INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GUWAHATI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY SHEET

NAME:
ROLL NO & Gr. No.:
DATE:
PHOTOELASTICITY

1. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are
1. To introduce a very fundamental and most important experimental technique to view the principal stress
components and directions of principal stresses– the photoelastic method
2. To use the photoelastic technique for the direct measurement of principal stresses for the plane stress
condition at any given point in the sample.
3. To view the map of principal directions at any given point in the sample.

2. Introduction
Photoelasticity is an experimental technique for stress analysis that is particularly useful for members having
complicated geometry, complicated loading conditions, or both. For such cases, analytical methods (that is,
strictly mathematical methods) may be cumbersome or impossible, and analysis by an experimental approach
maybe more appropriate. The name photoelasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo
implies the use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of stresses and
deformations in elastic bodies.
The essential feature of this method is that one can visualize the distribution of principal stresses and
their directions at all infinite number of points of the sample under study. Moreover, this technique provides
quantitative evidence of highly stressed areas at which most of the failures usually originates. On the other hand,
often equally important, it also shows the areas of low stress level where structural material is utilized
inefficiently. This technique has been widely used to aid in development of correct analytical methods for
complex stress analysis problems.

3. The Polariscope
The most common equipment for photoelastic studies of engineering components is the polariscope. Polariscope
utilizes the properties of polarized light. There are two basic types of polariscopes, plane polariscopes and
circular polariscopes. The polariscope used for this laboratory can be configured as either. However we use
circular polariscope for laboratory work.

4. Photoelastic behavior
The photoelastic method is based upon a unique property of some transparent materials, in particular, certain
plastics. This property is known as birefringent property. Consider a model of some structural part made from a
photoelastic (birefringent) material. When the model is stressed and a ray of light enters the sample two
phenomena takes place due to change in optical properties of the sample
[1] At each point of the stressed body the light wave is resolved into two mutually perpendicular
components lying in the planes of the principal stresses occurring at that point.

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 [2] The linear velocity of each of the components of the light wave is retarded through the stresses
specimen in direct proportion to the difference in the principal stresses.

These facts are the basis of the photoelastic method stress analysis. This phenomenon is called double refraction
or birefringence, and is the same as exhibited by certain optical crystals — but in photoelasticity the double
refraction is artificial, being controlled by the state of stress or strain at each point in the body.

4. Isoclinic and Isochromatic lines

Once the state of the stress at each point of a stressed body is available, many visual interpretations of the
various aspects of the available data can be made. For example, the points of algebraically equal principal
stresses regardless of their sense, when connected, provide a map of stress contours. Thus any point lying on a
stress contour has a principal stress of the same algebraic magnitude. Similarly, the points at which the
directions of the minimum principal stresses form a constant angle with the x axis may be connected. This
means that the direction of the maximum principal stresses through the same points also forms a constant angle
with the x axis. The line so connected is a locus of points along which the principal stresses have parallel
directions. Such line is called an isoclinic line. Similarly a line that is a locus of points along which the
difference in principal stresses (σ 1 − σ 2 ) remains constant is called an isochromatic line. Basically we can
visualize the isoclinic lines and isochromatic lines of a stressed member using polariscope.

5. Photoelasticity terminologies
a. White light: Light from a source that emits a continuous spectrum with nearly equal energy for every
wavelength.
b. Monochromatic light: Light of a single wavelength such as light emitted by sodium vapor lamps.
c. Plane Polarized light: Light that is restricted to vibrate in a single plane
d. Plane Polarizer: Optical element that generates polarized light along its axis of polarization. Light
waves perpendicular to axis of the polarization are absorbed.
e. Analyzer: It is also a plane polarizer except that it is near the user or analyst and hence its name. The
Polariscope consists of a polarizer at the source of light and another polarizer at the user or analyst side.
The one that is at the light source is termed as polarizer and the other one is termed as analyzer.
f. Quarter-wave plate: A wave plate is an optical element which has the ability to resolve a light vector
into two orthogonal components and to transmit the components with different velocities. Specifically
if the phase lag is by an amount of one quarter of the wave length then the wave plate is termed as
quarter wave plate. Quarter wave plates are employed in polariscopes in order to condition the light.

