Course Notes for Petroleum Engineering 306 Reservoir Rock Properties by W.D. Von Gonten W.D. McCain, Jr. Texas A&M University Fall 1991Petroleum Engineering 306 Reservoir Rock Properties Course Description and Objectives Fall 1991 use Descripti A study of the physical properties of reservoir rocks and the reservoir rock-fluid system as they relate to the production of oil and gas. Course Obiccti ‘The student should be able to: 1. Define porosity, discuss the factors which effect porosity, and describe the methods of determining values of porosity. 2. Define the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of reservoir rock and describe ‘methods for determining values of formation compressibility. 3. Reproduce the Darcy equation in differential form, explain its meaning, integrate the equation for typical reservoir system, discuss and calculate the effect of fractures and channels, and describe methods for determining values of absolute permeability. 4. Explain boundary tension and wettability and their effect on capillary pressure, describe methods of determining values of capillary pressure, and convert laboratory capillary pressure values to reservoir conditions. 5. Describe method of determining fluid saturations in reservoir rock and show relationship between fluid saturation and capillary pressure. 6. Define resistivity, electrical formation resistivity factor, resistivity index, saturation exponent, and cementation factor and show their relationship and uses; discuss laboratory measurement of electrical properties of reservoir rocks; and demonstrate the calculations necessary in analyzing laboratory measurements. 7. Define effective permeability, relative permeability, permeability ratio; reproduce typical relative permeability curves and show effect of saturation history on relative permeability; illustrate the measurement of relative permeability; and demonstrate some uses of relative permeability data. 8. Describe three-phase flow in reservoir rock and explain methods of displaying three-phase effective permeabilities. 9. Demonstrate the techniques of averaging porosity, permeability, and reservoir pressure data, 10, Demonstrate capability to perform calculations relating to all concepts above.4 4 15 7 78 18 83 88 ERRATA Firat Printing PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES James W. Amyx, Daniel M. Bass, Jr., and Robert L. Whiting McGraw Hill Book Company Reference Now Read Par. 2, line 3 Joan Fig. 1-9 etep oP pg dz Ea. (2-8) ae Hos #* 10 ‘| Eq. (2-16) £4 (tho sub letter om) two lines below ° Eq. (2-16) pg (rho eub letter "0" Sentence below Eq. (2-22) (difference in hydraulic head of inlet and outlet) Next to last line © 4P _ dp gh L Line 1 Eq. (2-27) Q, (Q oud letter "0" P, (P sub letter "ot) 7 04 (tho sub letter "0" Eq. (2-34) Omission Eq. (2-35) Omission Top of page i 5B asl Legend, Fig. 2-39, line 2 k Legend, Fig. 2-39, line 3 k pobowld!nes Juan steep ap “rors (rho sub zero) Pg (rho sub zero); twice Delete (dP AP _ pgh ds dz te Q, (OQ sub zero}; two 9 “corrections Po (P eub zero) Pg (rho sub zero} Insert 4 in denominator Insert 4 in denominator KhePage Reference Now Reads Should Read 90 Ex. 2-12, part 2, 4.450 millidarcye 4,450 millidarcys mid page ng Par. 3, line 2 “data that F = g°'3u "data that F = unconsolidated 135, 6 lines below "water-isooctane-plus and" Fig. 3-2 isoquinoline an 1az last line “futionen"! “function” aay Eq. (3-11) 6.57 6.857 149 Par. 1, line 3 6.57 6.857 159 Par. 1, line 3 Eb. 163, Eq. at mid page - 177 Legend, Fig. 3-36, let line (a) 1 177 Legend, Fig. 3-36, 2nd line (b) 2 204 Fig. 3-58 12.3.4 delete numbers 205 Par. 1, line 3 1 A 205 Par. 1, line 3 ee B 205 Par, 3, line 1 2 B 205 Par. 3, line 2 1 A 205 Par. 4; line 1 Land 2 Aand B 207 Second line from _ relative - permeability effective - permeability bottom 208 Legend, Fig. Fig. 3-27 Fig. 3-26 3-64, line 2 215 190° F 90° F aan (7) AN) 224 Fig. 4-9 Dot in envelope Delete Dot 232 Ex. 4-1, last 60° F 32°F line 235 Eq. (4-7) ee]Page Reference Now Reads Should Read 235 Eq. (4-8) R+ [r+ 243 Lower Eq. in V5 y% middle of pg. a 243 Ex. 4-3, heading of PLT col. 5 of table oo 246 Eq. in last line 1/3 248" Eq. in middle of oe page pre 252 Eleven lines from 20° F 20°C bottom of page 264 Table 4-8, heading 18, 20 16, 280 col. 2 Table 4-8, heading col. 3 7,907 7.907 273 Ex. 4-9, Eq., middle of page P-P P-P. rw vw 279 Fig. 4-39 “Ee Fe 281 Fig. 4-41 upper pressure line “"1000" "1500" 290 Fig. 4-47 (c) Omission Introduce partial diffe- a rential sign inside the parenthesis in both numerator and denomi- nator. 296 Fig. 4-49, label on uppermost portion of ordinate Methane Ethane 299 Ex. 4-12, heading col. 6 (4) ~ (5) (#05) 304 Ex, 4-13, heading col. 6 (4) + (5) (4) (5) 309 Ex. 4-14, line 3 729 0.729vs Ba. (4-87) denominator denominator 2 Lu my" | [ va swe} oe 9! sq. (5-29) FI P 396 Ba. (532) 8, 397 Ex. 5-5, fifth line ua Reg 401 Eq. (5-36) Delete 5.61 in numerator 409 Eq. (5-32) Ry), 0 Equation in middle five Sa 0 a. (5-40) line from bottom,Page Reference Now Reade Should Read 438 Second line, below Eq. (5-47) Delete "and Fig. 5-35" 486 Table 7-3 Omission Add "a" superscript to all boxes in table 494 Fig. 7-5 Delete units on ordinates and letters on abacienas 529 Par. 3 Place sentence 4 before sentence 3 538 Table 7-7, col. 4, third Jine from bottom 97.23 97.22 538” Table 7-7, col. 4, second line from bottom 100.00 99.97 538 Table 7-7, col. 3, bottom line 99.92 99.97 5403 Bottom line k a 547 Line 6 Delete “cumulative” 548 Ex. 7-10, third col., percent sam- ple, cumulative 13.0 ° 13,00 ° 16.4 3,92 16, 49 3.92 eins hr ai.a7 9.77 27.2 162 27. 6.27 322 21.6 31.75 21.60 36.1 27.6 36.96 27.60 41.3 383 46.26 38,30 57.9 51.5 $7.86 51.60 70.5 66.0 70.61 66.30 87.0 87.0 86.81 84.90 96.0 95.2 95.87 94.95 99-3 99.1 99.21 98.75 100 100.0 99.87 99.50 549 Ex. 7-11, col. 4 heading Delete "cumulative" 553 Line 1 FVF EVE 553 Line 2 . FVF EVE558 564 565 565 565 565 565 565 565 566 506 Reference 2nd, 3rd, and 4th lines from bottom of page Ex, 7-14, Table, col. 4, bottom line Second line of Bq. (8-4) First line of Eq. (8-6) First line of Bq. (8-6) Third line of Eq. (8-6) Eq. (8-9) Eq, (8-10) firet line Eq. (8-10) third line Eq. (8-10) fourth line ‘Second line below Eq. (8-11) Eq. (8-13) first line Now Reads 35,000 “volume change of connate water" “change in volume of initial connate water in the ofl gone" Should Read Lowermost "Reservoir Hydrocarbon Volume! calculation refers to Example 7-14 350,000 “volume of connate water"! Delete parenthesis pre- ceeding B 1 Add parenthesis pre- ceeding right hand side of equation Swio NB "Zone, S gi “change in initial volume of connate wate:Page Reference Now Reads Should Read 574 Third line of firat , Place plus (4) oign before equation on page bracket 574 Last equation on Bracketed expression page in numerator , [ae Pat |[ : GB | Ts, thetrssy| | oe terse : ‘wie (Sig) 596 Fx. 8-6 Une 6 2,778 2538 596 In table below line 6, Ex. 8-6 2,751 2538 596 Ex, 8-6, third line from bottom of page 663° R 663 psia 597 Equation above table in middle of page Denominator of equation AP/Z A(P/2)POROSITYPURUSITY A measure of the space available for the storage of fluids in rocks. in general form: v Porosity = Vy > > expressed as fraction where: Vy = Vp + Vm Vp = bulk volume of reservuir rock, (ft) Vp = pore volume, (ft?) Vq = matrix volume, (#t3) Classification Primary (original) Porosity Developed at time of deposition Secondary Porosity Developed as a result of geologic process occurring after deposition Total Porosity VI-1D. Effective Porosity = interconnected void space b 1, Clean sandstones 9, = 4 2. Carbonates, cemented sandstones be < oe II, Range of Values of Porosity A. maximum ¢ Value cubic packing of uniform spheres sand grain radius (ar)3 = ard 3 vos m = 8(1/8 sphere) = 1 sphere = 4/3 ar 9 = 1 - 0/6 = 0.476 max. value @ = 0.476 vi-zCt C. Intermediate § Values e Ce cubic > = 0.476 Minimum Value 9 = 0.0 Factors Affecting Porosity Factor 1. Particle shape 2. Particle arrangement 3. Particle size distribution 4. Cementation 5. Vugs and factures Particle Shape For uniform spheres, @ is function of packing rhombohedral o = 0.259 & 24 cols crore Legene WPore spore ote avert Ben, KE -Potarn fetaspo ELCoteae coment PL Poyociase fosdepor cm chertLl. Packing Arrangement i. Porosity decreases as compaction increases 50 40} Porosity, Shoes o : 010082000" 319004000 5000 6,000 Depth of burial, Efect of natural compaction on porosity. (From Krumicin and Sloss?) vi-4D. Particle Size Distribution 1. Porosity decreases as the range of particle size increases SAND n SILT | CLAY 100 FRAMEWORK | UJ CLEAN FRACTION SAND | siiny oa 7 SAND ve é | | | = INTERSTITIAL MATERIALS 2 K— And mun FRAGMENTS} 0 1 1,0 Ol od 0.001 GRAIN SIZE DIAMETER, MM t. Interstitial and cementing Material 1. Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial material increases 2. Porosity decreases as the amount of cementing material increases VI-5ao Clean sand - little interstitial material Shaly sand - has more interstitial materia F. Vugs, Fractures fie Contribute substantially to the volune of pore spaces Highly variable in size and distribution There could be two or more systems of pore opening - extremely complex IV. Measurement of Porosity ve Table of Matrix Densities Litnology mn g/en® Quartz 2.65 Limestone 2.71 dolomite 2.87 A. Laboratory Measurement ae Conventional core analysis heasure any two 1. bulk volume ,Vy 2. matrix volume, Yq 3. pore volume, Vp Vi-6b. bulk volume 1. calculate from dimensions 2. displacement method a. volumetric (measure volume 1. drop into liquid and observe volume charge of liquid 2. must prevent test liquid from entering pores space of sample a. coat with paraffin b. presaturate sample with test liquid ¢. use mercury as test liquid vI-7bd. gravimetric (measure mass) af change in weight immessed sample-prevent test liquid from entering pore space change in weight of container and test fluid fluid when sample is introduced volume assume grain density dry weight _ matrix density displacement method reduce sample to particle size, then 1. volumetric 2. gravimetric V1-8a Boyes Law py Vy = pz Vz p(t) va) Dt Valve Closed b. Put core in second chamber, evacuate c. Open valve P(2) [es p> Valve Open Core = Volume of first chamber & volume of second chamber-matrix volume or core + calculate Volume of first chamber + volume second chamber + known Va = Vy - Ye vi-9pore volume fl gravimetric saturation weight - dry weight aenstty of satursting trata Boyles Law p Vy = p2V2 a. PC) Valve Closed (—Hassler Sleeve Core Holder b.Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate c.Upen valve P(2) bY Valve Open Volume of first chamber + pore volume of core + calculate Va = Vy Vi-Lo) 2. Application to reservoir rocks i a. intergranular porosity (sandstone, some carbonates) 1. use representative plugs from whole core in | laboratory measurements | 2. don't use sidewall cores | b. secondary porosity (most carbonates) ; 1. use whole core in laboratory measurements } usually a. calculate bulk volume from measurements } b. determine matrix or pore volume from Boyle Law procedure ' VI-11Example Vi-1 A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a Russell tube. lhe dry sample weighed 20.0 gm. The dry sample coated with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paratfin coated sample displaced 10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is 0.9 gm/cc. what is the bulk volume of the sample? Vi-1eExample Vi-1 Solution Weight of paraffin coating = 20.9 gm - 20.0 gm = 0.9 gm Volume of paraffin coating = 0.9 gm / 0.9 gm/cc=i.0 ce Bulk volume of sample = 10.9 cc - 1.0 cc = 9-9 cc VI-13Example Vi-2 The core sample of problem Vi-1 was stripped of the paratfin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a Russell tube. The volume of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the sample? 1s this effective or total porosity? Vi-iaExample V1-2 Solution Bulk Volume = 9.9 cc Matrix Volume Total porosity Vi-1sExample V1-3 calculate the porosity of a core sample when the following information is available: dry weight of sample = 427.3 g weight of sample when saturated with water = 448.6 g density of water = 1.0 g/cm? weight of water saturated sample immersed i water = 269.6 g VI-16Example-3 Solution = Sat. core wt. in aGensity of water _g - 427.3 9 i g/ew 3 = dry core wt. 448.6 = 21.3 cm = Sat. core wt. in air - sat. core wt. in water > density of water vy + $t8:8-9 = 269-6 9 1 g/cm Vy = 179.0 cm? Vq = 179.0 cm? - 21.3 em? = 157.7 cm? _ Wt. of dry sample _ = 2.71 gfen? matrix vol. The lithology is limestone. Is the porosity effective or total? why? Effective because fluid was forced into the pore space Vi-17Example V1-4 A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is placea in cell two of a Boyles Law device like that described in section 3a. above. Each of tne cells has a volume of 100U cc. Cell one is pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell two is evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting pressure i 28.1 psig. Calculate the porosity of the core. VI-18Solution Example Vi-4 pave 1000 ce 50 psig + 14.7 = 64.7 psia 28.1 psig = 42.8 psia (64.7)(1000)/(42.8 psia) 1512 cc Vy = Vp 2000 - 1512 = 488 cc 695 - 488 695 Vi-19V. Subsurface Measurement of Porosity A. Types of logs from which porosity can be derived. 