Geologic Time Scale Glossary:: Uc-Shs 1

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
THIRD TRIMESTER-FINAL
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Glossary:
Geologic Time Scale- A summary of major events in Earth’s past that are preserved in the rock record
Fossils - Any evidence of life preserved in a rock
Paleontologist - A scientist who studies fossils
Principle of Uniformitarianism- also known as Doctrine of Uniformity; "The present is the key to the past."
James Hutton - 1770; Geologic processes operating today are similar to those that have operated
throughout Earth's history
Absolute Dating (numerical dating) – method used to determine age of rocks in years
Relative Dating- does not tell the age of the rocks in years
Stratum – distinct layer of sediment, Strata – plural of stratum
Stratigraphy – the study of sedimentary layers
Radioactive decay - spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom.
Half-life - the amount of time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to decay; half life for a given isotope
is always the same; it doesn't depend on how many atoms you have or on how long they've been sitting
Geologic Time Scale
✽ The Geological time scale (GTS) is a record of the life forms and geological events in Earth’s history
✽ More recently, radiometric techniques have allowed us to determine ages of units in years before
present.
✽ Many of the names relate back to localities in England (Ex: Devonian from Devonshire)
✽ Scientists developed the time scale by studying rock layers and fossils world wide
✽ Radioactive dating helped determine the absolute divisions in the time scale.
Two Conceptions of Earth History

◾ Catastrophism
Theory which states that changes in the Earth's history have resulted chiefly from sudden violent and
unusual events
◾ Uniformitarianism
▸ "Present is the key to the past" -- whatever processes are occurring today (plate tectonics,
volcanism, mountain building, earthquakes, sedimentation) also occurred in the past and
probably at the same (or very comparable) rates.
▸ also known as Doctrine of Uniformity; sometimes known as gradualism
▸ James Hutton - known as the "Father of Geology"
▸ Hutton realized that most sedimentary layers were deposited from gradual, day-to-day processes.
▸ Also known as Doctrine of Uniformity; sometimes known as gradualism
DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

EONS
◾ First principal subdivision; largest division of the geologic time scale
◾ spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years
◾ Geologists generally agree that there are two major eons: the Precambrian eon and the
Phanerozoic eon
◾ Precambrian goes from the formation of the earth to the time when multicellular organisms first
appeared
ERAS
◾ Divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of years; three major eras are the
Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.
▸ Paleozoic - age of invertebrates
▸ Mesozoic “Age of the Reptiles”
▸ Cenozoic - “Age of the Mammals”, era we are in today; began 65 million years ago, right
about the time that the dinosaurs went extinct.
PERIOD
◾ Most commonly used units of time, lasting tens of millions of years
EPOCHS
◾ The smallest units of time, lasting several millions of years
UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 1

Two ways to relate time in geology:
Relative-Placing events in a sequence based on their positions in the geologic record
Chronologic - placing specific number of years on an event or rock cycle
Two ways to relate time in geology:
1. Relative dating
◾ Determine whether the rock is older or younger than other rocks
◾ Shows the order in which fossils occurred- does not give exact ages
◾ Shows what organisms lived together
◾ Scientists look at where fossils are located within the rock column
◾ Uses the Law of Superposition
◾ Determines the relative sequence of events
2. Absolute dating
◾ use radiometric dating techniques to determine how long ago the rock formed in the exact
number of years
◾ Not all rocks can be dated absolutely, so combinations of techniques are used.
◾ Determines the specific age of a fossil
◾ Looks at chemical properties
2 types:
✽ Carbon-14 (radiocarbon)
▾ Also known as Radiocarbon dating

▾ Used to date organic substances
▾ Scientists measure the radiocarbon in the fossil to determine its age
▾ Can only date specimens up to about 60,000 years old

✽ Potassium-Argon
▾ Scientists determine the age of the rock surrounding the fossil to determine the fossil’s age.
▾ Used only for inorganic substances (rocks and minerals)
▾ Scientists measure the amount of argon in the rock to determine its age
▾ Dates rock 60,000 years old and older
Radioactive isotopes change (decay) into daughter isotopes at known rates. Rates vary with the isotope
E.g. U-234, C-14, K-40
PRINCIPLES OR RULES THAT EXPLAIN STRATIGRAPHY:

