6
FORCE-RELATED MEASUREMENTS
Force, Acceleration, & Torque
he fundamental operating
T principles of force, accelera-
tion, and torque instrumenta-
tion are closely allied to the
piezoelectric and strain gage devices
used to measure static and dynamic
pressures discussed in earlier chap-
ters. It is often the specifics of con-
figuration and signal processing that
determine the measurement output.
An accelerometer senses the
motion of the surface on which it is
mounted and produces an electrical
output signal related to that
motion. Acceleration is measured in
feet per second squared, and the
Compression Mode
Bender Mode
Shear Mode
Piezo Material
Bolted Mass Assembly
Bolted Mass Assembly
Compression Mode
Piezo Material
Sensitive Axis
Mounting Base
Figure 6-1: Piezoelectric Sensor Element Designs
product of the acceleration and the
measured mass yields the force.
Torque is a twisting force, usually
encountered on shafts, bars, pulleys,
and similar rotational devices. It is
defined as the product of the force
and the radius over which it acts. It
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is expressed in units of weight times
length, such as lb.-ft. and N-m.
Force Sensors
The most common dynamic force
and acceleration detector is the
piezoelectric sensor (Figure 6-1). The
word piezo is of Greek origin, and it
means “to squeeze.” This is quite
appropriate, because a piezoelectric
sensor produces a voltage when it is
“squeezed” by a force that is propor-
tional to the force applied. The fun-
damental difference between these
devices and static force detection
devices such as strain gages is that
Piezo Material
Bender Mode
Piezo Material
Seismic Mass
Sensitive Axis
Mounting Base
the electrical signal generated by the
crystal decays rapidly after the appli-
cation of force. This makes these
devices unsuitable for the detection
of static force.
The high impedance electrical sig-
nal generated by the piezoelectric
Force, Acceleration, & Torque
Force Sensors
Acceleration & Vibration
Torque Measurement
crystal is converted (by an amplifier)
to a low impedance signal suitable for
such an instrument as a digital storage
oscilloscope. Digital storage of the
signal is required in order to allow
analysis of the signal before it decays.
Depending on the application
requirements, dynamic force can be
measured as either compression, ten-
sile, or torque force. Applications
may include the measurement of
spring or sliding friction forces, chain
tensions, clutch release forces, or
peel strengths of laminates, labels,
and pull tabs.
A piezoelectric force sensor is
Piezo Material
Sensitive Axis
Shear Mode
Piezo Material
Center Support
and Mounting Base
almost as rigid as a comparably pro-
portioned piece of solid steel. This
stiffness and strength allows these
sensors to be directly inserted into
machines as part of their structure.
Their rigidity provides them with a
high natural frequency, and their
Volume 3 51
 Force, Acceleration, & Torque 6
Tiny accelerometer is useful for low-mass labo-
ratory applications.
corresponding rapid rise time makes
them ideal for measuring such quick
transient forces as those generated
by metal-to-metal impacts and by
high frequency vibrations. To ensure
accurate measurement, the natural
frequency of the sensing device must
be substantially higher than the fre-
quency to be measured. If the mea-
sured frequency approaches the nat-
ural frequency of the sensor, mea-
surement errors will result.
• Impact Flowmeters
The impact flowmeter is also a force
sensor. It measures the flow rate of
free flowing bulk solids at the dis-
α = 85°
charge of a material chute. The chute
directs the material flow so that it
impinges on a sensing plate (Figure 6-
2). The impact force exerted on the
plate by the material is proportional
to the flow rate.
The construction is such that the
sensing plate is allowed to move only
in the horizontal plane. The impact
force is measured by sensing the hori-
zontal deflection of the plate. This
deflection is measured by a linear vari-
able differential transformer (LVDT).
The voltage output of the LVDT is con-
verted to a pulse frequency modulat-
ed signal. This signal is transmitted as
52 Volume 3
the flow signal to the control system.