1. Density log Pm P 4 = d Pq ~ PF 2. Sonic log ty - Ati Ate - at, ¢. 3. Neutron log ot? 2 cu, Table of Matrix Properties (Schlumberger, Log Interpretation Principles, Volume I) Litholo: At,(u sec/ft) Pm (ance) sandstone 55.6 2.65 Vimestone 47.5 2.71 dolomite 43.5 2.87 anhydrite 50.0 2.96 salt - 67.0 * 2.17 water 189.0 1.00 vi-20vensity log a. measures bulk density of formation Muo cane ‘SOURCE ‘SHORT SPACE = erection {ONG space ‘DETECTOR b. Gamma rays are stopped by electrons - the aenser the rock the fewer gamma rays reach | the detector c. Equation VI-21FORMATION DENSITY LOG GR API CRLIPER x CALIPER _Y _'6 VI-22Example Vi-5 Use the density log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals assuming Ppatpiy 7 2-68 gm/ce and pyyyjg = 1-0 gm/ce. Interval » "log density 4143-4157 4170-4178 4178-4185 4185-4190 4197-4205 4210-4217 Vi-23Solution Interval 4143-4157 Pm = PL Cae ot oa = Interval 4143-4157 4170-4178 4178-4185 4185-4190 4197-4205 4210-4217 Example V1-5 + OL 2.375 2.35 2.43 2.4 2.68 2.45 18 20 1s 7 14 vi-24 2.375 gm/ce3. Sonic Log a. measures time required for compressiona sound waves to travel through one toot of formation depth b. Sound travels more slowly in fluids than i solids. Pore space is filled with fluias, thus travel time increases as porosity increases. c. Equation At, = At, (1 - o) + tee VI-25o - A Ste ate - Ot, SONIC LOG 6 CALIPER x 16 oO GRAP 2oo ¥1-26Example V1-6 Use the Sonic Log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals, assuming sandstone. lnterval At, O58 4144-4150 4150-4157 4171-4177 4477-4187 4199-4204 4208-4213 vi-27Solution Example Vi-6 Interval 4144-4150, Interval 4144-4150 4150-4157 4171-4177 4177-4187 4199-4204 4208-4213 at, = 26.5 psia = 86.5 - 51.6 | Tay.0 = 51.6 at, 498 86.5 25 84.0 24 84.5 24 81.0 Pa 53.5 1 75.0 7 vi-284. Neutron Log measures the amount of hydrogen in the formation (hydrogen index). RON ENERGY LOSSt Maximum Average Energy Number Losi Atomic Atomic Element Collisions Collision __ Weight Number Calcium 371 8% 40a 20 Chiorine 316 10% 355 v Silicon 261 12% 28 “4 Oxygen 150 21% 160 8 | Carbon 115, 28% 120 6 Hydrogen 16 100% 10 1 Hydrogen - Average loss due to angular collision is 63%. Gon ee eet te § , otem sano, poresry «15% cs 33 fvoneaed . é ' eno 24 [leon oe eB oat Sy 1 ag | Oe oc 38 ame Sn 8 °°L__s1uc0N eu “2 r : | @ 110 10 10 10 10 10 10 Gs a b. in clean, liquid filled formation, hydrogen index is directly proportional to porosity. Log gives porosity directly. | c. Not very reliable tor determining porosity. kun with density log to evaluate | porosity, lithology, gas content.NEUTRON/DENSITY LOG 5 CALIPER y 04100 DENSITY NEUTRON 3 = 40, 11700. Vi-30example Vi-7 Use the meutron log to determine porosity for the following intervals Interval on ' 4143-4149 ' 4149-4160 } 4170-4184 4198-4204 4208-4214 Vi-31Example V1-7 Solution interval on 4143-4149 4149-4160 4170-4184 4198-4204 4206-4214 VI-32 23 20 ai 19EXAMPLE VI-8 Lalculate the porosity and lithology of the Polar No. 1 drilled in Lake Maracaibo. The depth o interest is 13,743 feet. A density log and a sonic log were run in the well in addition to the standard I€S survey. The readings at 13,743 feet are bulk density = 2.522 g/cm? travel time = 62.73 y-sec/ft V1-33Example VI-8 dtion Assume tresh water in pores. Assume sandstone: p= 2.65 g/em at, = 95.5 u-sec/ft = Pm 7 PL ¢a* og oe } %a> bq = 7-768 = 5.428 = 2.71 g/cm? 47.5 u-sec/ft Assume limestone: co 62 47.5 S 189.0 - 47.5 10.76 V1-34= 2.87 g/cm = 43.5 p-sec/ft ) Assume 18.61% = 11% limestone Are the tools measuring total or eftective porosity? wny? Total. VI-35V. Lompressidility of Porous Rocks Compressibility, cz: fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure nos (aN 1 (av) Vy v \ap) ap oo A. wormally Pressured Reservoirs 1. vownward force by the overburden must be balanced by upward force of the matrix and the fluid Fo : 2. Thus, Fo = F_ t Fy it follows (not rigorously) that Bo ae ee This equation is not strictly correct but is adequate for our purposes Set ipo 1.U (depth in feet) pp = 0.465 (depth in feet) As fluid is produced in a reservoir the fluid pressure, p- will usually decrease vi-36a. the force on the matrix increases b. causing a decrease in bulk volume ) c. and a decrease in pore volume B. Types of Compressibility 1. Matrix Compressibility cm 2. Bulk Compressibility cy used in subsidence studies a Formation Compressibility , cg - also called pore volume compressibility important to reservoir engineers depletion of fluid from pore spaces internal rock stress changes 3. change in stress results in change in Voy Vs Vp 4. by definition cpt mt ) f Vp \aPm b. since overburden pressure, pg, is constant dpm = - Ope VI-37Thus, \ e SPE Where the subscript of f on cy means “formation” and the subscript of f on pg means “fluid” procedure a. measure volume of liquid expelled as a function of “external"pressure b. "external" pressure may be taken to represent overburden pressure, Po c. fluid pressure, pp, is essentially constant, thus, Po = am d. expelled volume increases as pore volume, V), decreases, thus, Woon wy Wexpelled e. from definition V1-38thus plot Cumulative volume expelled pore voTume slope cf Vi-39 Overburden pressure:C, Measurement of Compressibility 1. Laboratory Lore Sample a. apply variable internal and external pressures b. internal rock volume changes Equipment Internal pressure, gouge Hydraulic pump Reservoir Mercury slugs Verguson sight gouge Overburden pressure gouge Hydraulic pump Copper-jocketed core Reservoir PIELLLELLLILLT ULES CLZZIIZP ATLL GZ A 4 A A 4 Y A Zz Fic. 2-18. Experimental equipment for measuring pore volume compaction and compressibility. (From Fatt.) vI-40EXAMPLE VI-9 Valculate the pore volume compressibility for a andstone sample at 4000 and 6000 psi, given the following lab data. eta pore volume = 50.u cm? Be pressure, psi. Mol. fluid expelled 100 0.244 2000 0.324 3000 0.392 4u00 0.448 5000 0.500 6000 0.546 7000 0.596 8000 0.630 14 Vi-41ytion trom graph @ 4000 psi @ 60U0 psi ce Example V1-9 0.0143 - 0.0047 slope = 9000 - 0 1.067 x 107° i/psi 0.0138 - 0.0052 slope = goou - 9.55 x 1077 1/psi vi-42z0006 aUNSsaud NOILI¥dWOD ooog 000s 0009 0005-00 coos 0002 oot 0 Ty EEE ms VOLUME EXPELLED PORE VOLUME V1-43vetermination of formation compressibility by correlation 34 ‘Limestone S77 © Sanestome ot © Sandstone , oN] $e nes cos _| § j cn 2 zg x ge] s é y (8 ‘| rat Pt EEE siy : 1st) 33 2 [8 3 537 Li TE ee Peer ey S i i nt 5 2 4 6 86 10 i2 14 6 16 20 22 24 2% 30-32 ae Formation compaction component of total rock compressibility. Hell") Vi-aa (Fromsens veut comecannsty 44 70"! #8 HORTA aM Porevolume compressibility at 75 percent itnostatie pressur ‘consolidated sandstones. -——T } o «(8s E oo fe initioh sample porosity for Se | Pore-volume compressibility at 75 percent Ithostatie pressure va inti ee, jal_sample porosity for ‘able’ sandstones. 5 pore volume compressibility i Sample poromty.E, Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs “abnormal pressure": fluid pressures greater than (surnormal) or less than (subnormal) fluid pressures expected from an assumed linear pressure gradient pressure ——> normal linear subnormal (lower) depth _ surnormal (greater) VI -46PURUSITY PRUBLEW 1 A limestone sample weighs 241.0 g. The limestone sample coated with paraffin was found to weigh 249.5 g. The coated sample when immersed in a partially filled graduated cylinder displaced 125.0 ca® of, water. The density of the paraffin is 0.90 g/em?. What is the porosity of the rock? Does the process measure total or effective porosity? vi-47Porosity Problem 1 | Solution _ Wt. dry , 241.0 9. gg.9 cm? 2 Ps 2.71 g/cm 7 _ wt. coated sample - wt. uncoated sample paraffin SS = 249.5 g - 241.0 g 0.90 g/cm = 9.4 cu? Vy = 125 cw? - 9.4 cm? = 115.6 cw gs Vp = 415.6 cm? - 88.9 cm? = 26.7 cm? v oe 2 Yb 3 o = 26:7 cm oi 115.6 cm = 23.1% total porosity VI-48PURUSITY PRUBLEN 2 You are furnished with the results of a seive analysis of a core from the Pete well #1. Previous laboratory work indicates there is a correlation between grain size and porosity displayed by those particular particles. The correlation is seen below: gravel - 25% porosity coarse sand - 38% porosity fine sand - 41% porosity What woula be the minimum porosity of the mixture? What basic assumption must be made in order to work the problem? vi-49Porosity Problem 2 Solution Begin calculations with a volume of 1 cu.ft remaining remaining pore matrix component volume porosity volume (eco yee (s) crt) void space 1.000 100 0.000 ) gravel 0.250 25 0.750 | coarse sand 0.095 9.5 0.905 fine sand 0.039 3.9 0.981 final porosity - 3.9% 1 complete mixing of the grains VI-50PUROSITY PRUBLEM 3 A sandstone reservoir has an average thickness of 85 feet and a total volume of 7650 acre-feet. vensity a r———r———“_EUrtéC'“CC_-E_ of the reservoir indicate a density of 2.40 gm/ca’. The Highgrade #1 Well was drilled and cored through the reservoir. A rock sample was sent to th laboratory and the following tests were run. pressure cum, pore vol. change (psig) (-cm3) 1000 0.122 2000 0.162 3000 0.196 4000 0.224 5000 0.250 6000 0.273 7000 0.298 8000 0.315 The dry weight of the core sample was found to be 140 gms while the sample dimensions were 1.75 inches jong and 1.960 inches in diameter. Assuming the compressibility at 4500 psi is the average compressibility in the reservoir, how much subsidence occurs when the reservoir pressure declines from 5500 psi to 3500 psi? Vi-5Lcalculate: A. keservoir Porosity B. Sample Pore Volume _ UL. Compressivility at 4500 psi _ v. Amount of Ground Subsidence vi-52PURUSITY PROBLEM 3 Solution A. Reservoir Porosity 2 18.2% B. Sample Pore Volume (1.575 in)(2.54 em/in) = 4.0 cm (1.960 in)(2.54 cm/in) = 5.0 cm e no@h , (3.14)(5.0)2(4.0), bulk volume = 77 4 (4.0) Vy = 78-5 cm? matrix volume = (140 gms)(cm3/2.65 gms) = 52.8 cm = Vq = 78.5 cm? - 52.8 cm? Vi-53COMPRESSIBILITY PROBLEM A reservoir lov acres and 100 feet thick has a porosity of 11%. The pore compressibility is 5.U x 107& L/psi. If the pressure decreases 3000 psi what is the subsidence? vi-54Compressibility Problem Solution 6,969,600 Ft? > 160 (43,560) 100 (6,969,600) = 696,960,000 ft” Vy # = (696,960,000) (.11) = 76,665,600 —=) aoe 76,665,600 ft” 3000 psi 1 969.600 Fte an = 1.15 x 108 Ft? x — 6,969,600 ft’ 165 ft V1-55Lompressivility (see graph v= 25.7 cm Subsidence oH H(co)(@) (OP) = (85)(9.96 x 1077) (0.152)(2000) AH = 0.026 ft OH = 0.32 inches VI-57SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN PUKOUS ROCK1. varcy's Equation (1856) A. water flow through sand filters Schematic drawing of Henry Darcy experiment oa fow of water through aand. (Pom Hubber!) 1. constant of proportionality, K, characteristic of particular sand pack, not sample size 2. Darcy's work confined to sand packs that were 100% saturated with water 3. equation extended to include other liquids using viscosity ka(ny-hy) a* 40 VII-1B. Generalized Form of Darcy's Equation 1. Equation | 4(2- sou ds 1.0133 x 10° go" 180" 270-380" VII-2Nomenclature vg = volume flux along path s - cm/sec vg/b = velocity > = density of flowing fluid - gm/cn? g = acceleration of gravity - 980 cn/secé 42 = pressure gradient along s - atw/cm b= viscosity - centipoise k = permeability - darcies Lonversion factors dyne = gmcm/sec® = a unit of force atm = 1.0133 x 10° dyne/cn® pgh = dyne/cm? = a unit of pressure poise = gm/cm sec dyne sec/cme ViI-3The units of Permeability Lo = length m= mass t = time ve = b/t woe mit p= w/i3 p= mite Gait vor je [coe #| a BLES ~ yor3s x 108 boll k [mst 7 tot ate Lo k = L@ = cross-sectional area ViI-4Definition of Darcy Units a. rational units would be: 1. feet squared in the English system 2. centemeter squared in the cys system b. both are too large for use in porous medi c. definition of darcy A porous medium has a permeability of one darcy when a single-phase fluid of one centipoise that completely fills the voids of the medium will flow through it under conditions of viscous flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second per square centimeter cross-sectional area under a pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter. ViI-5Il. Keservoir Systems A. Flow of incompressible liquid 1, Horizontal, linear system -—.—— a. conditions 5 dz. 1. horizontal system, $2 0 2. linear system, A = constant 3. incompressible liquid, q = constant 4. laminar flow, can use Darcy's equation 5. mMmon-reactive fluid, k = constant 6 100% saturated with one fluid 7. constant temperature, vq = constant VI1-6b. derivation of flow equation aa [3 29 dz ee . : i e 1.0133 x 108% =- kK ad veto ga ca u P. qf ds =- KA? dp > 1 eee q(t = 0) KA (pg - Py) Note: p, acts atl = 0 ppg actsatlL=Ll q is + if flow is fromL =O toL=L VII-7Example II-1 What is the flow rate of a-horizontal rectangular system when the cén- ditions are as follows: permeability = k = 1 darcy 2 area = A = 6 ft viscosity = « = 1.0 cp length = L = 6 ft inlet pressure = P; = 5.0 atm outlet pressure = py = 2.0 atm Solution He must insure all the variables are in the correct units. k = 1 darcy A= 6 tt? (144 in2/1 £t2)(6.45 cm2/1 in’) = 5572.8 cn® l= 6 ft (12 in/l ft)(2.54 cm/1 in) = 182.88 cm 5.0 atm Po = 2.0 atm kA ph (Py ~ Py) (1) (5872:8) 4 = Gyce2.aay (5-0 - 2.0) 3 cat q = 91.42 vII-82. Non-horizontal, linear system ae Conditions ie ee ae 4. 