1. Law of Superposition – states that in a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks the oldest rocks
will be at the bottom of the sequence and the youngest will be on the top.
2. Law of Original Horizontality - Water-borne sediments are deposited in horizontal layers.
3. Unconformities - A surface within a sequence of layers where no deposition, and possibly erosion,
took place.
4. Inclusion - states that pieces of one rock found in another rock must be older than the rock in which
they are found.
5. Law of cross-cutting relationships – states that an igneous rock is younger than the rocks it has
intruded or cut across. (this can also apply to a fault)
6. Fossil Correlation
a. Based on evolution
b. Also relies on superposition
c. When a species becomes extinct, it does not reappear
LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
▾ Rock layer above is younger than the ones below it. (Oldest on bottom, youngest on top)
▾ May not apply to rocks that have been folded (can get turned upside-down).
▾ Sedimentary layers are deposited in a time sequence
▾ Oldest rock on the bottom, youngest at the top
Lateral Continuity
▾ Sediment layers extend laterally in all direction until they thin & pinch out as they meet the edge of
the depositional basin.

Principle of Original Horizontality
▾ Sedimentary layers are deposited in approximately horizontal sheets.
▾ If layers are folded, episode of deformation must have occurred after rocks formed.
▾ Age of folding is younger than youngest deformed rock unit.
Principle of Faunal Succession

▾ Organisms have evolved and gone extinct through time
▾ Fossil content of rock changes in a systematic way, reflecting evolutionary changes
▾ Fossil content can be used to help determine age of rock and correlate rocks.
▾ Paraphrased as "Organisms within rock units change with time".
▾ Fossil assemblages (groupings of fossils)succeed one another through time.
Principle of Inclusions
▾ Inclusions (one rock type contained in another rock type) areolder than the rock they are
embedded in. That is, the younger rock contains the inclusions
Principle of Crosscutting Relationships
▾ Any feature (e.g. fault or intrusion) that cuts across rocks is younger than the youngest rock that is
cut.
▾ Dikes are younger than beds they cross
Correlation
▾ Relating rocks in one location to those in another using relative age stratigraphicprinciples
Unconformities
An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition stopped, erosion removed
previously formed rocks, and then deposition resumed.
Hiatus - the gap in time represented in the rocks by an unconformity
3 Types of Unconformities
a. Angular unconformity -An angular unconformity indicates that during the pause in deposition, a
period of deformation (folding or tilting) and erosion occurred
b. Disconformity - A disconformity is when two sedimentary rock layers are separated by an erosional
surface. Most difficult to recognize because the units are nearly horizontal and only a small
discontinuous layer can be observed (rubble zone or soil profile).
c. Nonconformity - A nonconformity is when the erosional surface separates older metamorphic or
intrusive igneous rocks from younger sedimentary rocks
Two types of radioactive decay.

Alpha – Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle
(two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus) and
transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less.
Beta – In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (an electron
or a positron) is emitted. Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons (the same
atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons.
Methods Used to Measure Geologic Time:

1. Relative Time - Places events in a sequence but does not identify an actual date of occurrence; does
not tell the exact age, it can only compare items as younger and older.
2. Absolute Time - Method for determining absolute time: Tree Rings – count tree rings, each ring = one
year each ring = one year
A technique thatcan tell the exact age of an artifact by employing various techniques, the most
popular being C-14 dating.
Radiometric Dating
• Uses radioactive isotopes to determine older dates (radioactive isotopes are atoms of elements
that give off radiation from their nuclei) Each time a ray is released from an atomic nucleus
• The atom changes into a new, lighter element-a process called radioactive decay. These
radioactive elements decay at characteristic constant rates.
• Half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms of the radioactive element to decay to a stable
end product. (ex. : Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years)
Radiocarbon Dating – uses Carbon-14 to date living things (has a half-life around 5700 years)

FOSSILS
GLOSSARY:
Fossil: any evidence of ancient life that is preserved in an unconsolidated sediment or sedimentary rock.
Paleontology: the branch of geology that focuses on the study of fossils.
Paleobiology: The study of the organisms that are preserved as fossils.
Taxonomy: The classification of fossils (species, genera, taxa).
Paleoecology: The study of the relationship between fossil organisms and their environment.
Taphonomy: The study of changes to fossils after the death of the organism.
Aristotle believed species werefixed creations arranged by their complexity
Idea lasted 2000 years
What do fossils tell us?