Impact flowmeters can be used as
alternatives to weighing systems to
measure and control the flow of bulk
solids to continuous processes as
illustrated in Figure 6-2. Here, an
impact flowmeter is placed below
the material chute downstream of a
variable speed screw feeder. The
feed rate is set in tons per hour, and
the control system regulates the
speed of the screw feeder to attain
the desired feed rate. The control
system uses a PID algorithm to adjust
the speed as needed to keep the
flow constant. Impact flowmeters
can measure the flow rate of some
bulk materials at rates from 1 to 800
tons per hour and with repeatability
and linearity within 1%.
Acceleration & Vibration
Early acceleration and vibration sen-
sors were complex mechanical con-
traptions (Figure 6-3) and were better
Feeder
h = 1-1/2 ft.
Impact
Weighing
System
Sensing Plate
Machine
Hopper
Extruder
Figure 6-2: Impact Flowmeter Application
suited for the laboratory than the
plant floor. Modern accelerometers,
however, have benefited from the
advance of technology: their cost,
accuracy, and ease of use all have
improved over the years.
Early accelerometers were analog
electronic devices that were later
converted into digital electronic and
microprocessor-based designs. The
air-bag controls of the automobile
industry use hybrid micro-electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS). These
devices rely on what was once con-
sidered a flaw in semiconductor
design: a “released layer” or loose
piece of circuit material in the micro-
space above the chip surface. In a
digital circuit, this loose layer inter-
feres with the smooth flow of elec-
trons, because it reacts with the sur-
rounding analog environment.
In a MEMS accelerometer, this
loose layer is used as a sensor to
measure acceleration. In today’s
γ = 35°
β = 60°
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autos, MEMS sensors are used in air
bag and chassis control, in side-
impact detection and in antilock
braking systems. Auto industry accel-
eration sensors are available for fre-
quencies from 0.1 to 1,500 Hz, with
dynamic ranges of 1.5 to 250 G
around 1 or 2 axes, and with sensitiv-
ities of 7.62 to 1333 mV/G.
Industrial applications for
accelerometers include machinery
vibration monitoring to diagnose, for
example, out-of-balance conditions
of rotating parts. An accelerometer-
based vibration analyzer can detect
abnormal vibrations, analyze the
vibration signature, and help identify
its cause.
Another application is structural
testing, where the presence of a
structural defect, such as a crack, bad
weld, or corrosion can change the
vibration signature of a structure. The
structure may be the casing of a
motor or turbine, a reactor vessel, or
a tank. The test is performed by strik-
ing the structure with a hammer,
exciting the structure with a known
Industrial accelerometer with associated electronics.
forcing function. This generates a
vibration pattern that can be recorded,
TRANSACTIONS
analyzed, and compared to a refer-
ence signature.
Acceleration sensors also play a
Mass
Sensitive Axis
Figure 6-3: Early Mechanical Vibration Sensor
role in orientation and direction-
finding. In such applications, minia-
ture triaxial sensors detect changes
in roll, pitch, and azimuth (angle of
horizontal deviation), or X, Y, and Z
axes. Such sensors can be used to
track drill bits in drilling operations,
determine orientation for buoys and
sonar systems, serve as compasses,
and replace gyroscopes in inertial
navigation systems.
Mechanical accelerometers, such
as the seismic mass accelerometer,
6 Force, Acceleration, & Torque
velocity sensor, and the mechanical
magnetic switch, detect the force
imposed on a mass when acceleration
Strain Gages
Insulated
Posts
Base
Cantilever
Springs
occurs. The mass resists the force of
acceleration and thereby causes a
deflection or a physical displace-
ment, which can be measured by
proximity detectors or strain gages
(Figure 6-3). Many of these sensors
are equipped with dampening
devices such as springs or magnets to
prevent oscillation.
A servo accelerometer, for exam-
ple, measures accelerations from
1 microG to more than 50 G. It uses a
rotating mechanism that is intention-
ally imbalanced in its plane of rota-
tion. When acceleration occurs, it
causes an angular movement that can
be sensed by a proximity detector.