5. 6. i non-horizontal system, $2 = sin 8 = constant linear system, A = constant incompressible liquid, q = constant laminar flow, use Darcy equation non-reactive fluid, k = constant 100% saturated with one fluid constant temperature u,q = constant Vil-9b. derivation of equation keeps og az ee : u ls 1.0133 x 108 = 9 -- kB k pg sins vet e + oo s x u as y 1.0133 x 10° L P. A A 8 _ === ds -= $ ° u Py u 1.0133 x 10 a = - A (py -p,) + Moatsing, LQ uw 1.0133 x 10 ka pg t sino a= or le 7 Pe t ae ut {Pa > Pe 1.0133 x 10° VII-10 dsVertical, upward flow, linear system Flow under head + i l conditions dz. 1 = 1. vertical system, Gp = sing constant upward flow, 0 = 270° , sino = - 1 linear system, A constant incompressible liquid, q = constant laminar flow, use Darcy equation non-reactive fluid, k = constant 100% saturated with one fluid constant temperature, y = constant Vil-1ibd. derviation of flow equation : k |dp _ pg az roe s - Pa. ‘ u [2 1.0133 x 10° : 2k fe =a ve 2 ge- & + sd u \s if pois ea = kA \n ale) og qa = fA [oe - 4 a 1.0133 x 10° eg (nh + x +L) p, = eo thtate 1.0133 x 10 - 29x Py x 2 1.0133 x 105 = =ogehe oT a a =—S—rt— Pe) psia (reeus-psTe) 0.06805 (p, - py) psia Vil-29 a 24h J U 3600 sec”meter 100 cm (0.001 k)(929.0 A) .06805(p, - Pid) u (30.48 L) 0.01127 k A (py - Py r in oilfield units " VII-300. Table of Equations 1. Darcy Units system horizontal, incompressible qg = SE op = PQ) linear Viquid Y dipping, incompressible q = KB [rr - pg) pt sing linear liquid a 1.0133 x 10 horizontal, incompressible q = = radial liquid brizontal real Qe 7 linear gas . kA a = Gr (Py > Pg) horizontal 1 ue 2 r al, e orizon rea ae eG (Pe radial gas sc 2ukh [e Tiny, (Pe ~ Pw Vil-3124 vilfield Units stem horizontal, linear dipping Vinear horizontal radial horizontal linear horizontal, radial fluid incompressible liquid incompressible liquid incompressible liquid real gas Sse real gas 4 V11-32 0.001127 ‘t (py > P2) q = res dbi/d kA 0.001127 Tr [on - Pal L sin 8 + 9 in | 6 1.0133 x 10 : kh - q = -007082 winrr, (Pe Py 7 kA 2 Qo = ENS eT IPL” P Yc = Stl - kA q = 001127 GE (Py - Pz) q = res bbi/d 32 #-h 2 = 7032 Calngreieea (Pe - Pw = kh Go = .007082 Tier, Pe Py) }Example VII-1 What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows: permeability = k = area = A= 6 ft! 1 darcy viscosity = w= 1.0 cp length = L = 6 ft inlet pressure outlet pressure = calculations We must insure all the variables are in the correct i units. K = 1 darcy = 1000 md A = 6 ft? Lo o=6 ft Py = (5.0 atm)(14.7 psi/atm) = 73.5 ps Pp = (2.0 atm)(14.7 psi/atm) = 29.4 psi = -3 KA q = 1.1271 x 1079 * (Pp, - Py) 4 uot? gq = Lete7i x 1073 {2000N(6) (73,5 - 29.4) (1) (6) q = 49.7 bbl /day VI1-32AExample VII-2 Calculate the upward and downward flow rates in the following circular, vertical sand pack. diameter d kK ¥ ° z .5 feet 10 feet 500 md 1.0 cp 433 psi/ft 1 ft VI1-328Example VI1-3 } flow rate in a radial system problem: what is the of] flow rate in a radial system with the following set of conditions? given: K = 300 md re 330 ft = 20 ft ca 0.5 ft Pe = 2500 psia re/Ty = 660 py = 1740 psia In rg/ry = 6.492 I u“ = 1.3 ep ) VI1-320ltion: Example VW-3 flow rate in a radial system 3 7.082 x 10°~KH(P, - Py) 1.3(6.492) y = 3826 res bbI/d VI1-320EB. Layered Systems 1. Horizontal “average” linear, flow to parallel to bedding permeability, ViL-33then } k wh (py = Pp) and ky wh kg whe ke wh FAH (py = bp) + Bae (my > Pe) + “Se fy > Pe) then VI1-342. Horizontal, radiai,flow parallel to bedding again Se = Wat GBF 4 hos + hp t he eageked - a, + Strgrr, (Pe ~ Pw? VI1-35Bim ky by 21 ky np WTA TF, (Pe ~ Pa) t ETAT, Pe ~ Pw a 2 awk, he + ptr, (Pe ~ Pw) then Lhe kg hy + ky tg t Ke he and again : nek koe oe el VII-36Horizontal, linear, flow perpendicular to bedding VII-37thus Vi1-38horizontal, radial, flow perpendicular to bedding h . =a, * at 9a = AB * 4 tw a "ap ro AP, * MPy * APE 2nkh (pe - aS arr, ag ulm res qqu In rg/r, In ry/r, BAe UA dulW eevee B/Tay Me Be Tey Takk HET then V11-39Example VII-4 Damaged zone near wellbore: = 10 md ry 2 ft = 200 md r 300 ft 0.25 ft ke k= _—— In (2/0.25) In (300/2) ete Uae k = 30.4 md Permeability near wellbore is the controlling factor. Vil-40Flow Through Channels and Factures 1. Flow through constant diameter chane Poiseuille's Equation for Viscous Flow Through Capillary Tubes aré Bul (py ~ Pp) . A= ars therefore . Art Byl (py > Pa) varcy's Law for Linear Flow of Liquids a = EA (py - pg) we assuming these flow equations have consistent units, ee iy = LP) 8 32 when d= inches, k = 20 x 10° d? md VII-41Example VII-5 Determine the permeability of a rock composed of closely packed capillaries 0.0001 inch in diameter 1f only 25 percent of the rock is pore channels (90.25), what will the permeability be? VIL-42txaw ple a |Solution: A. k + 20 x 109 a2 k k = 20 x 109 (0.0001 in)* k 200 md 0.25 (200 md) 5U md Vi1-42a2. Flow Through Fractures setting thi 28 (py-P2) _ gw (Py > Pa? 12yb KL solve for permeability of a fracture Md k= om davey units, OR 12 k = 54 x 109 b? where b = inches k = md VIL-43 s flow equation equal to darcy's flow equationExample VII-6 plem: Consider a rock of very low matrix permeability, 0.01 md, which contains on the average a fracture 0.005 inches wide and one foot in lateral extent per square foot of rock. Assuming the fracture is in the direction of flow, determine the average permeability using the equation for parallel Flow. VII- 44Solution: V1I-¢ Ji, similar to horizontal, linear, flow parallel to fracture _ (matrix k)(matrix area) + (fracture k)(fracture area ee area x y= (OL (2 in)? - (42 in)(0.005 in) , 144 in x 0.005) )(12 in x (0.005 144 in’ in)) 39 + 81,000 144 VII-44Aill. Laboratory weasurement of Permeability A. Procedure 1. Perm plug method a. Cut small, individual samples (perm plugs) from larger core b. Extract hydrocarbons in extractor c. vry core in oven d. Flow fluid through core at several rates 2p? -e au horizontal, linear, real gas with T= Tse and Z = 1.0 k = (slopedyExample VIL-7 ) You are a core analyst and wish to determine the true permeability for a Woodbine core sample taken from a Brazos County well at 8800 feet. The following data are available: core length = 2.7813 cm core diameter = 2.5324 cm atmospheric pressure = 14.60 psia The test fluid was nitrogen with a viscosity of 0.017 cp. upstream downstream flow pressure pressure rate (psig) (psig) (cc/sec) 40.0 10.0 97.2 35.0 15.0 80.0 30.0 20.0 59.7 27.5 22.5 29.9 ) Vil-46Solution ) A = 5.037 cmé slope = 19.5 k = (slope) | = 19.5(.017) = .331 D = 331 md Vil-47a Whole core method a. be prepare whole core in same manner as perm plugs mount core in special holders and flow fluid through core as in perm plug method Low oie pressure (ow) Core. Rubber tubing. High oir pressure (sealing) Vocwum” / Pipe! Vertical flow To flowmeter the horizontal fluw data must be adjusted due to complex flow path whole core method give better results for limestones vil-48B. Factors which affect permeability measurement 1. Fractures - rocks which contain fractures in situ frequently separate along the planes of natural weakness when cored. Thus laboratory measurements give “matrix permeability which is lower than in situ permeability. 2. Gas slippage gas molecules "slip" along the grain surfaces b. occurs when diameter of the capillary openings approaches the mean free path of the gas molecules c. Darcy's equation assumes laminar flow d. gas flow path with slippage ES VIl-49e. called Klinkenberg effect f. mean free path is function of size of molecule thus permeability measurements are a function of type of gas used in laboratory measurement. KcaLCULATED Ie vi1-50mean free path is a function of pressure, thus Klinkenberg effect is greater for measurements at low pressures - negligible at high pressures. permeability is a function of size of capillary opening, thus Klinkenberg effect is greater for low permeability rocks. VII-51eftect of gas slippage can be eliminated by making measurements at several different mean pressures and extra polating to high pressure (1/p = 0) K easureo ° moe VII-52Example VI1-8 Another core taken at 8815 feet from the Brazos County well was found to be very shaly. There was some question about what the true | Liquid permeability was, since nitrogen was used in the permeameter. Calculate the equivalent permeability from the following data- Mean Measured Pressure Permeability (atm) (md) 1.192 3.76 2.517 3.04 4.571 2.76 9.484 2.54 VII-53ution Plot kmeasured VS: 1/pressure Intercept is equivalent to liquid permeability from graph krig = 2-38 ma e : & + @ | Migas = 2.98276 +1.64692/Poar g / vq T ~ : i Equivalent Liquid Permeability = 2.38 md | 0 T T T T 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 Reciprocal mean pressure. atm’ VI1-543 Reactive Fluids a. Formation Water Reacts With Clays 1. lowers permeability to liquid 2. actual permeability to formation water is Tower than lab permeability to gas € & 2 | 1 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 1,280 2560 Air permeability, millidarcys Fio, 2-45. Relationship of permeabilities measured with air to those measured with water having a concentration of 20,000 to 25,000 ppm chloride ion b. Injection water reduces permeability due to clay swelling VI1-551 ‘Tapux 2-6. Erect oF Waren Sauiniry on Pemwgasiuiry or NaTuRAL | Cores (Grains per gallon of chloride ion ns shown*) ee Field | Zone Ke Ko Kuo Keo Kyo Kyo ° i [Zore| + | Be | eae eeee ee ' 8 34 4,080 1,445 1,380 1,200 1,190 885. 17.2 8 | a4 | 24800 | 11/800 i000 | 7400 | 147 i 8 | at | ao,too | 23,000 13800 | 8200 | 270 I 8 34 | 39,700 | 20,400 17,100 | 14,300 1,680 8 | at | 100 | 590 ‘isto | 3280) 167 | s | a1 | sas | roo | as | oes | 735 50 S | 34 | 22800 | 12600 | 6150 | 4010 | 3400 8 & | at | seso0 | 23000 | z800 | 5,400 | 5,220 09 & | 34 | 2x000 | 21,000 | 18.00 | 13,100 | 12,800 1000 & | 34 | aZso0 | “4750 | "xe00 | 1080 | 973 2 : au | 13,000 | 5,160 saso | 2700 | 97 ) a4 | 7,610 | 1,738 2540 | 2,020 119, at | rttoo | 4250 ao | “160 | 02 31 | ‘6500 | 2380 i200 | to | 4a | 36 | 2600 | 2160 2180 | 2010 | 1,900 28% eqn | 2400 | 2,400 i ow vso0 | 1860 | 1390 2500 240 | 2280) 2.000 180 son | 2080 | 2.460 180 1,630 | 1,490 | 1,040 * For example, Ky means permenbility to air; Kye means permeability to 500 grains per gal chloride eolution; Ky means permeability to fresh water. ) VII-56Overburden pressure a. when core is removed from formation all confining forces are removed. b. the rock matrix expands partially changing the shapes of the flow paths. compaction may cause a reduction of as much as 60% in the permeability of some formations VII-57BOUNDARY TENSLUN AND CAPILIARY PRESSUREBoundary Tension , o A. at the boundary between two phases there is an imbalance of molecular forces the result is to contract the boundary to a minimum size GAS “epee con ee Laud Oe VILI-2the average molecule in the liquid is uniformly attracted in all directions molecule at the surface attracted more strongly from below - creates membrane like surface creation of this surface requires wor! work in ergs required to create i cm of surface (ergs/em?) is “boundary energy" 2. also can be thought of as force in dynes acting along length of 1 cm required to prevent destruction o surface (dynes/cm) - this is called boundary tension 3. Boundary Energy = Boundary Tension Surface Tension - Boundary tension between gas and liquid is called “surface tension". Interfacial Tension - Boundary tension between two immiscible liquids or between a Viquid and a solid is called “interfacial tension". = surface tension between gas and water © oa = surface tension between gas and oil oyo 7 interfacial tension between water and o# ows interfacial tension between water and solid oy, = interfacial tension between oil and solid VILI-3I. Forces Creating boundary Tension 1. Forces Law of Universal Gravitation applied between molecules | physical attraction (repulsion) between molecules 2. Liquid-Gas Boundary | a. attraction between molecules is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance J between them 3. Solid-Liquid Boundary a. physical attraction between molecules of liquid and solid surface Liquid-Liquid Boundary some of each ) VIlI-4Il. wettability A. forces at boundary of two liquids and a solid (or gas-liquia-solid) ad soL1D j Sys = Fos * Sow FO8 & B. Adhesion Tension, Ay Ay = Sys 7 S95 = owes 1 Viil-5ce If the solid i s “water-wet" ws 2 Sos Ap = ¢ tos © = + 0° < 6 < 90° if 6 = 0° - strongly water wet If the Solid 1s “Ui1-Wet" if © = 180° - strongly oil-wet VIII-6Contact angle O° Air a Complete wetting Contact angle 90° Iso-octone + Isoquiniling Equal wetting by two liquids Contoct angle 30° - Iso-octone High degree of portio! wetting by woter Gontoct ongle 153° Tsoquiniling Low degree of wetting by water, high by isoquiniline Fig. 2-37. Degree of wetting by contact angles with fiuids on pure silica. (after Banner and Bartell, 2-6) Vvill-7Organic —igooctone _‘"820ctane +5.7% Tiquid isoquinoline '0Quinoline Nophthenic acid Fig. 3-2. Interfacial contact angles. (a) Silica surface; (b) calcite surface. (from Benner and Bartell.!) VIII-8lil, Capillary Pressure capillary pressure between air and water i. liquid will rise in the tube until total force up equals total force down a total force up equals adhesion tension acting along the circumference of the water-air-solid