◾ give clues about organisms that lived long ago
◾ show that evolution has occurred
◾ provide evidence about how Earth’s surface has changed over time
◾ help scientists understand what past environments may have been like
HOW IS A FOSSIL FORMED?
1. Sediment
An animal is buried by sediment, such as volcanic ash or silt, shortly after it dies. Its bones are protected
from rotting by the layer of sediment.
2. Layers
More sediment layers accumulate above the animal’s remains, and minerals, such as silica (a compound
of silicon and oxygen), slowly replace the calcium phosphate in
the bones.
3. Movement
Movement of tectonic plates, or giant rock slabs that make up Earth’s surface, lifts up the sediments and
pushes the fossil closer to the surface
4. Erosion
Erosion from rain, rivers, and wind wears away the remaining rock layers. Eventually, erosion or people
digging for fossils will expose the preserved remains.
FIVE MAIN TYPES OF FOSSILS

PETRIFIED FOSSILS
 The word “petrified” means “turning into stone.”
 Petrified fossils form when minerals replace all or part of an organism.
 Water is full of dissolved minerals. It seeps through the layers of sediment to reach the dead organism.
When the water evaporates, only the hardened minerals are left behind.
MOLDS AND CASTS
 A mold forms when hard parts of an organism are buried in sediment, such as sand, silt, or clay.
 The hard parts completely dissolve over time, leaving behind a hollow area with the organism’s shape.
 A cast forms as the result of a mold.
 Water with dissolved minerals and sediment fills the mold’s empty spaces.
 Minerals and sediment that are left in the mold make a cast.
 A cast is the opposite of its mold
CARBON FILMS
 All living things contain an element called carbon.
 When an organism dies and is buried in sediment, the materials that make up the organism break
down.
 Eventually, only carbon remains. The thin layer of carbon left behind can show an organism’s delicate
parts, like leaves on a plant.
TRACE FOSSILS
 Trace fossils show the activities of organisms.
 An animal makes a footprint when it steps in sand or mud.
 Over time the footprint is buried in layers of sediment. Then, the sediment becomes solid rock.
INDEX FOSSILS
 Used to date other fossils and rock layers.
 Used to date other fossils and rock layers.Fossils of animals that existed for a short period of time were
abundant.
PRESERVED REMAINS
1. Amber - An organism, such as an insect, is trapped in a tree’s sticky resin and dies. More resin covers it,
sealing the insect inside. It hardens into amber.
2. Tar - An organism, such as a mammoth, is trapped in a tar pit and dies. The tar soaks into its bones and
stops the bones from decaying.
3. Ice - An organism, such as a woolly mammoth, dies in a very cold region. Its body is frozen in ice, which
preserves the organism—even its hair
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
THIRD TRIMESTER-MIDTERM
EVOLUTION
Evolution, or change over time, is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient
organisms.
Evolution happens when populations of organisms with inherited variations are exposed to environmental
factors that favor the reproductive success of some individuals over others
Natural selection is the editing mechanism
Evolution is based on adaptations
A scientific theory is a well-supported testable explanation of phenomena that have occurred in the
natural world.
CHARLES DARWIN – 1809-1882

