Hydrogen-cooled turbo generator

The use of gaseous hydrogen as a coolant is based on its properties, namely low density,
high specific heat, and the highest thermal conductivity (at 0.168 W/(m·K)) of all gases; it is 7-10
times better at cooling than air.[citation needed] Another advantage of hydrogen is its easy detection
by hydrogen sensors. A hydrogen-cooled generator can be significantly smaller, and therefore
less expensive, than an air-cooled one. For stator cooling, water can be used.

Helium with a thermal-conductivity of 0.142 W/(m·K) was considered as coolant as well, however
its high cost hinders its adoption despite its non-flammability.[3]

Generally, three cooling approaches are used. For generators up to 300 MW, air cooling can be
used. Between 250-450 MW hydrogen cooling is employed. For the highest power generators,
up to 1800 MW, hydrogen and water cooling is used; the rotor is hydrogen-cooled, the
stator windings are made of hollow copper tubes cooled with water circulating through them.

The generators produce high voltage; the choice of voltage depends on the tradeoff between
demands to electrical insulation and demands to handling high electric current. For generators up
to 40 MVA, the voltage is 6.3 kV; large generators with power above 1000 MW generate voltages
up to 27 kV; voltages between 2.3-30 kV are used depending on the size of the generator. The
generated power is sent to a nearby step-up transformer, where it is converted to the electric
power transmission line voltage (typically between 115 and 1200 kV).

To control the centrifugal forces at high rotational speeds, the rotor diameter typically does not
exceed 1.25 meter; the required large size of the coils is achieved by their length and so the
generator is mounted horizontally. The generators operate typically at 3000 rpm for 50 Hz and
3600 rpm for 60 Hz systems for two-pole machines, half of that for four-pole machines.

The turbogenerator contains also a smaller generator producing direct current excitation
power for the rotor coil. Older generators used dynamos and slip rings for DC injection to the
rotor, but the moving mechanical contacts were subject to wear. Modern generators have the
excitation generator on the same shaft as the turbine and main generator; thediodes needed are
located directly on the rotor. The excitation current on larger generators can reach 10 kA. The
amount of excitation power ranges between 0.5-3% of the generator output power.

The rotor usually contains caps or cage made of nonmagnetic material; its role is to provide a low
impedance path for eddy currents which occur when the three phases of the generator are
unevenly loaded. In such cases, eddy currents are generated in the rotor, and the resulting Joule
heating could in extreme cases destroy the generator.[4]

Hydrogen gas is circulated in a closed loop to remove heat from the active parts then it is cooled
by gas-to-water heat exchangers on the stator frame. The working pressure is up to 6 bar.

An on-line thermal conductivity detector (TCD) analyzer is used with three measuring ranges.
The first range (80-100% H2) to monitor the hydrogen purity during normal operation. The second
(0-100% H2) and third (0-100% CO2) measuring ranges allow safe opening of the turbines for
maintenance.[5]

Hydrogen has very low viscosity, a favorable property for reducing drag losses in the rotor; these
losses can be significant, as the rotors have large diameter and high rotational speed. Every
reduction in the purity of the hydrogen coolant increases windage losses in the turbine; as air is
14 times more dense than hydrogen, each 1% of air corresponds to about 14% increase of
density of the coolant and the associated increase of viscosity and drag. A purity drop from 97 to
95% in a large generator can increase windage losses by 32%; this equals to 685 kW for a 907
MW generator.[6] The windage losses also increase heat losses of the generator and the
associated cooling problems.[7]

Operation[edit]
The absence of oxygen in the atmosphere within significantly reduces the damage of the
windings insulation by eventual corona discharges; these can be problematic as the generators
typically operate at high voltage, often 20 kV.[8]

Seal Oil System[edit]

The bearings have to be leak-tight. A hermetic seal, usually a liquid seal, is employed; a turbine
oil at pressure higher than the hydrogen inside is typically used. A metal, e.g.brass, ring is
pressed by springs onto the generator shaft, the oil is forced under pressure between the ring
and the shaft; part of the oil flows into the hydrogen side of the generator, another part to the air
side. The oil entrains a small amount of air; as the oil is recirculated, some of the air is carried
over into the generator. This causes a gradual air contamination buildup and requires
maintaining hydrogen purity. Scavenging systems are used for this purpose; gas (mixture of
entrained air and hydrogen, released from the oil) is collected in the holding tank for the sealing
oil, and released into the atmosphere; the hydrogen losses have to be replenished, either
from gas cylinders or from on-site hydrogen generators. Degradation of bearings leads to higher
oil leaks, which increases the amount of air transferred into the generator; increased oil
consumption can be detected by a flow meter associated to each bearing.[9]

Drying[edit]
Presence of water in hydrogen has to be avoided, as it causes deterioration to hydrogen cooling
properties, corrosion of the generator parts, arcing in the high voltage windings, and reduces the
lifetime of the generator. A desiccant-based dryer is usually included in the gas circulation loop,
typically with a moisture probe in the dryer's outlet, sometimes also in its inlet. Presence of
moisture is also an indirect evidence for air leaking into the generator compartment.[10] Another
option is optimizing the hydrogen scavenging, so thedew point is kept within the generator
manufacturer specifications. The water is usually introduced into the generator atmosphere as an
impurity in the turbine oil; another route is via leaks in water cooling systems.[11]
Purging[edit]
The flammability limits (4-75% of hydrogen in air at normal temperature, wider at high
temperatures[12]), its autoignition temperature at 571 °C, its very low minimum ignition energy,
and its tendency to form explosive mixtures with air, require provisions to be made for
maintaining the hydrogen content within the generator above the upper or below the flammability
limit at all times, and other hydrogen safety measures. When filled with hydrogen, overpressure
has to be maintained as inlet of air into the generator could cause a dangerous explosion in
confined space. The generator enclosure is purged before opening it for maintenance, and
before refilling the generator with hydrogen. During shutdown, hydrogen is purged by an inert
gas, then the inert gas is replaced by air; the opposite sequence is used before startup. Carbon
dioxide or nitrogen can be used for this purpose, as they do not form combustible mixtures with
hydrogen and are inexpensive. Gas purity sensors are used to indicate the end of the purging
cycle, which shortens the startup and shutdown times and reduces consumption of the purging
gas. Carbon dioxide is favored as due to the very high density difference it easily displaces the
hydrogen. The carbon dioxide is admitted to the bottom of the generator first, pushing the
hydrogen out at the top. Then air is admitted to the top, pushing the carbon dioxide out at the
bottom. Purging is best done with the generator stopped. If done on barring, the generator fans
will mix the gases and greatly increase the time required to achieve purity.

Make-up[edit]
Hydrogen is often produced on-site using a plant consisting of an array of electrolysis cells,
compressors and storage vessels. This reduces the need for stored amount ofcompressed
hydrogen and allows storage in lower pressure tanks, with associated safety benefits and lower
costs. Some gaseous hydrogen has to be kept for refilling the generator but it can be also
generated on-site.

As technology evolves materials not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement are used in generator
designs. Not doing so can lead to equipment failure from hydrogen embrittlement.[13]

DENSITY OF AIR , HELIUM AND HYDROGEN

Dry air has a density of about 1.29 g/L(gram per liter) at standard conditions for temperature and
pressure (STP), and an average molecular mass of 28.97 g/mol

Hydrogen (density 0.090 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 2.016 g/mol) and helium (density
0.179 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 4.003 g/mol)

Nitrogen gas (density 1.251 g/L at STP, average atomic mass 28.00 g/mol) is about 3% lighter
than air