interface aur Ay VILI-9total force down equals the weight of the column of water converted to force = are r® hgoy c. thus when column of water comes to equilibrium znr Ay = mr? hay Ge units dyne = cm gm en 28 ~ cmtcm 8, 9 a sec” cm dyne = ER sec dyne = dyne = force unit e adhesion tension oe 1 2. Liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension equals the total force down. Vertical component of surface tension is the surface tension between air and water multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle acting along the circumference of the water-air-solid interface. = @nr a4, cos 8 VilI-10total force down, again, = ar? hge w thus when the column of water comes to equilibrium ere 2ur og, cos 8 = mr hap, units cm $02 = cn? em SB, am sece cw dyne = dyne oy 60S 8, 1 and 2 above both result VitI-114. Capillary Pressure (air-water system Fro. 3-3. Pressure relations in capillury tubes. pressure at A' is equal to pressure at A pressure at B is equal to the pressure at A minus the head of water between A & B - oygh see dyne _ dyne _ _gm _cm units = dyng . ah 88 cm cmt cm? cm? sec VILI-12c. thus between B' and B there is @ pressure difference d. call this pressure difference between B' and & “capillary pressure” Pa- Py = Pygh e. remember 25 cos 0 h = Lo f. thus 20, cos 0 : we c ro Vili-13B. Capillary Pressure Between Oi] and Water Liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension equals the total force down. a. Vertical component of surface tension equals the surface tension between oil and water multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle acting along the circumference of the water- oil-solid interface. = 2ur ayy cos 0 VITI-14The downward force caused by the weight of the column of water is partially offset (bouyed) by the weight of the column o1 oil outside the capillary. Thus, total force down equals the weight of the column of water minus the weight of an equivalent column of of1 converted to force. weight per unit area of water = oyh 2. 3. net weight per unit area acting to pull surface down = py - pgh = h (oy ~ 64) 4. total force down = ar® gh (0, = 09) thus when the column of water comes to equilibrium 6 = 2ar og, cos @ = Tre gh (Py - Py) VAIL-15thus the equation for the height of the column of water 2 ay, cos 0 b= FE Tey > Pol Capillary Pressure (oil-water system) VIII-16e. pressure at A' equals pressure at A Cee oa” Pwa pressure at B is equal to the pressure at A winus the head of water between A and b eat eecial Ouo pressure at B' equal to the pressure at A minus the head of oi] between A’ and 6° thus capillary pressure, the difference between pressure at B' and the pressure at is Pe = Pop - Pub Po = (Pog - Pogh ) - (Pwa ~ Pye Poo = (Oy ~ By dghy since Pog = Pwa remember , 2 Som ¥g thus P ¢ Vili-17 B4. same expression as for the air-solid system except for the boundary tension term 25 cosy and thus ¢ 7 fF (adhesion tension, 1/radius of tube) ADHESION TENSION air water water L/radius of tube ) VilI-18an important result to remember Pub 7 Pop thus, the pressure on the concave side of a curved surface is greater than the pressure on the convex side or, pressure is greater in the non- wetting phase vili-19Capillary Pressure-Unconsolidated Sand the straight capillary previously discussed is useful for explaining basic concepts - but it is a simple and ideal system Packing of Uniform spheres Pp © By analogy to capillary tube lk Ln where Poo = c + Lr zie zIe RyRy defined in Fig d6—> + 4] - ee Ry a vi1l-20 Fro. 3-6, Idealired con- tact for wetting fluid and apherical grains. (From Leverett *)Wettabdility-Consolidated Sand Pendular-Ring vistribution - wetting phase is not continuous, occupies the small interstices - non- wetting phase is in contact with some of the solid Funicular Distribution - wetting phase is continuous, completely covering surface of solid (a) (d) Fig. 3-7. ldealized representation of distribution of wetting and nonwetting fluid phase about intergrain contacts of spheres. (a) Pendular-ring distribution; (b) funicular distribution. (from Fancher et al®) ViTI-21IV. Kelationship Setween Capillary Pressure and Saturation A. Remember that the height a Iiquid will rise in a tube depends on a. adhesion b. fluid density c. variation of tube diameter with height B. Consider an experiment in which liquid fs allowed to rise in a tube of varying diameter under atmospheric pressure. Pressure in the gas phase is increased forcing the interface to a new equilibrium position. atmospheric higher pressure pressure R Ay fluid enturation in « nonuniform pore. Fic. 3-8. Dependence of interfacial ure on 6, pendence of interfacial curvature “aoandells) Same pore, same contact angle, different fluid saturation. (From VIL1-22Capillary pressure is defined as the pressure difference across the interface. 2. This illustrates: Capillary pressure is greater for smal radius of curvature than for large radius of curvature. An inverse relationship between capillary pressure and wetting-phase saturation. Lower wetting-phase saturation results in smaller radius of curvature which means that the wetting phase will occupy smaller pores in reservoir rock. VId1-23V. kelationship Between Capiliary Pressure and Saturation History Consider an experiment using a nonuniform tube (pore in reservoir rock) tube is filled with a wetting fluid ana allowed to drain until tne interface between wetting fluid and non-wetting tiuid reaches equilibrium (drainage) tube is filled with non-wetting fluid and immersed in wetting fiufd allowing wetting fluid to inbibe until the interface reaches equilsbrium. (inhibition) Vill-24Low copllry presture — Higher copillory pressure High copillory pressure —e Lower copllary pressure le a Soturotion 100% —® — Soturation + 80% Sotueations0 —> Saturation = 10% Copiory preeure low volue —Copillry pressures A Copllary pressure high wolve —Copilory pressure» (a) (0) Fic. 3-9. Dependence of equilibrium fluid saturation upon the saturation history in nonuniform pore. (a) Fluid drains; (b) fluid imbibes. Same pore, same contact angle, eame capillary pressure, different saturation history. (From McCardell*) 3. This is an oversimplified example, however it illustrates that the relationship between wetting- phase saturation and capillary pressure is dependent on the saturation process (saturation history) a. for a given capillary pressure a higher value of wetting-phase saturation will be obtained from drainage than from imbibition. VII1-25&. Leverett conducted a similar experiment with tubes filled with sand. 16 \ 2 i ats f 1 bb 4 lee Droinoge imbibition ie ° Sond a a Sond 4 x Sond 1 : a Sond ¥. Best fig Imbibition: a2 0. 20 40 60 Woter soturation, % Fo. 3-10. Correlation of data from height-saturation experiments on clean up- consolidated sands. (From Leverett.") ) VII1-26Capillary pressure is expressed in terms of a non- dimensional correlating function (remember P. = Apgh) in general terms, drainage means replacing a wetting fluid with a non-wetting fluid b. imbibition means replacing a non-wetting fluid with a wetting fluid vill-27DRAINAGE WATER SATURATION, Sy Vill-28Capillary Pressure in keservoir Kock WATER mt, OIL AND WATER 100% WATER =P ° a ) ° Ta ‘Pw > Po where: Py in oil, psia P= pressure in water, psia a = distance above 100% water level, ft Pojy = pressure at oil-water contact, psia po, = density of water, Ib/cf Po = density of oil, Ib/cf At any point above the oil-water contact, Po VIil-29 >HEIGHT ABOVE 0-W-C PRESSURE VII1-30VII. Laboratory Measurement of Capillary Pressure Methods 1. porous diaphram 2. mercury injection 3. centrifuge 4. dynamic method VI11-31B. Porous Diaphram Method (restored state) ‘Nitrogen pressure Soran tube Crude ott Scole of Squored oper Neoprene stopper \—Wicke!- plated Spring ultra-fine hited glass disk Fig. 3.11. Porous diaphragm capillary-device. (from Welge and Bruce.*) Crude oi1 (non-wetting) Replacing Brine (wetting) = usually use air (non-wetting) & water VII1-32Start with core saturated with wetting fluid. Use pressure to force non-wetting fluid into core- displacing wetting fluid through the porous disk The pressure difference between the pressure in the non-wetting fluid and the pressure in the wetting fluid is equal to P Repeat at successively higher pressures until no more wetting fluid will come out. measure Sy periodically V111-33Results DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE 100 o 7 MINIMUM INTERSTITIAL Sw 7. Advantages a. very accurate b. can use reservoir fluids 8. visadvantages a. very slow - up to 40 days for one core b. pressure is limited by "displacement pressure” of porous disk VIL1-34c Mercury Injection Method 0-200 psi pressure gouge 0-2,000 psi pressure gauge Reguloting valve Lucite window {1 atmosphere U U-tube monometer Cylinder Lucite window Fio. 3-12. Capillary-pressure cell for mercury injection. (From Purcell") Force mercury into core - mercury is non-wetting phase - air (usually under vacuum) is wetting phase Measure pressure Calculate mercury saturation Advantages a. fast-minutes b. reasonably accurate Disadvantages a. ruins core b. difficult to relate data to oil-water systems VIII-35Centrifuge Method similar to porous disk method except centrifugal force (rather than pressure) is applied to the fluids in the core pressure (force/unit area) is computed from centrifugal force (which is related to rotational speed) saturation is computed from fluid removed (as shown in window) advantages a. fast b. reasonably accurate c. use reservoir fluids VIII-36£. bynamic Method Oil burette Q Fra. 3-14. Dynamic capillury-presaure ap- paratus (Hassler’s principle). (From Brown?) establish simultaneous steady-state flow of two fluids through core 2. measure pressures of the two fluids in core (special wetted disks) - difference is capillary pressure 3. saturation varied by regulating quantity of each fluid entering core VIL1-374. advantages a. seems to simulate reservoir conditions ' b. reservoir fluids can be used | 5. disadvantages | a. very tedious Comparison of Methods 1, Diaphram method (restored state) is considered to be most accurate, thus used as standard against which all other methods are compared. 2. Comparsion of mercury injection data against diaphram data. a. Simple theory shows that capillary pressure by mercury injection should be five times greater than capillary pressure of air-water system by diaphram method. b. Capillary pressure scale for curves determined | by mercury injection is five times greater than scale for diaphram air-water data. ) VilI-3820; - 10 20) 10 5 § [| s 6b Frio sondstone € tel Fro sonastone |g © 2 Perm. 23d 5 Perm. 470 m0 g : Por 23% : Por 26% é B12] Baa oye pet § 08 3 o8}~-—+-- 4 A P04 : o gal 23 g s #20) : Fo ao — °0 2040S 020 ad « GOA —«LO HO Hig100 60 60 tg 100 80 60 4 2 0 Total pore soace occupied by | Total cove soace occupied by ‘quid, % (a) (6) 29, 10 29 § ef], To] e Potury toncetone | © ; ones gt Pem. 1450m6 —]® £ g'9 Wilcox sandstone : Por. 20% 4 g Perm. 430 md 2 6 & B42 Por 22% 46 5 =e & | wall|uco g 08 ag § 08] i 0a 25 faa E | Ho = z iF ° 10 ° 0 20~-40~«GOS«O.«LO'HO 020 40 «O—«BO «HOD HO 49100 80 60 40 20 0 g100 80 60 40 20 0 Toto! pore space occupied by tiuid, % Total pore space occupied by liquid, % te) @ 29 10 29, 10 S g § I £ £16 — Son Anges 8g ¢ 16 Son Andes —j8 © 3 Timestone g 3 Timestone : g Perm. 35 ma z & Perm. 43 mo z 8 42] 1} “bo. 19% = —16 & 5 12 Por. 16% le & 8 08 Y 43 B08 a "4 na ee 2 3 5 3 9 5 5 04 22 soa wo 2 § aS g 2 4 g 2 #20 ee ae 2 ° 9 ° ‘0 0 20~«40~«GOCOO ZO 0 20 A0~~O«O «OO HO Hg100 80 60 40 20 0 fig H00 80 60 40 20 0 Toto! pore space occupies by lauic, % Totot pore space occupied by liguid, te) “MIII-39 i") nent cell (HO) Fig, 3-15. Typical capillary-pressure curves obtained from displace and from mercury uppuratus (Hg). (Prom Purcell)Th in in, 6. ani ese comparison plus more complex theory dicate that the ratio between mercury jection data and diaphram data is about 9. (other data indicate value between 5.5 47.5) & x TT 225.0 60; T 348 g ® Restored stote” 3 i © Restored stote | 2254 -. mercury wnjection 72g § 59 + # Meccury injection ]“2° Ba t_ sook & | 232 z Sondstone core gor A Porosity ~ 26.1% ee at y —dws et 2 3 FT permeabiity 143 dors)? S 3 sed 7 Factor-7.5 a 8 § 10] ~ 750 8g 16 $ ae Limestone core z 3 £ Porosity- 23.0% = tm 375 £ E10 permeability 3.36 md —Y] 6 = = 5 Factor - 5.8 zo) rs 0 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 HeO—— HO 100 80 60 40 20 0 Peete eee ——He ——Hg Liquid soturotion, % Liquid soturation, % (a) (0) Fig. 3-16. Capillary pressures by restored-state and mercury-inj ection methods. (from Srown?) VIL1-40 Mercury copillary pressure, psi3. Comparison of centrifuge data against diaphram data 32, Core No. AVZ 030md gH 249% 4 Centrifuge doto fst run © Centrifuge dato 24 run 244-47 x Disk method 28 Coa ee) Brine saturation Fia. 3-17. Comparison of centrifuge and disk capillary-pressure data. (From Brown!) VIII-a14. Comparison of dynamic data against diaphram data 100, Dynamic sStotic moter s { Sandstone core $ 60}- — 5 aof-— + 0 20 40 60 60 100 Liquid soturation, % Fra. 3-18. Capillary pressure by static and dynamic methods. (From Brown") VIIL-42example VILI-1 Comparison of Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure Data with Porous Diaphragm Data Problem: A. Calculate capillary pressure ratio, aN —p— . for the following data: AW Paty = 430 bynes/cm Spy = 72 Oynes/em = 140° = 0° ® AH, = 140 ony 0 B. Pore geometry is very complex. The curvature of the interface and pore radius are not necessarily functions of contact angles. Calculate the ratio using the relationship. Pe c 6 an An ede eee. z chy AW VI11-43Solution: AL aH, TAK, SOS Oak, cd = fz —I Tay COs cay AW AW 480 cos (140°) 72 (cos 0°) = 5.1 Pe AH PAH, « —to s caw AW 480 ~ 70 P AH = 6.9 Pe VII1-44Discussion 30 P, Caw (psta) Best way to determine the relationship between mercury and air-water data is to generate capillary pressure curves for each set of data and compare directly. 