✽ Charles Darwin synthesized the Theory of Evolution by natural selection
✽ Evolution is the core theme of biology
✽ Father of Evolution
✽ Darwin went on a 5-year trip around the world on the ship, the HMS Beagle. He was the ship’s naturalist
who made observations of organisms in South America and the Galapagos Island
✽ Wrote a book, “Origin of the Species”
Darwin on Natural Selection:
Darwin's presentation of the concept of natural selection was by far the most important part of the book for him,
if not necessarily for his readers. Darwin viewed natural selection as a kind of "engine" of organic change, driving
different variants of the same species to diverge until they became new species.
However, viewed correctly natural selection itself isnot a mechanism; rather, it is the outcome of a process that
has several components, including:
 Variation: That is, differences between the members of populations. These variations need not be extreme,
as illustrated by the relatively large changes that animal and plant breeders have accomplished, using
relatively slight differences in physical appearance and behavior.
 Inheritance: The distinct variations noted above must be heritable from parents to offspring.
 Fecundity: Living organisms have a tendency to produce more offspring than can possibly survive. Among
those individuals that do survive, those that also reproduce pass on to their offspring whatever
characteristics made it possible for them to survive and reproduce.
 Non-Random, Unequal Survival and Reproduction: Survival and reproduction are almost never random.
Instead, individuals survive and successfully reproduce because of their characteristics. It is these
characteristics that form the basis for evolutionary adaptations.
Darwin proposed natural selection as an explanation for the origin of adaptations. Most people recognize
adaptations as characteristics of organisms that seem to perform some function. Adaptations seem to
have a purpose, and their apparent goal is to accomplish something of value to the organism. However,
evolutionary biologists do not generally recognize functions in living organisms in quite this way. Instead,
they define adaptations like this:
"An adaptation is any trait that enhances fitness and [has been] modified by selection to perform
that role." (Williams, 1966)
Ideas that Shaped Darwin’s Thinking

✽ Charles Lyell - Book: Principles of Geography
◾ Geographical features can be built up or torn down
✽ Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution:
◾ One Of First Scientists To Understand That Change Occurs Over Time
◾ Stated that Changes Are Adaptations To Environment acquired in an organism’s lifetime
◾ Use and Disuse (bird’s using forearms)
◾ Inheritance of Acquired Traits
✽ Thomas Malthus-19th century English economist; Population Growth
◾ If population grew (more Babies born than die)
◾ Insufficient living space
◾ Struggle for existence (resource
✽ Charles Lyell
◾ Proposed theory of Uniformintarianism(geologic processes still changing Earth)
◾ Geological processes at uniform rates building & wearing down Earth’s crust

◾ Proposed that the Earth was millions of years instead of a few thousand years old
✽ Georges Cuvier – species extinction (Catastrophism)
◾ Studied fossil in sedimentary rock strata of Paris
◾ Found some species completely disappeared in more recent layers
✽ James Hutton - Gradualism
◾ Described The Geological Forces That Have Changed Life on Earth Over Millions of Years (erosion,
earthquakes, volcanoes)
✽ Alfred Russel Wallace – organisms evolved from common ancestors
The Galapagos Islands

Finches on the islands resembled a mainland finch
More types of finches appeared on the islands where the available food was different (seeds, nuts, berries,
insects)
Finches had different types of beaks adapted to their type of food gathering

Natural Selection & Artificial Selection
Natural variation--differences among individuals of a species
Artificial selection- nature provides the variation among different organisms, and humans select those
variations they find useful.
Evolution by Natural Selection

◾ The Struggle for Existence-members of each species have to compete for food, shelter, other life
necessities
◾ Survival of the Fittest-Some individuals better suited for the environment
◾ Descent with Modification-Each living organism has descended, with changes from other species over
time
Fitness - Ability of an Individual To Survive & Reproduce
Adaptation - Inherited Characteristic That Increases an Organisms Chance for Survival
Adaptations Can Be:

Physical
Speed, Camouflage, Claws, Quills,
Behavioral
Solitary, Herds, Packs, Activity,
Common Descent- were derived from common ancestors

Common Descent Implies:I
All Living Organisms Are Related
Single Tree of Life
DNA, Body Structures, Energy Sources
All Species, Living & Extinct, Were Derived From Common Ancestors
Takes Place Over Long Periods of Time