Among the newer mechanical
accelerometer designs is the thermal
accelerometer: This sensor detects
position through heat transfer. A seis-
mic mass is positioned above a heat
source. If the mass moves because of
acceleration, the proximity to the
heat source changes and the temper-
ature of the mass changes. Polysilicon
thermopiles are used to detect
changes in temperature.
In capacitance sensing accelerom-
eters, micromachined capacitive
plates (CMOS capacitor plates only
Volume 3 53
 Force, Acceleration, & Torque 6
60 microns deep) form a mass of
about 50 micrograms. As accelera-
tion deforms the plates, a measur-
able change in capacitance results.
But piezoelectric accelerometers are
perhaps the most practical devices
for measuring shock and vibration.
Similar to a mechanical sensor, this
device includes a mass that, when
accelerated, exerts an inertial force
on a piezoelectric crystal.
In high temperature applications
where it is difficult to install micro-
electronics within the sensor, high
30 ft. lb.
Applied
hand tools. In both cases, the col-
3 ft.
Shaft
10 lb.
tools; the calibration of torque
tools and sensors; measuring peel
Figure 6-4: Torque on a Rotating Shaft
impedance devices can be used.
Here, the leads from the crystal sen-
sor are connected to a high gain
amplifier. The output, which is pro-
portional to the force of accelera-
tion, is then read by the high gain
amplifier. Where temperature is not
excessive, low impedance microelec-
tronics can be embedded in the sen-
sor to detect the voltages generated
by the crystals. Both high and low
impedance designs can be mechani-
cally connected to the structure’s
surface, or secured to it by adhesives
or magnetic means. These piezoelec-
tric sensors are suited for the mea-
surement of short durations of accel-
eration only.
Piezoresistive and strain gage
54 Volume 3
sensors operate in a similar fashion,
but strain gage elements are tem-
perature sensitive and require com-
pensation. They are preferred for
low frequency vibration, long-dura-
tion shock, and constant accelera-
tion applications. Piezoresistive
units are rugged, and can operate at
frequencies up to 2,000 Hz.
Torque Measurement
Torque is measured by either sensing
the actual shaft deflection caused by
a twisting force, or by detecting the
Compression
(Permeability
Decreases) Torque
45°
Axis
Tension
(Permeability
Increases)
effects of this deflection. The sur-
face of a shaft under torque will
experience compression and tension,
as shown in Figure 6-4. To measure
torque, strain gage elements usually
are mounted in pairs on the shaft,
one gauge measuring the increase in
length (in the direction in which the
surface is under tension), the other
measuring the decrease in length in
the other direction.
Early torque sensors consisted of
mechanical structures fitted with
strain gages. Their high cost and low
reliability kept them from gaining gen-
eral industrial acceptance. Modern
technology, however, has lowered the
cost of making torque measurements,
while quality controls on production
have increased the need for accurate
torque measurement.
• Torque Applications
Applications for torque sensors
include determining the amount of
power an engine, motor, turbine, or
other rotating device generates or
consumes. In the industrial world,
ISO 9000 and other quality control
specifications are now requiring
companies to measure torque dur-
ing manufacturing, especially when
fasteners are applied. Sensors make
the required torque measurements
automatically on screw and assem-
bly machines, and can be added to
lected data can be accumulated on
dataloggers for quality control and
reporting purposes.
Other industrial applications of
torque sensors include measuring
metal removal rates in machine
forces, friction, and bottle cap
torque; testing springs; and making
biodynamic measurements.
• Sensor Configurations
Torque can be measured by rotating
strain gages as well as by stationary
proximity, magnetostrictive, and
magnetoelastic sensors. All are tem-
perature sensitive. Rotary sensors
must be mounted on the shaft,
which may not always be possible
because of space limitations.
A strain gage can be installed
directly on a shaft. Because the
shaft is rotating, the torque sensor
can be connected to its power
source and signal conditioning elec-
tronics via a slip ring. The strain gage
also can be connected via a trans-
former, eliminating the need for
high maintenance slip rings. The
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excitation voltage for the strain
gage is inductively coupled, and the
strain gage output is converted to a
modulated pulse frequency (Figure
6-5). Maximum speed of such an
arrangement is 15,000 rpm.