150 FRIO SANDSTONE Air-Mercury © ang St Air-Water 100 Wetting Phase Saturation, Swp Mercury Injection and Porous Diaphragm Methods For this given set of conditions, mercury injection method requires a higher displacement pressure, must adjust ratio between scales until match is obtained Minimum irreducible wetting phase saturations are the same. VI1-4530 Caw PSIA) 150 FRIO SANDSTONE Cig Mercury 100 Wetting Phase Saturation, Syp Reduction in permeability results in a higher minimum irreducible wetting phase saturation. For both cases, mercury system still has higher required displacement pressure. VIt1-46vill. Converting Laboratory Data to keservoir Conditions 2 3, cos, setting r =r : 2 a, cosy _ 2 OR COSbR ° P (ocos®), a ose, cy reservoir capillary pressure, ps capillary pressure measured in laboratory, psi 6 = interfacial tension measured in Jaboratory, dynes/cm = reservoir interfacial tension, aynes/cm reservoir contact angle, degrees laboratory contact angle, degrees Vill-47Example VII1-2 Converting Laboratory vata to Reservoir Conditions Problem: express reservoir capillary pressure in terms of laboratory data lab data: ogy > 72 dynes/cm =? Saw 0 reservoir data: Tow * 24 dynes/cm = 20° ® yy 7 20 Solution: (ocos¥), : @ (ocossyi acy 24(cos 20°) » Tacos 0°) SL Pp = 0.313 P R oL VIII-48Determining Water Saturation in keservoir from Capillary Pressure bata A. Lonvert laboratory capillary pressure data to reservoir conditions as in section VIII. B. Calculate capillary pressure in reservoir for various heights above height at which capillary pressure is zero. = Seoghe 124 go in english units lag = thus Ib/cu ft Py ~ Po? 32 ft/sec® 2 ibm _ft lbf sec’ z ft sq in/sq ft Ibf/sq in, psi Viti-49Example VIII-3 Determining Mater Saturation From Capillary Pressure Curve Probl Given the relationship, Pog 7 0-313 Pey> calculate the water saturation in the reservoir at a height of 40 ft above the oil-water contact pp 7 0-85 gm/cm by 7 1-0 gm/em \ 20 Pou. io) lS 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 50 100 Sw laboratory curve VIL1-50Solution: loy eg) fh Peg? tee (1.0-0.85)(62.4 $25) (40) Poot —— = 2.6 psi ® P P 8.3 psi L 0.313 move to the right horizontally from Pc, = 8.3 psi to the capillary pressure curve. drop vertically to the x-axis, read Sy. 50% VIII-51capillary Pressure Variation A. Effect of Permeability Displacement pressure increases as permeability decreases 2. Winimum interstitial water saturation increases as permeability decreases 30 200, 27 = te0}- «| 3 é 18 & S24 § soft z Ppa belt is 85 18 § 120 ae as 2845 8 100 58 £12 § 60) 82 or : 6 8 ao} £ 33 2t— = i ° 0! 1 : 0 yo 20-30 40-60 6070-80 30 100 Water saturation, % Fic. 3-26. Reservoir fluid-distribution curves. (From Wright and Wooddy.") VIIi-52B. Effect of Grain Size Distribution 3 20) 2250 5 348 I TT . af. T § © Restored stote z ; © Restored stote 2 214. mercury injection 97 5 § ‘© Mercury injection ]@2°, Ba | Iso08 Sao 232 z Sandstone core c= a Porosity ~ 28.1% 5 a1 —hws = 3 5 Permeability ~1.43 darcys} N25 & $ SY ie = Foctor-7.5 3 2 off 50 8g 6 5 5 3 Limestone core = i = Porosity - 23.0% £4 375 2 E 10b permeodiity-3.36 ma —¥] 58 PN 5 pte Zo) 0 = ol 9 20-40 60 80 100 = % 20 4060-80100 H0—— H0—— 100 80 60 40 20 O 100 80 60 40 20 0 ——Hgo ——Ho Liquid soturation, % Ne {o) Fr state and mercury-injection (From Brown!) Liquid soturation, % (o) 3416. Capillary proswures by restoredi- methods ajority of grains same size, so most pores are same size - curve ) (well sorted) Large range in grain and pore sizes - curve (>) (poorly sorted) VI1I-53 Mercury copillary pressure, psi| | 20) 10 29 0 g ] a e § \ £ < Poluty sandstone | © 16 uove = |g © gts Perm. 4450ma | ¢ 5 Witcox sondstone g ? Por. 20% 3 2 Perm. 430 md 2 8 12] 6 & Baz Por 22% 6 & 2 ii 5 2 | wa\iin20 f $08 4= Boe ae 5 04 23 $04 a 3 Z 3 z PISS: ° 0 0) ‘9 020 «40 ~«C«GO«BO. «1 HO 0 20 -40~«6O «BO «100-20 49100 60 60 40 20 0 Hg100 60 «660 640020 ° Total pore spoce occupied by liquid, % Total pore space occupied by liquid, % a) (a) 20 - 10 20 10 § “77: ] € £46) |_ Frio sonastore |g © 16} Frio sondstone eg 5 Perm. 470 md g 3 Perm. 230 g : | Par 26% zg bo. 23% : 5 2 le & Baap je E 7 5 2 | s $ o6|— 43 Sos 4-4 4g 5 | fe : £ o4}-—+— ae : 2 3 2 = = z — |? o 9 020 40 60 80 «O0H,0 Hg 100 80 60 40 20 0 Toto! pore space occupied by liquid, % 10, 20. 40 60 0 100H;0 Hg100 60 60 40 20 0 Total pote space occupied by liquid, %e (o) (a) ‘0 FD 10 € § { s ell 5 $l son anaes [22 46 : sen anaes —Jo ¢ g Timestone g § Timestone g : Perm. 43 me # ¢ Perm, 35 md 3 8 2 Por 16% 6 & — & 42] Pon t9% —{6 & 5 g & 5 2 08 4S Fos boa 22 oa : i ol 0 7 0 0204060109 HO 02040 «OBO AOD HO Hg 80 60 40 20 0 Totat pore space occupied by liquid, % (f) Hg100 80 60 40 20 0 Total pore space occupied by liguic, % (e) Vil1-54 Fic. 3-15, Typical capillary-pressure curves obtained from di (From Purcell?) and from mercury uppuratus (Hg) splucement cell (11,0)Averaging Capillary Pressure Data J-function attempt to convert all capillary pressure data to a universal curve. universal curve impossible to generate due to wide range of differences existing in reservoirs concept useful for given rock type from given reservoir. where Pe = dyne/sq cm = dyne/em = sq cm 6 = traction or can use any units as long as you ace consistant. VIII-5515 - oaASel 14 "Ssar 4st 0.8 43] oss ont6 “haa one | xe ‘ast ~— 0.49 ale «10 3 2 os) 5 : 08 2 o7 £ 06 Theoretic! iting 3 vole forrequtar packed apheres & os oe > oat oa 3 02 4 Kinsato shale ol Lt 010 80-30-40 50-60 70-80-9010 Water saturation, Sw Fic. 3-22. Capillary retention curves. (From Rose and Bruce.) VI11-5660 100 Liquie sotucation, % ' Liquid soturation, % (ol 0) 4 *, T | ow as | ie i | a8 I \ +4 | oo > of ee eels 3 a5 60 BOO | OO «AO BOBO 100 | Linuid soturtion, % iid soturation, % ra) a SG 40~~—«60 OOO Ligvie satueation, % te) | Fio. 3-23. J-function correlation of capillary-presmure data in the Edwards formation, | Jourdanton Field, J curve for (a) all cores; (b} limestone cores; (c) dolomite cores: (a) microgranular limestone cores; (e) coarse-grained limestone cores. (From Brown’) VI1I-57ihe Capillary Pressure Problem i A glass tube is placed vertically in a beaker of water. The interfacial tension between the air and water is 72 dynes/cm and the contact angle is 0 degree. Calculate: a. the capillary rise of water in the tube if th radius of the tube is 0.01 centimeters. bd. what is the difference in pressure in ps across the air-water interface in the tube. ne displacement pressure for a water saturated porcelain plate is 55 psi of air. Wnat is the diameter in inches of the largest pore in the porcelain piate? Assume 72 dynes/cm and 0 degree. Vili-58Solution Problem 1 1. Oqy * 72 dynes/em y= 1 gm/cm 6 = 0° y = 980 dynes/gm a. capillary rise of water if radius is .O1 cm licos 0° (01) (1.0) (980) h = 14.69 cm pressure drop in psi across interface P, = Py = Pygh = (1-0)(980)(14.69) . 0_dynes/em* 1.0133 x 1o® dynes/em 14.696 psi ¢ = 0.0142 atm (242858 P50) 0.209 psi ) VII1-59atm 1.0133 x 106 dynes/cm? Po = 55 psi (-———-— SSS © 14.696 a 3] 3.792 x 106 dynes/cm? 2 ogycos @ r ay c ‘ : y= 2(72) cos 0° . 31797 x 1075 cm (2 3.792 x ive 2.54 cm 1.495 x 107° in 2.99 x 1075 in a VIL1-60Given the intormation below and graph of Pc, phase saturation (Sy), construct the curves for Pc... reservoir, and Water is the wetting phase i yoth the laboratory and the + fluids ” 6 Pwet Pnon-wet % Capillary Pressure Problem 2 Jefunction vs. Sy Vab_ air-water vy? voir, 60 dyne/em 1.0 ga/cm? 0 gm/cm> 37 md 16% VILI-61 res oil-water 25° 20 dyne/cm 1.1 gn/em? 0.863 gm/cm? variate variable vs. wettingne Solution Problem 2 apoOS oy aLeos (20) cos 25 (60) cos oc) 0.302 Poy (60) cos 0 +253 P 253 Pop VII1-63Solution Problem 2 Vill-64 Sw Pe Pop hp Q % psi psi _ft assorted 15 32 9.7 94.1 8.1 20 19.5 5.9 57.4 4.9 25 15.6 47 45.9 3.9 30 13.2 4.0 38.8 3.3 40 9.9 3.0 29.1 2.5 50 7.8 2.4 22.8 2.0 60 6.0 1.8 17.6 1.5 70 4.7 1.4 13.8 1.2 80 3.7 lal 10.9 0.9 90 2.8 0.8 8.2 0.7 100 2 0.6 5.9 0.5Re a = 2FLUID SATURATIONSA. FLUID SATURATIONS Basic Concepts of Hydrocarbon Accumulation Initially, water tilled 100% of pore space Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon Methods For vetermining Fluid Saturations A Core Analysis (direct method) Factors Affecting Fluid Saturations flushing by mud filtrate 1. differential pressure forces mud filtrate into formation ahead of bit Ph? Pres 2. for water base mud, filtrate displaces formation water and oil from the area around the well (saturations change) 3. for oil base mud, filtrate will be oil. saturations may not change. IX-1Example: kffects of Flushing by Mud Filtrates ring With kater Base Mud Oi] Zone at winimum Interstitial Water Saturation sat at surface flushing by bit trip to surface | compared to res Sy + ¥ % probably + So ¥ ¥ + : + + Sy Gas Zone at minimum Interstitial Water Saturation sat at surface flushing by bit trip to surface | compared to res Sy + + 2 So - - - + 2 Sg + Water Zone sat at surtace flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res Sy 5 ¥ ‘ c. S . - : + * Ss 1xX-2| Prior to Filtrate Flush Boil & Water Gas After Filtrate Flush and Gas Expansion During Trip to Surface Saturations in Characteristic Sand During Coring and RecoveryCoring with Vil Base Hua Vil Lone at minimum Interstitial water Saturation sat at surface Hushing by bit trip to surface compared to res 5, + + - + 1 Gas Zone at Minimum Interstitial water Saturation sat at surface flushing by vit trip to surface compared to res . 5 So ' + * ‘ + ‘ oa water Zone sat at surface | flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res Sw + + + Ss + + + - + + Sg IX-3b. bringing core to surface 1. reduction in hydrostatic pressure causes gas to come out of solution 2. gas displaces oil and water causing saturations to change Laboratory Methods Evaporation using retort distillation apparatus 7 ore Sample Heating Element. e- 1000-1100 °F Cooling : Water In Ss cooling Water Out 2. Condenser zeprocess a. heat smal) sample of rock b. oi] and water vaporize, then condense in graduated cylinder c. record volumes of oi] and water peer tr J IX-5correct quantity of oi] a. 1X-6e. determine saturations where s, Ss, s v v = water saturation = oil saturation 2 = gas saturation = pore volume, cu? = volume of water collected, cm? Vg = volume of of1 collected, cm? Souwe Ix-7Bo disadvantages of retort process must obtain temperature of 1000- 1100°F to vaporize oi1; water of crystallization from clays also vaporizes causing increase in water recovery WATER RECOVERED PORE WATER 0 0 = TIME at high temperatures, of] wil crack and coke. (change in hydrocarbon molecules) amount of recoverable liquid decreases t b éc. core sample ruined 3. advantages of retort process a. short testing time required b. acceptable results obtained b. Leaching using solvent extractio apparatus Conaenser Grageoted tobe Sotvent (ASTM extenetion ate 1. process a. weigh sample to be extracted heat applied to system causes water from core to vaporize c¢. solvent leaches hydrocarbons from core Ix-9d, water condenses, collects in trap. record final water volume e. reweigh core sample determine volume of of] in sample Oy = Mary) = ou v _ary” ° Po where: 4; = weight of core sample prior to leaching Hgry = weight of core sample after leaching 2. disadvantages of leaching a. process is slow b. volume of ofl must be calculated 1x-103. advantages of leaching a. very accurate water { saturation value obtained heating does not remove water of crystallization sample can be used for tuture analysis i IX-113. Uses of Core Determined Fluid Saturation a cores cut with water base mud presence of oi] in tormation 2. determination of oil/water contact determination of gas/oil contact Gas ol WATER S$, = 0 in gas zone 2 15% in oi1 zone < i z S Sop in water zone = residual oi! saturation So Occ s or ix-12b. cores cut with oil base mud (“natural state" cores 1. minimum interstitial water | saturation 2. hydrocarbon saturation } 3. oil/water contact B. Capillary Pressure Measurements (discussed in Chapter VIII) . Electric Logs 1X-13EXAMPLE IX-1 you want to analyze a core sample containing oil, water and gas. Wy» initial = 216.7 gm the sample was evacuated and the gas space was saturated with water (p, = 1 gm/cm) We» new = 219.7 gm Vigo removed = 13.0 cm® Wes dry = 199.5 gm = 95 cm? calculate: a. porosity b. water saturation c. oil saturation assuming 35° API d. gas saturation e. lithology 1X-14SOLUTION gas vol. = 219.7 - 216.7 water vol. = 13 - 3 5 My fluids = 219.7 - 199.5 . 20.2 gm We of! = 20.2 - 10 - 3 . 