Natural Selection Can Be Observed As Changes In
Body Structures
Ecological Niches
Habitats
Evidences of Evolution
✽ The Fossil Record
✽ Geographic Distribution of Living Things
✽ Homologous Body Structures
✽ Similarities in Early Development
✽ Molecular Biology- protein “clocks”
Homologous Structures-structures that have different mature forms in different organisms, but develop from
the same embryonic tissue
Vestigial organs-organs that serve no useful function in an organism

i.e.) appendix, miniature legs, arms
Similarities in Early Development
All organisms have evolutionary adaptations

Inherited characteristics that enhance their ability to survive and reproduce
Molecular Biology
Populations are the units of evolution

A population is a group of interbreeding individuals
A species is a group of populations whose individuals can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Evolutionary Time Scales

1. Macroevolution -Long time scale events that create and destroy species.
2. Microevolution -Short time scale events (generation-to-generation) that change the genotypes and
phenotypes of populations
What is evolving?
gene pool, microevolution
gene pool = total collection of genes in a population at any one time
Microevolution is a change in the relative frequencies of alleles in a gene pool
Four agents of microevolution

1. Mutation changes alleles
2. Genetic drift = random changes in allele frequency
Bottleneck
Founder effect
3. Gene flow can change a gene pool due to the movement of genes into or out of a population
ex. Migration
4. Natural selection leads to differential reproductive success
◾ Nonrandom mating changes genotype frequencybut not allele frequency.
◾ Results in the accumulation of traits that adapt a population to its environment
The only agent of evolution that results in adaptation.
Why doesn’t natural selection eliminate all genetic variation in populations?

1. The diploid condition preserves variation by “hiding” recessive alleles (Bb)
2. Balanced polymorphism (2+ phenotypes stable in population) may result from:
a. heterozygote advantage Aa > aa and AA
b. frequency-dependent selection
c. variation of environment for a population
Many populations exhibit polymorphism and geographic variation
Not all genetic variation may be subject to natural selection

3. Some variations may be neutral, providing no apparent advantage or disadvantage
Example: human fingerprint patterns
Why do male and female animals differ in appearance?
Sexual selection leads to the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics
Sexual selection may produce sexual dimorphism
What is a species?

◾ Naturally interbreeding populations
◾ potentially interbreeding
◾ reproductively isolated from other species
What is speciation?
Speciation is the formation of one or more new species from an existing species.
A species is a collection of demes. The deme is a group of populations with common gene pool.
Types of Speciation:
Speciation is of following types.
1. Allopatric Speciation (alios— other, patria— native land):
In this type of species formation, a part of the population becomes geographically isolated from the main
population. The population becomes entirely separated and finally constitutes a new species. Thus
geographic isolation brings about allopatric speciation. An important example of this type of speciation is
formation of Darwin’s finches that formed separate species in the Galapagos Islands.
2. Sympatric Speciation (sym— together, patria— native land):
In this type of species formation, a small segment of the original population becomes isolated
reproductively. As the isolating mechanism comes into force, a new subspecies emerges. In due course of
time a new species is formed. Thus sympatric speciation is the formation of species within a single
population without geographical isolation. The reproductive isolation brings about sympatric speciation
The separation of populations that result in not being able to interbreed is called reproductive
isolation. Reproductive isolation occurs as a result of geographic barriers such as lakes, roads, mountains,
rivers etc. Over time the gene pools of these populations are so un- alike that reproductive isolations
becomes permanent, this results in new species.
3. Parapatric Speciation:
It separates adjacent population. Parapatric speciation takes place when a population of a species enters
a new niche or habitat. It occurs only at the edge of the parent species range. Although there is no
physical barrier between these populations, yet the occupancy of a new niche results as a barrier to gene
flow between the population of new niche. Two species are produced due to reproductive isolation from
single one. Such type of speciation is found in flightless grasshoppers, smails and annual plants.
4. Quantum Speciation:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
It is the rapid and abrupt mode of species formation. Grant (1971) defined quantum speciation “the
budding off a new and very different daughter species from a semi-isolated peripheral population of the
ancestral species”. This type of speciation is based on the observation of H.L. Carson on Drosophila
inhabiting Hawaii Island.
The separation of populations that result in not being able to interbreed is called reproductive isolation.
Reproductive isolation occurs as a result of geographic barriers such as lakes, roads, mountains, rivers etc.
Over time the gene pools of these populations are so un- alike that reproductive isolations becomes
permanent, this results in new species.
The quantum speciation is a sudden and rapid speciation. It does not produce subspecies or intermediate
stage. Genetic drift or chance plays a major role in quantum speciation.
Factors Influencing Speciation:
Following factors influence the speciation:
(i) Mutation
(ii) Recombination
(iii) Natural selection
(iv) Hybridization
(v) Genetic drift
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(vi) Polyploidy
(vii) Isolation.
Polyploidy:

