CHM035
Conversion of Units
1. List down the given data and the required
quantity.
2. Find the appropriate conversion factors
3. Write the unit multiplier in such a way that
old units cancel out and only the new unit will
remain.
4. Multiply the unit multiplier to the given
quantity and solve
5. If successive conversions are done, write the
unit multipliers in such a way that only the
required unit remains.
Stoichiometry Calculations I
Molar mass (molecular weight) – the mass in grams
of one mole of a substance.
Limiting reactant – the reactant that is used up
completely
o Stoichiometry computation must be based
on the amount of limiting reactant
Excess reactant – reactant that is not used up
completely
Heat in Physical Processes
Chemical properties – exhibited by matter as it
undergoes changes in composition
o Ex. A chemical property of propane is that it
combines with dioxygen, releasing energy in
the process
Physical properties – observed in the absence of any
change in composition
o Ex. Color, density, hardness, melting point,
boiling point, and electrical and thermal
conductivities
Chemical Processes – involve one or more
substances getting used up (at least partially), and
one or more new substances are formed.
Physical processes – occur with no change in
chemical composition; usually altered significantly as
matter undergoes physical changes
Energy and Processes
o physical changes like changes in color etc.,
can usually signify a chemical change
o chemical and physical processes are usually
accompanied by energy changes
o energy may be either released (evolved) or
absorbed in a process
o burning fuels release a tremendous amount
of energy
o burning water to produce gaseous steam
requires the input of energy
Forms of Energy
Potential energy (P) – associated with the relative
position of an object
Kinetic energy (K) – associated with motion
Internal energy (U) – the combined kinetic and
potential energies of the atoms and molecules.
- Energy associated with the random,
disordered motion of molecules and with the
forces the molecules exert on each other
Energy changes during chemical reactions
o The making or breaking of chemical bonds
changes the potential energy of the system
o If the amount of energy liberated in bond
making is greater than that consumed in
bond breaking, the overall process releases
chemical energy
Energy transfer: Heat
Heat – the flow of energy between two objects, from
the warmer one to the cooler one, because of a
difference in their temperatures
Energy transfer: Work
Work – the transfer of energy accomplished by a
force moving a mass some distance against
resistance
𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉
o A gas compresses when its pressure is less
than the surrounding pressure
𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 > 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠
 Compression continues until the
system and surrounding have equal
pressures (equilibrium)
 Work is being done by the
atmosphere on the gas to compress it
o A gas expands when the pressure of the gas
is greater than the surroundings. It expands
until it reaches equilibrium
𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 > 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠
 Work is being done by the gas to push
against the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere.
Temperature
- Related to the average kinetic energy of the
particles in a substance
- The higher the temperature, the faster the
movement of the particles
- The lesser the temperature, the slower the
movement of the particles
Law of Conservation of Energy
o Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Energy is always changing from one kind to
another.
o The total internal energy of the object never
changes.
∆𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑤 = 𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉
∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Definitions and sign conventions
System – part of the universe being studied
o Energy, either in the form of heat or work,
being added to the system raises its
temperature, and vice versa
o Work being done on the system adds to the
energy of the system. (+W)
o Work done by the system reduces the energy
of the system. (-W)
Processes at constant volume
o When a process is carried out at constant
volume, volume does not change.
Thus, ∆𝑉 = 0. Therefore,
∆𝑈 = 𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑣
Heating without change of phase: Heat Capacity
Specific heat – physical property of a material that
measures how much heat is required to raise the
temperature of one gram of that material by 1C.
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Molar heat capacity – physical property that
describes how much heat is required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a substance by 1C.
𝑞 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
*subscript p indicates that this heat capacity is a
constant pressure*
Comparing the internal energies of solid, liquid
and gases
INSERT PHOTO ABOUT IT
Processes at Constant Pressure
o It is more convenient to express the energy
of the system associated with processes
carried out at constant pressure using a
different quantity than internal energy
called enthalpy.
Enthalpy
∆𝐻 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑝∆𝑉
∆𝐻 = (𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉) + 𝑝∆𝑉
∆𝐻 = 𝑞𝑝
∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes
Exothermic process – heat evolves from the system
and the value of ∆𝐻 is less than zero
Endothermic process – heat is absorbed by the
system and the value of ∆𝐻 is greater than zero.
Heats of Formation
Formation reaction – chemical reaction by which
one mole of a compound

Phase Changes
o The addition or removal of heat to a
substance may cause it to change its phase
o Temperature does not change during phase
changes
o Water vaporizes into steam at 100C.

INSERT PIC ABOUT PHASE CHANGE

Heating with change of phase: Latent Heats

Latent heat of Vaporization (Lv) – represents the
amount of heat for 1g of liquid at the boiling point
(100C) to turn into vapor (J/g)
- Liquid is vaporized = positive; vapor is
condensed = negative
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣

Latent heat of Fusion (Lf) – represents the amount of

heat for 1g of liquid at the melting point (0C) to turn
into solid (J/g)
- Solid is melting = positive; liquid is freezing
= negative
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓

Calorimetry
o When heat flow occurs between two bodies
that are isolated from their surroundings,
the amount of heat lost must by one body must
equal to the amount gained by the other.
−𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