Strain gages also can be mounted
on stationary support members or on
the housing itself. These “reaction”
Amplifier
sensors measure the torque that is
transferred by the shaft to the
restraining elements. The resultant
reading is not completely accurate, as
it disregards the inertia of the motor.
Strain gages used for torque mea-
surements include foil, diffused
semiconductor, and thin film types.
These can be attached directly to
the shaft by soldering or adhesives. If
the centrifugal forces are not large—
and an out-of-balance load can be
tolerated—the associated electron-
ics, including battery, amplifier, and
radio frequency transmitter all can
Reaction torque cell with flange mounts.
be strapped to the shaft.
Proximity and displacement sensors
TRANSACTIONS
Oscillator
(Supply)
Output
Signal Demodulator
STATIONARY PORTION
Figure 6-5: Inductive Coupling of Torque Sensors
also can detect torque by measuring
the angular displacement between a
shaft’s two ends. By fixing two identi-
cal toothed wheels to the shaft at
some distance apart, the angular dis-
placement caused by the torque can
be measured. Proximity sensors or
photocells located at each toothed
wheel produce output voltages
6 Force, Acceleration, & Torque
Bridge
Excitation Strain
Elements
Torque
Bridge
Bridge
Output
ROTATING PORTION
whose phase difference increases as
the torque twists the shaft.
Another approach is to aim a sin-
gle photocell through both sets of
toothed wheels. As torque rises
and causes one wheel to overlap
the other, the amount of light
reaching the photocell is reduced.
Displacements caused by torque can
also be detected by other optical,
inductive, capacitive, and potentio-
metric sensors. For example, a capaci-
tance-type torque sensor can measure
the change in capacitance that occurs
when torque causes the gap between
two capacitance plates to vary.
The ability of a shaft material to
concentrate magnetic flux—mag-
netic permeability—also varies with
torque and can be measured using a
magnetostrictive sensor. When the
shaft has no loading, its permeabili-
ty is uniform. Under torsion, perme-
ability and the number of flux lines
increase in proportion to torque.
This type of sensor can be mounted
to the side of the shaft using two
primary and two secondary wind-
ings. Alternatively, it can be
arranged with many primary and
secondary windings on a ring
Volume 3 55
 Force, Acceleration, & Torque 6
around the shaft.
A magnetoelastic torque sensor
detects changes in permeability by
measuring changes in its own mag-
netic field. One magnetoelastic sen-
sor is constructed as a thin ring of
steel tightly coupled to a stainless
steel shaft. This assembly acts as a
permanent magnet whose magnetic
field is proportional to the torque
applied to the shaft. The shaft is
connected between a drive motor
and the driven device, such as a
screw machine. A magnetometer
converts the generated magnetic
field into an electrical output signal
that is proportional to the torque
being applied. T •
56 Volume 3
References & Further Reading
• Omegadyne® Pressure, Force, Load, Torque Databook, OMEGADYNE, Inc.,
1996.
• The Pressure, Strain, and Force Handbook™, Omega Press LLC, 1996.
• Industrial Control Handbook, E. A. Parr, Butterworth, 1995.
• Instrument Engineers’ Handbook, Bela Liptak, CRC Press LLC, 1995.
• Instrumentation Reference Book, 2nd Edition, B.E. Noltingk, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1995.
• “Overcoming the High Cost of Torque Sensing in Industrial Applications,”
Darrell Williams, Eaton Corp., 1998.
• Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook, 4th Edition,
Douglas M. Considine, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
• Sensor and Analyzer Handbook, H.N. Norton, Prentice Hall, 1982.
• “Sensors: The Next Wave of Infotech Innovation,” Paul Saffo, Institute for
the Future, 1998.
• Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia, Douglas M. Considine and Glenn
D. Considine, Van Nostrand, 1997.
Vibration Analysis for Electronic Equipment, 2nd Edition, Dave S.
Steinberg, Wiley, 1988.
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