas, while
graduate students focus on a particular path. In the liberal arts tradition,
musicology is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills
such as concentration and listening.
The compass in this 13th-century
manuscript is a symbol of God's act
Theatre
of creation.
Theatre (or theater) (Greek "theatron", θέατρον) is the branch of the performing
arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations
of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In
addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as opera, ballet, mime, kabuki, classical Indian dance,
Chinese opera, mummers' plays, and pantomime.
Dance
Dance (from Old French dancier, perhaps from Frankish) generally refers to
human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social,
spiritual or performance setting. Dance is also used to describe methods of non-
verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee
dance, mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the
wind). Choreography is the art of creating dances, and the person who does this
is called a choreographer.
Visual arts
Ancient Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the
development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and
anatomically correct proportions. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized
humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g., Zeus'
thunderbolt).
In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church
insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. The Renaissance Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by
saw the return to valuation of the material world, and this shift is reflected in art Emperor Gaozong (1107–1187) of
forms, which show the corporeality of the human body, and the three- Song Dynasty; fan mounted as
dimensional reality of landscape. album leaf on silk, four columns in
cursive script.
Eastern art has generally worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely
a concentration on surface patterning and local colour (meaning the plain colour
of an object, such as basic red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and
reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the
cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan.
Religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The physical and rational
certainties depicted by the 19th-century Enlightenment were shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by Einstein[26]
and of unseen psychology by Freud,[27] but also by unprecedented technological development. Increasing global interaction
during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art.
Media types
Drawing
Drawing is a means of making a picture, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks
on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink,
inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also
used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and
blending. A computer aided designer who excels in technical drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman.
Painting
Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier
(or medium) and a binding agent (a glue) to a surface (support) such as paper,
canvas or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this
activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic
considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the
practitioner. Painting is also used to express spiritual motifs and ideas; sites of
this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on
pottery to The Sistine Chapel to the human body itself.
History
In the West, the study of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens.[29] During
Roman times, the concept of the seven liberal arts evolved, involving grammar, rhetoric and logic (the trivium), along with
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (the quadrivium).[30] These subjects formed the bulk of medieval education, with the
emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing".
A major shift occurred with the Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as
subjects to study rather than practice, with a corresponding shift away from traditional fields into areas such as literature and
history. In the 20th century, this view was in turn challenged by the postmodernist movement, which sought to redefine the
humanities in more egalitarian terms suitable for a democratic society since the Greek and Roman societies in which the
humanities originated were not at all democratic.[31] This was in keeping with the postmodernists' nuanced view of themselves as
the culmination of history.
Today
In fact, humanities graduates find employment in a wide variety of management and professional occupations. In Britain, for
example, over 11,000 humanities majors found employment in the following occupations:
Education (25.8%)
Management (19.8%)
Media/Literature/Arts (11.4%)
Law (11.3%)
Finance (10.4%)
Civil service (5.8%)
Not-for-profit (5.2%)
Marketing (2.3%)
Medicine (1.7%)
Other (6.4%)[34]
Many humanities graduates finish university with no career goals in mind.[35][36] Consequently, many spend the first few years
after graduation deciding what to do next, resulting in lower incomes at the start of their career; meanwhile, graduates from
career-oriented programs experience more rapid entry into the labour market. However, usually within five years of graduation,
humanities graduates find an occupation or career path that appeals to them.[37][38]
There is empirical evidence that graduates from humanities programs earn less than graduates from other university
programs.[39][40][41] However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes
than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.[42]
Humanities graduates also earn more as their careers progress; ten years after graduation, the income difference between
humanities graduates and graduates from other university programs is no longer statistically significant.[35] Humanities graduates
can earn even higher incomes if they obtain advanced or professional degrees.[43][44]
If "The STEM Crisis Is a Myth",[47] statements about a "crisis" in the humanities are also misleading and ignore data of the sort
collected by the Humanities Indicators.[48][49]
Through the humanities we reflect on the fundamental question: What does it mean to be human? The humanities
offer clues but never a complete answer. They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual, and
intellectual sense of a world where irrationality, despair, loneliness, and death are as conspicuous as birth,
friendship, hope, and reason.
As a major
In 1950, a little over 1 percent of 22-year-olds in the United States had earned a humanities degrees (defined as a degree in
English, language, history, philosophy); in 2010, this had doubled to about 2 and a half percent.[50] In part, this is because there
was an overall rise in the number of Americans who have any kind of college degree. (In 1940, 4.6 percent had a four-year
degree; in 2016, 33.4 percent had one.)[51] As a percentage of the type of degrees awarded, however, the humanities seem to be
declining. Harvard University provides one example. In 1954, 36 percent of Harvard undergraduates majored in the humanities,
but in 2012, only 20 percent took that course of study.[52] Professor Benjamin Schmidt of Northeastern University has
documented that between 1990 to 2008, degrees in English, history, foreign languages, and philosophy have decreased from 8
percent to just under 5 percent of all U.S. college degrees.[53]
Many colleges provide such an education; some require it. The University of Chicago and Columbia University were among the
first schools to require an extensive core curriculum in philosophy, literature, and the arts for all students.[56] Other colleges with
nationally recognized, mandatory programs in the liberal arts are Fordham University, St. John's College, Saint Anselm College
and Providence College. Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States have included Mortimer J. Adler[57] and E. D.