6. Circular polariscope
The setup of the circular polariscope is illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the circular
polariscope. The circular polariscope contains four optical elements. The first element following the light source
is the polarizer. It converts the ordinary light into plane-polarize light. The second element is a quarter wave
plate set an angle 450 to the plane polarization. This quarter wave plate converts the plane polarized light into
circularly polarized light and hence the name circular polariscope. The second quarter wave plate is set with its
fast axis parallel to the slow axis of the first quarter wave plate. The purpose of this element is to convert the
circularly polarized light into plane polarized light vibrating in the vertical plane. The last element is the
analyzer (another polarizer) with its axis of polarization horizontal (opposite to the axis of polarizer see Fig. 2)
and its purpose is to extinguish the light.
As a result of photoelastic effect the light exits the stressed sample with two light vectors E1 and E2
parallel to the directions of principal directions at that point with a phase shift. These rays finally passes through

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the analyzer (after crossing quarter wave plate) which allows only the components of light parallel to the axis of
polarization and thus permit them to come to optical interference. Due to photoelastic effect one of the rays of
E1 and E2 is retarded relative to other by an amount directly proportional to the principal stress difference at that
point. If the relative retardation N is 0, 1, 2, 3,... cycles, the waves reinforce each other, and the combined effect
is a large light intensity. If the phase difference N is 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2,... cycles, the amplitude of the two
interfering waves is everywhere equal and opposite; destructive interference ensues, and the light intensity
diminishes to zero (extinction)

Fig. 1 Basic set-up of circular polariscope

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the circular polariscope.

Intermediate intensities are developed for intermediate values of N. Thus, a photoelastic pattern of dark and light
bands, such as shown in Fig. 3 (typical), is formed as follows: the locus of points at which N = 0 forms a dark
band: the locus of points at which N = 1/2 forms an adjacent light band; another dark band is formed by rays
traversing the photoelastic material at points where N = 1; and successive dark and light bands are formed for
increasing values of N. In the nomenclature of optical interference, these bands are called fringes. These fringes
which are formed due to interference of two different velocity waves are known as isochromatic fringes. Thus
Fig. 3 shows the locus of points along which the difference between the two principal stresses remains constant.
It should be noted that if the bands corresponding to N = 0, 1, 2, etc., are dark then band corresponding to
N=1/2, 2/3 etc must be light. This arrangement is called as dark field arrangement.

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 Fig.3 A typical isochromatic fringes
7. Analysis of Isochromatic fringe pattern
Let us view a plane-stress model in a circular polariscope. A pattern of dark and light bands (Fig. 6) forms in the
viewing screen when external forces or loads are applied to the model, and the number of these bands increases
in proportion to the external forces.

Fig.6 Formation of isochromatic patterns for increasing loads.

The isochromatic pattern is related to the stress system by the stress-optic law. Namely
f
σ1 − σ 2 = N (1)
t
where f is the stress-optical coefficient (Kg/cm), a constant that depends upon the model material and the
wavelength of light employed, t(cm) is the model thickness, and N is the relative retardation of rays forming the
pattern. The term N is also known as isochromatic fringe order. The fringe order, N, is defined as the number of
cycles of relative retardation between two components of a light beam passing through the stressed model.
Equation (1) states that the relative retardation, N, at each point in the model is directly proportional to the
difference of principal stresses σ1 − σ 2 at the point. Thus isochromatics are locus of points at which σ1 − σ 2
are constant. However we also know that the difference σ1 − σ 2 is equals to two times the maximum shear
stress at that point
f
σ 1 − σ 2 = 2τ max = N (2)
t
Thus isochromatics are also locus of constant maximum shear stress points on the stressed model.

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8. Difference between plane and circular polariscope.
Quarter wave plates are absent in plane polariscope. You can see only isochromatic patterns in circular
polariscope. Plane polariscope provides both isochromatic and isoclinic lines such that it is difficult to
distinguish them. Therefore, generally plane polariscope set up is used to determine the principal stress
directions at different points in the stressed sample. In order to find the magnitude of principal stresses circular
polariscope is used. Both the set-ups can be obtained using the present polariscope.