7.2 gm o, = are = 0.85 gm/cm® 131.5 + 35°API o = 7.2/0.85 = 8.49 cm? = 8.49 + 3+ 10 = 21.47 cm @ = 21.47/95 = 22.6% = 3/21.47 = 13.97% S\ 2 10/21.47 = 46.57% Sq = 8.49/21.47 = 39.46% pb. = 199.5/(95-21.47) = 2.71 gm/cm® m lithology = limestone IX-15EXAMPLE IX-2 a core sample was brought into the laboratory for analysis. 70 gm of the core sample were placed in a mercury pump and found to have 0.71 cm? of ga volume. 80 gm of the core sample was placed in a retort and found to contain 4.5 cm of of] and 2.8 cm? of water. a piece of the original sample weighing 105 gm was placed in a pycnometer and found to have a bulk volume of 45.7 cm. assume p, = 1.0 gm/cm> and 35° API oi1 calculate: a. porosity b. water saturation c. oil saturation d. gas saturation e. lithology IX-16SOLUTION 3 22cm" (109 gm) = 1.014 cm 70 gm 4.5 cm 3 <22-£™ (100 gm) = 5.63 cm 80 gm 3 v, = 2:8" (100 gm = 3.50 cm? 80 gm posal 3 (100 gm) = 43.52 cm’ 105 gm We» matrix = 100 - 5.63(.85) - 3.5(1.0) = 91.71 gm = 43.52 - 1.014 - 5.63 - 3.50 = 33.37 cm 3 1.014 + 5.63 + 3.50 = 10.14 cm Sq = 1.014/10.14 = 10% y = 3-50/10.14 = 34.5% Sq = 5.63/10.14 = 55.5% = 10.14/43.52 = 23.31% (91.71/33.38) = 2.75 IX-17Problem: Data: FLUID SATURATION PROBLEM 1 Calculate porosity, water, oil, and gas saturations, and lithology from the following core analysis data. How should the calculated saturations compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir? oil well core with water base mud initial weight of saturated core = 86.4 gm after gas space was saturated with water, weight of core = 87.95 gm weight of core immersed in water = 48.95 gm core was extracted with water recovery being 7.12 cm after drying core in oven, core weighed 79.17 gm assume 0, = 1.0 gn/cm? oi) gravity = 40°API IX-18FLUID SATURATION PROBLEM 1 Core Cut With Water Base Mud 141.5 131.5 + CAPT Solution: 141.5 ate = 0.825 131.5 + 40° = 3 = 0.825 gm/cm v a. oe 2 Yb Vets ~ Vue ~ Mary = 87.95 - 7.12(1.0) - 79.17 = 1.66 gin -28_ = 2.01 cm 0.825 gm/cm Wot Vpee 7 (lsat 7 Wal/( ry) = 7.12 - (87.95 - 86.4)/(1.0) 3 Vy = 5-57 cm IX-193 Vg = 1.55 cm Vy = 5.57 + 2.01 + 1.55 Vp = 9.13 em? vy = Yb = o = 2:13 ~ 23.42 39.0 s, = 1M woy P Sy = 61.08 = 22.0% 3 sg ~ 1:55. cm, ~ 17.0% 9.13 cm 1X-20 = 39.0 cmVq = 39 - 9.13 = 29.87 cm? dr, oy = oe v a = 79.17 gn/29.87 cm? = 2.65 98, cm «+ lithology is sandstone water saturation at surface will probably be greater than reservoir water saturation oil saturation at surface will be less than reservoir oil saturation gas saturation at surface will be greater than reservoir gas saturation 1X-21Problem: Data: FLUID SATURATIUN PROBLEM 2 Calculate porosity, water saturation, oil saturation, gas saturation, and lithology from the following core analysis data. How should the saturations you have calculated compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir? 0i1 well core cut with an oi] base mud Sample 1 weighed 130 gm and was found to have a bulk volume of 51.72 cm? Sample 2 weighed 86.71 gm, and from the retort method was found to contain 1.90 cm? of water and 0.87 cm? of of] Sample 3 weighed 50 gm and contained 0.40 cm? of gas space = 3 assume P, = 1.0 gm/cm w oil gravity = 40°API 1X-22Solution: FLUID SATURATION PROBLEM 2 Core Cut With Oi] Base Mud 131.5 + API ot th. = 0.825 131.5 + 40° 9. = 0.825 gm/cm? x 100 x = (1.00 + 2.19 + 0.80) cm/100 gm V, = 3.99 cm/100 gm _ 39.78 cm? 100 gm = 3:99/100_ y 199 = 10% 39.78/100 1X-2339.78 - 3.99 35.79 cm?/100 gin (Meee osteo eva 1X-24 sat© 2 S s = = 97_gm/100_ gm 35.79 cm/100 gm = 2.71 gn/cm lithology - limestone water saturations should be fairly close in value oil saturation will be less than reservoir oil saturation gas saturation will be greater than reservoir gas saturation 1X-25ELECTRIVAL PRUPERTIES OF ROCK-FLUID SYSTEMSELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF RUCK-FLUID SYSTEMS T. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF FLUID SATURATED ROCK A. Definition of resistivity ELECTRICAL CURRENT ——> FLOW j= given a box of length (L) and cross- sectional area (A) completely filled with brine of resistivity (Ry)- the resistance of the brine in the box to current flow may be expressed as: r = resistance - ohm = resistivity - ohm meters L = length - meters A = area - (meters)* X-1Nonconauctors of Electricity 1. of] 2. gas 3. pure water 4. minerals 5. rock fragments Conductors of Electricity 1. water with dissolved salts conducts electricity (low resistance) 2. clay Development of Saturation Equation (ignore clay) ELECTRICAL CURRENT —— FLOWThe electrical current flows through the water (brine). a. the area available for current flow is the cross- sectional area of the pores. b. the path through the pores is bps Resistance to electrical flow through the porous media is equal to the resistance of a container of area Ap and length Ly filled with water (brine). RL r= —pP , water filled cube P RL —f— » porous media x-3X-4 resistance of rock cube with pores filled with brine, ohm formation brine resistivity, ohm-m (from water sample or SP log) resistivity of formation 100% saturated with brine of resistivity, Ry, ohm-m cross-sectional area available for current flow actual path length jon (current) must travel through rock cross-sectional area of porous media length of porous media3. Since B = porosity, @ L ch = tortuosity, (a measure of roc cementation) L a t ) A R and ) then RA : ate P becomes X-5 Ky = f (Rye @ tortuosity)E. Electrical Formation Resistivity Factor, F the equation for resistivity of a formation 100% saturated with a brine of resistivity of Ry F(R, 4, tortuosity) can be written as Ry = F Ry where F is the electrical formation resistivity factor R . %o Peo W cementation factor, m a. it has been found experimentally that the equation for F takes the form Feco™ where © is a constant m is the cementation factor X-6thus log F = log C- mlog % 100 when intercept = © slope = -m, the cementation factor X-7Commonly used equation for electrical ) formation resistivity factor. a. Archie's Equation Feo" Humble Equation F = 0.62 @ 7°15 (best suited for sandstones) Tape 3-2, p. 105 - Pirson Tanue 3:2. Cementarion Factor (m) anv Lrtuowaay Rack description im wales Unconsoliduted racks (loase sandy, oiilitie limestones) eo Very slightly cemented (Gulf Coust type af rand, exec Wilcox). 1A lightly cemented (most xands with 20% porasity or more) 1G Moderately cemented (highly conmolidated «ands of 15% porasity ar les)... 1-81 Highly cemented (low-porosity sandy, quartzite, limestone, dolomite of intere ‘granular porosity, chalk) : 2.0-2.2 X-8EXAMPLE X-3 Determine the porosity for a sandstone using Archie's and Humble equation when the formation factor is 42.1. Which of the two equations will give the most reasonable answer? X-9SOLUTION Archie's: Humble: Example X-1 ee] m= 2.0 for sandstone ete ./F ¢ g = 15.41% F = 0.62/g2°15 24S = 0.62/F @ = 14,068 Humble's equation is better for sandstone.F. Resistivity Index, I, and Saturation Exponent ,n 1 definition of resistivity index R 1g 0 where Ro resistivity of formation 100% saturated with water (brine) of resistivity Ry, ohm-m resistivity of formation with water (brine) saturation less than 100%, ohm-m it has been found experimentally that where n is the saturation exponent <= 2.0 X-Ll3. rearrange R t = log % 100 1 al slope = -n, when n is the saturation exponent NOTE: log y; - logy : 2 slope = Tog %, > TOG xy X-12i. Use of Electrical Formation kesistivity Factor, Cementation Factor, and Saturation Exponent A. obtain porosity, , from electric log or core analysis B. F = 97 (usually use Archie or Humble equation) ¢. obtain water resistivity, ky, from water sample or electric log vw. Rye F Ry E. convert Ry from electric log to water saturation, Sy X-13111. Laboratory measurement of Electrical Properties \ of Rock A. apparatus AC SOURCE eo 1000 OHM STD. RESISTOR N ~ 7 B. calculations } ; A 1. resistance of core €-1r where: £ = voltage, volts 1 = current, amperes r = resistance, ohms 6 at + Teore = 7 ) x-14resistivity of core R Teore® core = —P substituting r = & into the equation, T EA Reore = EA core “5 procedure 1. determine resistance of core set desired current from AC source. low current preferred so core does not heat up b. record voltage from voltmeter 2. determine resistivity of core a. for the first test completely saturate core with brine Sy Reore = Ro 100%, b. for next test, desaturate core by 15-20%, until Sy < 1008 Regpe = Re c. repeat tests until Sy = Syip X-15Syip = minimum interstitial brine saturation (irreducable) = resistivity of core 100% saturated with brine \ Ry, = resistivity of core Jess than 100% ) saturated with brine ! of Ry resistivity index = I X-16vb. determine saturation exponent, n 1. rearrange saturation equation 7 I” Ss) w Re X-172. Plot log log Sy vs log Sy or log I vs 100 1 0.1 Sy 1.0 3. the slope of the plot is -n, where n is the saturation exponent X-18Example X-2 Given the following data, calculate the electrical formation resistivity factor and saturation exponent of the core. Sw Water Saturation ® 100.0 86.0 74.0 63.0 54.0 49.0 = s, wir 55 ohm-cm 0.01 amp 2.54 cm 3.2 cm E Voltage across Core, volts 7.64 10.50 14.34 20.16 27.52 34.67 X-19Solution le Example X-2 electrical formation resistivity factorsaturatio 1.00 +86 74 +63 254 49 n exponent 1050 1434 2010 2452 3467 1663 2271 3192 4358 5490 X-21 1.000 1.374 1.877 2.638 3.601 4.53710.0Jog 10 - log 1 Tog .334 - log 1 n= slope = -0 n= 2.10 = saturation exponent could have been calculated as the ratio of voltage at Sy divided by the voltage at Sy = 1.0 X-23betermine cementation factor, m, and constant & for electrical formation resistivity factor equation. Test several core samples from reservoir with formation brine. a. determine Ry and 9 for each sample determine Ry for formation brine 2. Plot data according to form of equation for electrical formation resistivity factor.log F = log C - mlog ¢ 100 F 10 1 a 1 a slope = m = cementation factor intercept = C (intercept found at =1.0)Example X-3 The laboratory test of Example 1X-2 has been repeated for several core samples from the reservoir given below. Calculate the cementation factor and intercept for the formation resistivity factor equation. Porosity o 0.152 0.168 0.184 0.199 0.213 0.224 X-26 Formation Resistivity factor F 40 32 26 22 19 a7Example X-4 | Solution log F = og C -m log > 1 plot log F vs log | X-27attslope 5 3 2 intercept | log F Jog 10 log ¢ log 50 - log 10 Tog 0-137 - log 0.284 slope = -2.21 .21 = cementation factor log C -m log ¢ oy © -2.21 log 0.284 - .2082 = .62 = intercept X-29IV. Effect of Clay on Resistivity A, ideally, only water conducts a current in rock b. if clay is present, portion of current conducted through the clay BRIN X-30where Ro, = resistivity measured on sample of reservoir rock with clay, 100% saturated with brine of resistivity Ry Reyay = component of measured resistivity due to clay Ry = component of measured resistivity due to brine C. to determine electrical formation resistivity factor 1. measure resistivity of core sample (containing clay) in usual manner this will be R w oq 2. measure resistivity of brine, Ry, in usual manner 3. plot X-31Coum-M)~ = intercept Relay 1 = siope F X-32o. effect of clay 1. define Fa = , clays reduced the apparent formation resistivity factor CLEAN SAND Ry» (OHM-M) —> 2. formation resistivity factor decreases more gradually when clay is present in the formation 100 wah3. Saturation exponent n is not constant when clay is present in formation. CLEAN SAND =n, sytel 0.1 Su 1.0 variation of water saturation with water resistivity and shalinessMULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCKMULTIPHASE FLOK IN PURUUS RUCK | | 1. Effective Permeability A. Permeability, k, previously discussed applies only to flow when pores are 100% saturated with one fluid - sometimes | called absolute permeability. kAAp ae St 8B. When pore space contains more than one fluid , the above equation becomes k GA 4p, where Go = flow rate of of! | ay 7 flow rate of water \ ag = flow rate of gas j and : k effective permeability to oil = effective permeability to water kg = effective permeability to gas XI-1Effective permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance capacity of porous media to a particular fluid when the porous media is saturated with more than one fluid 0. Effective permeability is a function of 1. geometry of the pores of the rock 2. rock wetting characteristics 3. fluid saturations E. Darcy equation for multiple fluids in linear flow, in oilfield units. A (p a, = t-t271 x 1073 2 ky A (Py - Po) -3 Kw 17 Pew gy = Petar. x 10-8 kGA (py - P -3 i” 2 : 0 2 29 qy = 11271 x1 i when k= A p = psia L= ft q = res bbl/day 1-2Il. Relative Permeability AL Defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to the effective permeability to that fluid at 1U0% saturated (absolute permeadility). B. It is normally assumed that the effective permeability at 100% saturation is the same for all fluid in a particular rock. Not necessarily true in shaly sand {Il. Typical Relative Permeability Curves A. Use subscript wp to represent the “wetting phase” Use subscript nwp to represent the “non-wetting phase" X1-3NON-WETTING PHASE eo -~ @ 7.100 EQUILIBRIUM S MINIMUM INTERSTITIAL Syp nwe xI-4a oe ee = 100% wp yar wp rapid decrease in k as S, decreases P up wp 0, at micimum interstitial Syp = 0, at equilibrium Spy) Note that ky + ky < 1.0 wp nw \ Gos ou, 2 | 2 Relotive permeebi SEE 0 1020 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Liquid saturotion, % Fito, 3-37, Relative permeubility to gus and oil for West Texns dolomites, (——) Wasion Field data; ( —) Slaughter Field data; (~~ -) averge results of 26 cores from three West Texas Permian dolomites. (Fram Bulnes and Firting™) XI-5Effect of saturation history i Two types of relative permeability curves drainage curve - wetting phase is displaced by non- wetting phase, i.e., wetting phase saturation is decreasing. imbibition curve - non-wetting phase is displaced by wetting phase, i.e., wetting phase saturation i increasing. The typical relative permeability curve shown below represents a provess in which process begins with porous rock 100% saturated with wetting phase (Sy, = 100%) wetting phase is displaced with non-wetting phase (drainage) until wetting phase ceases to flow (Sy) = minimum interstitial wetting phase saturation) then non-wetting phase is displaced with wetting phase (imbibition) until non-wetting phase ceases to flow (Sy, = equilibrium or “residual non-wetting phase saturation). x1-6minimum interstitual residual non-wetting wetting phase saturation phase saturation x1-73. The word “hysteresis” describes the process in which the results (k,) are different when measurements are made i different directions. O The procedure (drainage or imbibition) used to obtain k, data Ais laboratory must correspond to the process in the reservoir. a. initial distribution of fluids in reservoir was by drainage b. at and behind a water front (flood or encroachment) the process is imbibition 5. Wetting preference for reservoir rocks is usually water first, then oil, finally gas. Fiuids Present wetting Phase water & oil water water & gas water oi] & gas oi Xi-8L. Three phase relative permeability 1. Often three phases are present in petroleum reservoirs. 