Hirsch, Jr..
STEM
Politicians in the United States currently espouse a need for increased funding of the STEM fields, science, technology,
engineering, mathematics.[58] Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such
as STEM or medicine.[59] The result was a decline of quality in both college and pre-college education in the humanities
field.[59]
Former four-term Louisiana Governor, Edwin Edwards (D), has recently acknowledged the importance of the humanities. In a
video address[60] to the academic conference,[61] Revolutions in Eighteenth-Century Sociability, Edwards said
Without the humanities to teach us how history has succeeded or failed in directing the
fruits of technology and science to the betterment of our tribe of homo sapiens, without
the humanities to teach us how to frame the discussion and to properly debate the uses-
and the costs-of technology, without the humanities to teach us how to safely debate how
to create a more just society with our fellow man and woman, technology and science
would eventually default to the ownership of—and misuse by—the most influential, the
most powerful, the most feared among us.[62]
In Europe
In Asia
In India, there are many institutions that offer undergraduate UG or bachelor's degree/diploma and postgraduate PG or master's
degree/diploma as well as doctoral PhD and postdoctoral studies and research, in this academic discipline. Manipal Academy of
Higher Education - MAHE (http://www.manipal.edu), an Institution of Eminence as recognised by MHRD of Govt of India in
2018, houses a Faculty of Liberal Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences.
Philosophical history
Wilhelm Dilthey and Hans-Georg Gadamer centered the humanities' attempt to distinguish itself from the natural sciences in
humankind's urge to understand its own experiences. This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar
cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.[67]
Scholars in the late 20th and early 21st centuries extended that "narrative imagination"[68] to the ability to understand the records
of lived experiences outside of one's own individual social and cultural context. Through that narrative imagination, it is claimed,
humanities scholars and students develop a conscience more suited to the multicultural world we live in.[69] That conscience
might take the form of a passive one that allows more effective self-reflection[70] or extend into active empathy that facilitates the
dispensation of civic duties a responsible world citizen must engage in.[69] There is disagreement, however, on the level of
influence humanities study can have on an individual and whether or not the understanding produced in humanistic enterprise can
guarantee an "identifiable positive effect on people."[71]
Imagination, as part of the tool kit of artists or scholars, helps create meaning that invokes a response from an audience. Since a
humanities scholar is always within the nexus of lived experiences, no "absolute" knowledge is theoretically possible; knowledge
is instead a ceaseless procedure of inventing and reinventing the context a text is read in. Poststructuralism has problematized an
approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship. In the wake of the death of the
author proclaimed by Roland Barthes, various theoretical currents such as deconstruction and discourse analysis seek to expose
the ideologies and rhetoric operative in producing both the purportedly meaningful objects and the hermeneutic subjects of
humanistic study. This exposure has opened up the interpretive structures of the humanities to criticism humanities scholarship is
"unscientific" and therefore unfit for inclusion in modern university curricula because of the very nature of its changing
contextual meaning.
Instead, scholars like Fish suggest that the humanities offer a unique kind of pleasure, a pleasure based on the common pursuit of
knowledge (even if it is only disciplinary knowledge). Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and
instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets Jürgen Habermas' requirements for the disregard of social
status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the
bourgeois public sphere. In this argument, then, only the academic pursuit of pleasure can provide a link between the private and
the public realm in modern Western consumer society and strengthen that public sphere that, according to many theorists, is the
foundation for modern democracy.
Others, like Mark Bauerlein, argue that professors in the humanities have increasingly abandoned proven methods of
epistemology (I care only about the quality of your arguments, not your conclusions.) in favor of indoctrination (I care only about
your conclusions, not the quality of your arguments.). The result is that professors and their students adhere rigidly to a limited set
of viewpoints, and have little interest in, or understanding of, opposing viewpoints. Once they obtain this intellectual self-
satisfaction, persistent lapses in learning, research, and evaluation are common.[76]
See also
Discourse analysis
Outline of the humanities (humanities topics)
Great Books
Great Books programs in Canada
Liberal arts
Social sciences
Human science
The Two Cultures
List of academic disciplines
Public humanities
"Periodic Table of Human Sciences" in Tinbergen's four questions
Environmental humanities
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External links
Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences (ICR) – Japan (http://icrhs.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/)
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences – US (http://www.amacad.org/)
Humanities Indicators – US (http://www.humanitiesindicators.org/)
National Humanities Center – US (http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us/)
The Humanities Association – UK (http://www.hums.org.uk/)
National Humanities Alliance (http://www.nhalliance.org/)
National Endowment for the Humanities – US (http://www.neh.gov/)
Australian Academy of the Humanities (http://www.humanities.org.au/)
National (http://www.nhinet.org/)
American Academy Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences (http://www.humanitiescommission.org/)
"Games and Historical Narratives" by Jeremy Antley – Journal of Digital Humanities (http://journalofdigitalhumanit
ies.org/1-2/games-and-historical-narratives-by-jeremy-antley/)
Film about the Value of the Humanities (http://www.thevalueofthehumanities.com)
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