9. Monochromatic light and white light source

One can use either monochromatic or white light for viewing the isochromatics/isoclinics. Monochromatic light
produces dark and light bands a single color. It is very easy to distinguish dark and light bands (and hence
determination of fringe order N) of a single color and hence monochromatic light is generally employed in
photoelastic studies. Since the white light contains wavelengths of entire spectrum, isochromatic fringe patterns
appear in different colors. It is relatively difficult to estimate the fringe order from the colored isochromatic
fringe patterns. With white light, isoclinics appear in black color.

10. Experimental procedure

Fig. 7 A simply supported beam

In order to understand the principles of photoelastic method the following laboratory experiment will be
conducted
1. A simply supported beam subjected to two concentrated forces placed at equal distance from the
supports as shown in Fig. 7.
2. The direction and magnitude of principal stresses at any point within the beam can be computed if the
applied loads and cross-sectional properties are known.
3. Turn-on the monochromatic light switch and wait for 20 minutes
4. Adjust, analyzer and two quarter-wave plates to form a circular polariscope
5. Keep the specimen at the center of the loading frame
6. With no load observed the beam. No isochromatics can be identified as the difference between
principal stresses is zero everywhere.
7. Place 1, 2 and 2 Kg of weight in the weighing pan in order. Observe formation of fringes with
increasing load. You will also see some dark fringes at the supports and loading points.
8. Add 5 Kg of weight in the weighing pan and observe the formation more isochromatic fringes with
N=0 fringe at the center of the beam i.e., neutral axis.
9. Determine the fringe order of the dark fringe at the sample point 1 on the beam (a red mark is placed on
the beam sample). This fringe order corresponds to 6 Kg weight in the weighing pan.

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10. Add 6 more Kg of weight gently to the existing weights. Observe the formation of more number of
fringes on both tensile and compressive side. However you can see always a fringe at neutral axis
which represent N=0 fringe.
11. Determine the fringe order of the dark fringe at the two sampling points 1 and 2 on the beam. These
fringe orders correspond to 13 Kg weight in the weighing pan.
12. Obtain the stress-optical coefficient, thickness, dimensions of the beam and dimensions of the lever (to
which weighing pan is attached).
13. Calculate the experimental values of principal stresses at the sampling points 1 for the loads
corresponding to 6 Kg and at sampling points 1 and 2 corresponding to 13 Kg. Note that the weights in
the weighing pan are not equal to the applied forces Ps on the simply supported beam (Fig. 7).
14. Calculate using elementary beam theory the principal stresses at the sampling points 1 and 2 for
different loads and compare with experimentally obtained values.
15. Turn the quarter-wave plates for plane polariscope set up. Switch off monochromatic light and wait for
10 minutes. Switch of the fan. Turn on the white light. You can see now the colored isochromatic
fringe pattern due to the white light and isoclinic lines simultaneously. Turn the front knob to see the
changing isoclinics.
16. Prepare the following tables of results
17. All neat and systematic calculations for filling up the following tables must be attached with this
manual.

Table 1: Properties of simply supported beam

t (cm)
h (cm)
I (cm4)
L1 (cm)
L2(cm)
P value for 6 Kg in weighing pan
P value for 13 Kg
Distance from the neutral axis of
Sampling point 1 (y1)
Distance from neutral axis of
Sampling point 2 (y2)
Optical constant f ( Kg / cm) of
stressed sample

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 Table 2: Fringe orders at the sampling points for different loads
Sampling Point Fringe order N at
5 Kg 13 Kg
1
2 ----------------

Table 3. Comparison of theoretical and experimental results

Sampling 5 Kg 13 Kg
Point Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental
results results results results
σ1 σ1 σ1 σ1
( Kg / cm 2 ) ( Kg / cm 2 ) ( Kg / cm 2 ) ( Kg / cm 2 )
1

2 -------- ---------