2. Vernary (triangular) diagram is used to represent a three- phase system. 100% 130% WATER, Te xi-y3. Relative permeability to of7 in a three phase system. 400% gos 100% water 100% oil Fia. 3-40. kre, relutive permeability to oil as a function of saturation, Note, k, is shown in % 0 dependence of relative permeability to oil on saiurations of other phases is established as follows: oil phase has a greater tendency than gas to wet the solid. interfacial tension between water and oil is less than that between water and gas. oi) occupies portions of pore adjacent to water. at lower water saturations the oil occupies more of the smaller pores. ihe extended flow path length accounts for the change in relative permeability to oil at constant oil saturation and varying water saturation. X1-104. kelative permeability to water in a three-phase system. a. straight lines indicate relative permeability to water is a function of water saturation only. thus, kp can be plotted on cartesian Ww coordinates against Sy. i Xie.y to water, 60} —4 Wyckoff ond Botset *\ 40] +— 20}— Relative permea! 20 40. 60 60 100 Water saturation, % Fic. 3-89, Relative permeability to water asa function of water saturation. (From Leverett and Lewis*) XItae5. Relative permeability to gas in a three-phase system. 100% got Fia. $41. key, rolative permeability to Rus tus w function of saturation curves above indicate that k, is a function ot saturations of other phaseS present. This is probably not true. it is felt that the above data was misinterpreted. other research shows that ky is a unique function of gas saturation. the other phases, oil and water, occupy the smaller pore openings and wet the surface of the rock. therefore, kp should be dependent only on the total saturat¥on of the other two phases (i.e. 1-Sy) and independent of how much of that total is composed of either phase. thus k, can be plotted on cartesian coordingtes against S. + Sy XI-126. SotrSe Bottom line - for three-phase system in water wettea rock. a. water ie is located in smaller pore spaces and along sand grains therefore k, is a function of Sy only thus plot ky, against Sy on rectangular coordinates X1-13is located in center of larger pores therefore kp is a function of Sg only 9 thus plot ky against Sg (or So + Sy) ow rectangular Coordinate is located between water and gas in the pores and to a certain extent in the smaller pore spaces therefore k, is a function of Sos Sys and Sg thus plot kp against So, Sy, Sg ona 9 triangular diagram if Sy can be considered to be constant (inimimum interstitial) kp can be plotted ° against S. on a rectangular diagram XI-14XI-15 Minimum Lrtersthal Wader Sofvration7. Flow in three-phase system 100% gos 1 Essentially one phose flowing Essentiaty two phoses flowing Appracioble flow of oll three phases 100% water 100% oi! Fic. 3-42. Approximate limits of saturations giving 5 per cent or more of all com- ponents in flow stream. Fluids: nitrogen, kerosene, brine. Arrows point to increas~ ing fraction of respective components in stream. (From Leverett and Lewis.*) region of three-phase flow in reservoir centeres around 20% gas, 30% oi!, 0% water XirieIV. Permeability Ratio (Relative Permeability Ratio) A. Definitions i When the permeability to water is zero (as at minimum interstitial water saturation) it is sometimes convenient to use permeability ratio to represent the flow conductance of the rock to gas and oil as a ratio. k = permeavility ratio = ~2= -# o Kr Fic, S—Aveaace Retative Peancasiuity Ratio Curves rox Saxos Aso SanusToNes as a Foxcriox or Torat Liguio Sarena Tron. (Conare, WaTex 18 Assumto TO ec 25 Pre Cent). X1-172. When the permeability to gas is zero (no gas or gas below “ critical gas saturation") it is sometimes convenient to use permeability ratio to represent the flow conductance of the rock to oil and water as a ratio. i i ky _ ro permeability ratio = ge = W . SH Sy waren SaTunarion~ FRACTION X1-18measurement of Kelative Permeability A. Methods Laboratory - steady-state flow process Laboratory - displacement (unsteady-state process) Calculation from capillary pressure data (not covered ae here) Calculation from field performance data 8B. Laboratory Methods 1. Steady-state flow process a. saturate core with wetting-phase fluid. b. inject wetting-phase fluid through core (this will determine absolute permeability). c. inject a mix of wetting-phase and non-wetting phase (start with small fraction of non-wetting phase). d. when inflow and outflow rates and portion of non- wetting phase equalize, record inlet pressure, outlet pressure and flow rates of each phase. @. measure fluid saturation in core (see below). XI-19f. calculate relative premeability. g- repeat b through f with injection mixtures containing relatively more non-wetting phase until irreducible wetting-phase saturation is reached. X1-20he determination of fluid saturations. 1 resistivity t where: Ry = resistivity of core 100% saturation with wetting-phase Re = resistivity of core with saturation of wetting phase less than 100% Eg = voltage across core 100% saturated with wetting phase Ey = voltage across core with saturation of wetting phase less than 100% 2. volumetric balance 3. gravimetric method - remove core and weigh it We = We = Ng where: Wp = weight of fluid in core, gm W weight of saturated core, gm weight of dry core, gm xi-21where: p = density, gm/cc v= volume, ce = Vy/Ve where: y= saturation of wetting phase thus ‘ ep sta Ow Po 400, : why a to Pom Stote 3.18 312 Sirreccore aynamic 218 SE Dispersed reed cok. 2 TA holord technive 1 OL Messer techniwe x hy Gas-drive technique é \ 2 60 | E 2 4 3 | 2 Gove Ne 0-2 a Gores cotcop 20- Fs 8md J — 12 Bln " 5 25 ao 00 Oil saturation, % Fin. 3-48, Relative permeability—six methods, long section. (From Richardson et al”)Same procedure can be used starting with 1U0% saturation of non-wetting phase. 1. injection ratio start with high ratio of non- wetting phase 2. procedure ends at residual non-wetting phase saturation then is a hysteresis effect of same type as discussed with capillary pressure measurements choice of starting saturation depends on reservoir process which is being simulated js End eftects 1. Causes of end etfects. a. in the bulk of the core there is a wetting-phase saturation and a non- wetting phase saturation, therefore there is a finite value of capillary pressure. x1-23thus there is a difference in pressure between the wetting-phase and non-wetting phase. Poap * Pnwp ~ Pwp at the face of the core the pressures in the wetting-phase and the non-wetting phase are essentially equal, Pnwp = Pwp thus capillary pressure is essential zero. if capillary pressure is zero, the saturation of the wetting phase must be 100% (see capillary pressure curve). then must be a saturation gradient from essential 100% wetting phase at the “end” to some value of Sy, Tess than 100% in the bulk of the core. \ 100 T1174 " - 17 ees esa owen] 1 gradient [es 20} bat aie We ie) = Neel * es Sra -4 2 & T : 3 intoeteee,! $ 4o— 8 40 | 5 3 | le | I | 1 al | a | Distonce trom outflow face, em Distonce from outflow face, cm ) Fio, 3-51. Comparison of experimental Fia. 3-52. Comparison of ‘experi ental i fand theoretical saturation gradients due and theoretical saturation gradients due I to boundary effects, (qe== 015 cc/sec, to boundary effects. (gy = 080 cc/sec, qu = 0.000338 ce/eee). (From Richardson qe = 0.00288 ec/sec), (From Richardson et al™) et al™)elimination of bad etfects install end pieces to contain end effects. flow at rapid rates to make end effect negligible (pressure yradient > 2 psi/inch) PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING Thermometer Pack other int ching once Lf Etectrodes Pins | ‘pressure tops ‘Bre ‘octet Screen — Highly parmeobl disk Inlet Fio, 3-44. Penn State relative-permeability apparatus. (From Geffen et al™) X1-25EXAMPLE Xi-1 The relative permeability apparatus shown below was used in a steady-state tlow process to obtain the data given below at a temperature of 70°F. PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING outer scren—Hiohly permecble disk net Fo, S44, Penn State relative-permesbility apparatus, (From Geffen et al") Ine Core Ine Fiuid sandstone brine, 60,000 ppm Tength = 2.30 oil, 4U°APL diameter = 1.85 cm uy = 1-07 cp area = 2.688 cm® lg = 5-80 cp porosity = 25.5%on water Inlet Gutlet Voltage Electrical Flow Flow Pressure Pressure Urop Current ce/sec ce/sec psig psig volts amps 0.0 1.1003 38.4 7.7 1.20 0.01 0.0105 0.8898 67.5 13.5 ae 0.01 0.0354 0.7650 88.1 17.6 2.80 0.01 0.0794 0.3206 78.2 15.6 4.56 0.01 G.l771— 0.1227, 85.6 ATL 8.67 0.01 0.2998 0.0 78.4 15.7 30.00 0.01 braw the relative permeability curve. x1-27EXAMPLE X1-1 Aution 1. Calculate absolute permeability using data witn core 100% saturated with water. qy Hw ‘ hop fa (1.1003) (1.07) (2-30) ) (2.688)(38.4 = 7.7)/(14.096) k = 0.482 carcy 2. Calculate effective permeabilities to oil and water (0 ,ULU5) (5.50) (2.30) kg = -0134 darcy att w > Rap = (U-8898) (1.07) (2.30) {Z.0887107.5 ~ 15.5 = .2217 darcy Xi-28 (2.688)(67.5 - 13.5)/(14.696) 71d 096)3. Calculate relative permeabilities = 0.028 = 0.460 4. Calculate water saturations E ts s+ (a) Fe Sy = = .756 5. Results Water kelative perm. Relative perm. Saturation to oi! to water Sw kro Kew 1.000 0.0 1.000 -186 0.028 0.460 +055 0.072 0.303 +513 0.182 0.143 6372 0.371 0.050 -200 0.686 0.0 x1-29 ko/ky 0.0 0.061 0.238 1.273 7.419RELATIVE PERMEABILITY 10 08 0.6] Om 02 eo 0 Zo 4o eo TOO WATER SATUEATION , So % Powe Seace x1-30"p/oap (Stews AaImevewand 48 20 WATEE SATUEATION, Si, % of PURE SPACE ° x1-31The data permit certain checks to be made. F = 0.62 Ko Ge oo Ky (ae a ele eas) a TL Corte3y «140 ohmem o = 255 1-322. Displacement (unsteady-state)(Welge) does not result in relative permeability only give permeability ratio procedure i. mount core in holder 2. saturate with wetting phase (usually 011 3. inject non-wetting phase (usually gas) at constant inlet and outlet pressures 4. measure a. cumulative gas injected as a function of time b. cumulative oi1 produced as a function of time conditions pressure drop across core large enough to make end effects negligible gas saturation can be described at mean pressure flow is horizontal and core is short so that effect of gravity can be neglected X1-33d. calculations 1. convert gas injected into pore volumes, Sippy TAYE cumulative gas injected (measured at pressure py), cc = cumulative gas injected in pore Sipy volumes Pp} = «inlet pressure - 5+ Po Di eee LA® pore volume, cc 2 Calculate average gas saturation , Sg av ‘ Ss. : od Sav > where Ny = cumulative oil produced, cc Lad = pore volume, cc av pv X1-34GAS BREAKTHROUGH ipy XI-354. Uetermine fractional flow of oil, fo a(Sy) oe 8ay ° ae; Ty py = slope of plot of Sg. vs agi ie or Calculate permeability ratio, kg/ko kA Op k where g = permeability ratio of gas to oil ° fy = fractional flow of oi X1-36A6. Permeability ratio, kg/kg, calculate above applies only at the gas saturation of the outflow face, thus must calculate Sgo oe Sgo Sav ~ “py where Sg = gas saturation at outlet face 7 of core = cumulative gas injected, pore volume = fractional flow of oi? at outlet face of core advantages 1. Minimum amount of equipment 2. Rapid f. disadvantages 1. results in kg/ko, not ky, and ky, equations don't apply until gas breaks through, thus initial value of gas saturation may be high, resulting in incomplete kg/ky vs Sg, curve. X1-36BEXAMPLE X1-2 The data from an unsteady-state displacement of oi] by gas in a 2 inch diameter by § 5/8 inch long sandstone core are given below. Cumulative Cumulative Gas Injection Vil Produced a Np ce ce 14.0 14.6 50.2 19.5 112.6 22.5 202.3 25.5 401.4 28.6 546.9 30.4 769.9 32.2 1,226.5 33.4 3,068.9 35.3 5,946.6 35.9 Other data T= 70°F, wy = 2-25 cps by, +0185 cp 1210, Pintet = 5:0 PSIG» Pout = 9-0 psig L = 5 5/8 x 2.56 = 14.3 cm A= 4 (2.54)% = 20.27 Prepare to determine kg/ky by calculating Sg, and Gj, x1-37Solution ig EXAMPLE Al-2 Calculate S. dav s Sy) OG Say te s < 14.6 Say S20 .279 7 3 = 0.24 Sav 7 (14.0) (19.7) TIS ATI 210 TATE 0.264 X1-38Ba Results pv 0.264 0.945 2.12 3.81 7.56 10.3 14.5 23.1 57.8 112.0 X1-39EXAMPLE XI-3 A core sample initially saturated with oi1 is flooded with gas The following data was obtained: Ssay Stpy 0.24 0.264 0.32 0.945 0.37 2.12 0.42 3.81 0.47 7.56 0.50 10.3 0.53 14.5 0.55 23.1 0.58 57.8 0.59 112.0 ) = 2.25 cp Ho ng 7 00185 cp Calculate and construct a tg verses Sgo plot. Convert Sg to av Sgor Deternine kg/k) for each of the given saturations. $ | Construct a graph of kg/k, versus Sgo- ) xI-40EXAMPLE Solution Plot S, vs. fav py The slope from this plot is fy. X1-3 Sgo = Sg, ~ fo Sipy tte kglky = aes 0 iy Soay Sipv fo Sgo +375 141 075 cay 10357 .294 woud 338 .0118 381 0092 .405 0046 .463 0013) «521 0005 .550 wouuL 881 X-41 kg/ko 0137 sul -222 «376 +689 -886 1.78 0.32 16.4 82.205 OL 20 40 G py 60 xi-42 100. 