Increase in number of chromosomes or chromosome sets is called polyploidy. Polyploidy does not occur
commonly in animals. The additional chromosomes in animals are mostly lethal. However, polyploidy
occurs commonly in plants. Polyploidy has played an important role in plant evolution.
There are many common polyploidy plants. Tobacco is a polyploidy that evolved by the hybridization of
two smaller species. In wheat, there are species with 14, 28 and 42 chromosomes. Different varieties of
wheat have been obtained by polyploidy.
Reproductive barriers between species

a. Habitat - different locations
b. Timing - mating, flowering
c. Behavioral - mating rituals, no attraction
d. Mechanical - structural differences
e. Gametic - fail to unite
f. Hybrid weak or infertile
 Hybrid sterility is one type of postzygotic barrier. A horse and a donkey may produce a hybrid offspring,
a mule. Mules are sterile
Divergent Evolution:
Divergent evolution is a pattern of evolution in which one species gives rise to many, it is also when a
number of different species move away from a common ancestor. These new species appear different on
the outside but are very similar internally. This pattern is also known as adaptive radiation, these species
evolve a variety of traits that allow them to gain different niches. An example of a homologous structure
providing proof of divergent evolution could be a body structure in related organisms which evolved to
perform un-similar tasks.
Convergent Evolution:
Convergent evolution happens when adaptive radiations among different species/ organisms produce
species that are similar in appearance and behaviour. It is the exact opposite of divergent evolution. These
species usually have the same outer appearance except their internal structures are different. For
example, a shark and dolphin have similar body structures and live in similar environment, but they are not
related. A shark is a fish, and a dolphin a mammal.
Three Types of Natural Selection

Directional Selection
The English naturalist and scientist Charles Darwin was the first to describe directional selection as a form of
natural selection
The directional selection theory says that an extreme phenotype (characteristics or traits) is favored over
other phenotypes and this causes the allele frequency(how often the variant of a gene shows up in a
population) to shift over time in favor of the extreme phenotype. In other words, if a particular trait is
favorable, it will be expressed at the most beneficial frequency in the population.
An example of directional selection is giraffe neck lengths. The environment created a selection pressure
which favored giraffes with longer necks who could reach more food in the trees. At the same time, there
was selection pressure against giraffes with shorter necks. Both long and short necks are extreme
phenotypes, but over time, the long neck phenotype dominated due to selection pressure, i.e., this trait in
giraffes shifted toward the direction of long necks.
Stabilizing Selection
Stabilizing selection can be thought of as “middle-of-the-road” selection, meaning a non-extreme trait is
favored instead of one of the two extreme traits. An example of this is plant height. In a population of
plants, those that are short may not get enough sunlight, but those that are tall may be subjected to wind
damage. This results in an increase in the number of medium-height plants and a decrease in very tall and
very short plants. Because most traits do not change drastically over time, stabilizing selection is considered
to be the most common mechanism for natural selection.
Other examples of stabilizing selection are the birth weight of humans and the number of eggs a bird lays
(clutch size). The birth weight of human babies stays within a certain range because babies that have a
very low birth weight have less chance of survival and those with a very high birth weight can cause
complications during delivery which threaten the life of the mother and the child. The clutch size of bird
species is limited to a certain number of eggs. There must be enough eggs so that the clutch can survive
predation and/or disease, but not so large that there are too many chicks for the parent(s) to feed.
Disruptive Selection
This type of natural selection is bimodal and favors both extreme traits in a population. For example, in a
population of plants, there are some pollinators that visit the tallest plants, a different species of pollinator
visits medium-height plants and a third species of pollinator that prefers the shortest plants. If the pollinator
that prefers medium-height plants is removed, natural selection would select against medium-height plants
and the overall plant population would move toward having only tall and short plants, the two extreme
phenotypes.
A more classic example of disruptive selection is the beak size of finches on the Galapagos Islands that was
studied by Darwin. Because the majority of seeds found on some of the islands were either large or small,
finches with large and small beaks (no medium-sized beaks) were favored on those islands.