120/00 10C. Field Determination of Permeability katios 1. equations k, A Ap 4. ag a Aw Mo where dy = gas flow rate measured at reservoir conditions, vol/time ao = ofl flow rate measured at reservoir conditions, vol/time thus, sy. tae oO Go Ho replace Gg/do with oe Sg 4 - where By formation volume factor of gas, res cu ft/scf By formation volume factor of oil, res bb1/STB R producing gas-oil ratio, scf/STB must include both separation gas and stock tank gas) x1-44thus he ee) (he eRe) g."g99 s Ke I TSeTST By procedure producing gas-oil ratio, kp, and physical properties, By.By, Re, igs H, must be determined at some known reservoir pressure. saturations in reservoir, Sg or So, must be calculated from production data and material balance calculations. X1-45EXAMPLE X1-4 viscovery pressure for your well was 4250 psia, and temperature is 2u0°F, and initial producing gas-o11 ratio was 740 SUF/ST&. Stock tank of1 gravity is 3U°API and surface gas gravity is 0.7. Production history and correlations indicate the bubble point at 3500 psia. Keservoir pressure is now 3000 psia. Producing gas- oil ratio is 18,100 SUF/SIB. wnat is Kg/ky in the reservoir at this time. X1-46EXAMPLE X1-4 Solution Correlations covered in the fluid properties portion ot this course yield the following value of the physical properties ot the gas and oi] at 30UU psia and 200 OF, = 560 SCF/STB = 1.314 Ke BBL/STB : ° Tye of gas = 390 OR Pac of gas = 665 psia z = .86 bg = U.uz82 z T/p = 5.34 x 10? res cu tt/SUF = 0.0192 3 x by = 0-75 cp Wgbg (Kk - Ks) 7 5615 BS kg _ (u.ui92)(5.34 x 1079) (18100 - 560) k 0.75)15 615) (1.314 x le " xi-47vie uses of Kelative Permeability vata AL Determination of free water surface in reservoir (100% water production). q 100 HEIGHT OF FORMATION, FT xI1-48 lLody water _RRODLC LOG RESPONSE DIAGRAM sP_LOG ie Nvvetermination of height ot 10U% oi] production. Ke 9 LOG RESPONS| GRAM DIAGRAM ng sP_LOG X1-49ce tffect of permeability on thickness of transition zone. hy FT N / \ Ve \\ 7 i x / eS / 4 oo \ | X1-50 Low K — HIGH K ho = HEIGHT OF ZONE OF INTEREST, FT Low K HIGH KFractional flow of water as a function of height a. bhtp ‘ rarer ‘ SLL ; 4 fyb 1+ be tw $ ka he a to °s Ss io Teo ory h h oo ra ! ° o Sw too X1-51160, - 140}-- —~ ——-} —-|-—-- 10] --- : 100} Height above free water level, ft y 900md 500d 100 °y 20, 40 60 60 Fraction of water in produced {ivid, % THIS FIGURE INDICATES THAT LOWER RESULT IN LONGER TRANSITION ZONE. Xi-52 PERMEABILITIES 3SE. Determination of residual fluid saturations it ae \ a i Rasipcac Ow Sar ° re mb ibition curve used in water flood calculations. maximum oi! recovery = area (acre) x h(ft) x x 1758 BBL/acre ft x AS, X1-53*. interpretation of fractional flow curve. 4. f, at water break through at well at water breakthrough in reservoir between wells at water s, ay break through W, _ = pore volumes of water ingected K1-54Warea lueur Poen Uses. Sus —* ° 6 Oo OuRse-% Only Pace X1-55STATISTICAL METHODS Stat -14 STATISTICAL MEASURES Introduction Usually we can not examine an entire “population” (i.e. we can not dig up an entire reservoir, cut it into plugs, and measure the porosity of every plug). We can only “sample” the population and use the properties of the sample to represent the properties of the population. Often we seek a single number (porosity or permeability) to represent the population (reservoir) for use in reservoir engineering calculations. If the sample {s representative of the population, we have a statistical basis for estimating properties of the ‘population. The sample data is said to be classified or classified depending on-whether it is arranged or grouped in a particular order. Unclassified-data is randomly arranged. ‘the classification-of data for a large number of samples will oftén provide additional information to help describe the physical properties of the population. . : : Stat -2Frequency Distiributions It is often useful to distribute data into classes. The number of individuals belonging to each class is called the Glass frequency. A tabular arrangement of these data according to class is called a frequency distribution or a frequency table. Sometime classified data is called grouped data. The division of unclassified data into classified data is accomplished by allocating all data to respective Glass intervals. The midpoint of each Class interval is called the class mark. Stat -3Rules for forming frequency distributions a. Determine largest and smallest numbers in the raw data. b. Divide the range of numbers into 2 convenient number of equal sized Class intervals. The mumber of class intervals depenis on the data but is usually taken between 5 and.20 in number. c. The number of observations for each class interval is the glass frequency. d. The relative frequency of a class is the frequency of thé class divided by the total frequency of alll the classes. Stat -4Histogram A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution The vertical scale is the number of data points ~ the class frequency - in each class. ‘the width of the rectangle corresponis to the class interval. EACQUENCY Of occuRACEL YO. OF SAMPLES ° Te tet 20 2 24 ce POROSITY PERCENT NO. OF SAMPLES 020.49 €0 60 160 120140 160 PERMEABILITY -U0S, Stat-5Table 65 Net Pay Thickness (ia Feet) of Twenty ‘Wells Comoteted ia a Basia Well Na. Net Pay Thickness, Feet mn t 3 12 4 39 5 109 ‘ 96 7 4 8 9 ° 9 10 29 4 04 2 186 B 6 “ 95 15 sa 6 n a 167 19 20 154 Table 6s Het Pay Thickness ata from 20 Welle Summarized As Relative Frequency Data Frequency Relative Frequency (No, of Walls (No. of Wells Having Thickness | Relative ange of | Having Thickness | Values ia Each Range. Froqucecy Thickness | Values inthe Expressed Ax x Fraction of Expressed At Feed) Range) the Total Nemaber of Wall) 2 Percentage soso | 4 4n0= 0.20 20% acuo | 7 79035 33% uc | 5 sf20= 025 25% vcr | 3 3in0= 0.15, 1356 wz | 4 20= 0.05 3% 20 Toor, Fiquee 642 “Frequency distlbution of net pay thickness data of Tablas 6.5 and 6.6. This distbution le sometimes called histogram. Stat -&Sometimes the relative frequency is plotted on a histogram. [| 7s uO 140 170 200 ‘Random variable: net pay thickness, ft — Figure 6:13 Relative frequency distribution of net pay thickness data of Tables 6.5 and 66. Stat- 74. Cumlative Frequency Distributions Relative frequencies are summed and plotted at the higher ends of the class intervals to create a “cumulative frequency less’ than or equal to" distribution. & a Peeters of 0 SS e0 170 ‘Random variable: eet pay thickness ft — Tio 140 200 Figuee 614 Cumulative frequency distribution of pay thickness data of Table 6.7. Stat -BOccasionally a “cumulative frequency greater than or equal to" distribution:is plotted. Relative frequencies are summed from the highest class interval and plotted at the lower ends of the intervals. vol r00%| £ ost, 200 = ost 3 coxfp—t & z $ ‘ort 3 70% East 2 cox] z E ost § sox| : zg Bost x cox = z = ost 209 é 20s] to oh _ Otte a 50) copy s08t ion ees rome . Figure 6.15 Cumulative frequency distribution of pay thickness data of Table 6.7. ia which area under the distribution was accumulated from right fo left, rather than {ott to right as in Figure 6.14. Stat -9Probability graph paper has been constructed so that data frén certain probability distributions plot as a straight line. Different probability paper is used for data with different distributions. +90 170 150 130 ue Stat -loNormal Distribution The normal distribution is continuous probability distribution having a symmetrical shape similar to a bell, sometimes called a Gaussian distribution. This distribution is completely and uniquely defined by two values - the mean, #, and standard deviation, Stat -11Log Normal Distribution The log normal distribution is continuous probability distribution that appears similar to a normal distribution except that it is skewed to one side. Also called an exponential distribution. Median (geometcic mean) a § «© ' Mean (arithmetic meas) cr e Random variable X — Figure 6.24 An example of a logaormal distribution, When the curve is skewed to i, the right the median lias fo the right of the mode, and the mean lies to the right of the median, as shown above. This order is reversed if the disteibution is skewed to the lett. This distribution can also be completely ana uniquely defined by mean, 4, and standard deviation, o. If random variables x, are log normally distributed then the variables log x, are normally distributed. Stat - 12%. Measures of Central Tendency 4n average is a value which is typical or representative of a set of data. When a set of data is arranged according to magnitude the average value tends to lie in the center of these data. These averages are called measures of central tendency. mean — the arithmetic average value of the samples n = a 7 po n where x, = values of the variable of interest for each sample n, = number of samples median ~ the value equalled or exceeded by exactly one-half of the samples. mode - the value which occurs with the greatest frequency. geometric mean - the nth root of the product of n numbers an %g = 7%2%5°- 7h) ; wg (B=) where 4, - the geometrié mean Stat - 13Measures of Variability (dispersion) A measure of central tendency is the “average or expected value of a set of variables, however it does not show the spread or variability of the variables on either side of the central teniency. Standard deviation - The square root of the mean of the squared deviations about », where deviation is defined as the distance of the variable fran yw. where o” is the variance o is the standard deviation Mean deviation ~ another measure of the dispersion about the central —— Stat - 14For Classified data = 52 Fi 52 i where £, = frequency for each class ‘x, Class mark or 2_rf, 2 wn5 5 FTA where f, = relative frequency for each class J Stat -159. Normal Distribution Porosity data is usually assumed to have a normal distribution. — latetion point of curve Random variable x — Stat- /6For the normal distribution the mean, median, and mode have the same mumerica] values. They are identical measures of central tendency. Thus, for unclassified data where i refers to each individual data point and, for Classified data where j refers to each class interval f, is the frequency of the class J x, is the class mark or x wns Fp x; Stat - 17{399 { 999 é Sn a or Random variable, x —~ Random variable, x —= 2.) Cumulative frequency b.) Cumulative frequency ponaed on coordinate plotted on normal perroas Pe Ont er Figure 6.21 General shapes of the cumulative frequency graphs of normal proba- bility distributions when plotted on coordinate graph paper and a special type of graph paper called normal probability. ormat probabitty Normal prsbabiity t cach paper t raph paper tae |e Random 4 + 4 : variable x. variable x ory whichis « Stebuted Giatrinted sormalty ‘vocally 50% Sox Baie Cumulative % Camniative % <= Ad ® Figure 6.23 Schematic diagrams of how to read ¢ and from the cumulative tre- quency graph of a normally distributed random variable. This graphical method to determine 4 and « applies only to random variables which are, or can be represented Stat - 18Table 6.11 Porosity and Pecmeability Data from a Well ia Denver-Julesbucg Basin of Southwestern Nebraska Porosity % 00 1s 00 123. 25 70 39 20.7 221 194 2 204 215 233 384 240 tos Ba a7 290 170 278 238 167 205 304 2s 98 225 it BS 26 245 40 255 260 26.5 179 215 312 285 2 29.5 395 303 405 Bus 275 325 852 3S 610 345 406 355 335 36.5 663 315 397 385 434 RS yf 339 aos / 216 ats 332 42, 295 as 882 45 600 4845.5 - 407 NO RECOVERY 4847.5 479 78 485 00 92 495 139 205 505 135 84 sus 00 ut (Note: Consider the intervals with ao permeability as aon. productive.) Stat -17Table 6.12 Computation of Mean Value and Standard Deviation of Porosity Data of Table 6.11 Porosity Iaervat | Ieccrval Frequency | Midpoint i | Percent fi Bf fm | na] uF | Fie oF t| to=x

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