Name____________________________________ Rating ________ Section
__________________________________ Date_______________
Activity Number 7
Darwin and the Theory of Evolution
Critical Reading
The Voyage of the Beagle
In 1831, when Darwin was just 22 years old, he set sail on a scientific expedition on a ship called
the HMS Beagle. He was the naturalist on the voyage. As a naturalist, it was his job to observe and
collect specimens of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils wherever the expedition went ashore.Darwin
was fascinated by nature, so he loved his job on the Beagle. He spent more than 3 years of the 5-year
trip exploring nature on distant continents and islands. While he was away, a former teacher
published Darwin’s accounts of his observations. By the time Darwin finally returned to England, he
had become famous as a naturalist.
Darwin’s Observations
During the long voyage, Darwin made many observations that helped him form his theory of
evolution.
For example:
• He visited tropical rainforests and other new habitats where he saw many plants and animals he
had never
seen before. This impressed him with the great diversity of life.
• He experienced an earthquake that lifted the ocean floor 2.7 meters (9 feet) above sea level. He
also foun
rocks containing fossil sea shells in mountains high above sea level. These observations suggested
that
continents and oceans had changed dramatically over time and continue to change in dramatic
ways.
• He visited rock ledges that had clearly once been beaches that had gradually built up over time.
This
suggested that slow, steady processes also change Earth’s surface.
• He dug up fossils of gigantic extinct mammals, such as the ground sloth. This was hard evidence that
organisms looked very different in the past. It suggested that living things — like Earth’s surface —
change
over time.
The Galápagos Islands

Darwin’s most important observations were made on the Galápagos Islands. This is a group of
16 small volcanic islands 966 kilometers (600 miles) off the west coast of South America. Individual
Galápagos Islands differ from one another in important ways. Some are rocky and dry. Others have
better soil and more rainfall. Darwin noticed that the plants and animals on the different islands also
differed. For example, the giant tortoises on one island had saddle-shaped shells, while those on
another island had dome-shaped shells. People who lived on the islands could even tell the island a
turtle came from by its shell. This started Darwin thinking about the origin of species. He wondered how
each island came to have its own type of tortoise.
Questions
1. What was Darwin’s role on the Beagle?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What was significant about the new habitats Darwin visited?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What was significant about the rocks Darwin found in the mountains?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What was significant about the fossils Darwin found?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What did Darwin notice about life on the Galápagos Islands?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.
_____ 1. As recently as 200 years ago, many people believed that Earth was only 6,000 years old.
_____ 2. Artificial selection occurs when nature selects for beneficial traits.
_____ 3. The individual Galápagos Islands are all similar to each other.
_____ 4. Malthus argued that human populations grow faster than their resources.

_____ 5. Lamarck was one of the first scientists to propose that species evolve by natural selection.
_____ 6. Lyell was one of the first to say that Earth must be far older than most people believed.
_____ 7. Lamarck’s inheritance of acquired characteristics is has become a widely accepted scientific
theory.
_____ 8. Fossils proved to Darwin that species can evolve.
_____ 9. The term fitness to refer to an organism’s ability to outrun its hunters.
_____ 10. Darwin published his findings soon after returning to England from the voyage of the Beagle.
_____ 11. According to Darwin, natural selection is what occurs, and evolution is how it happens.
_____ 12. During his journey aboard the Beagle, Darwin found fossils from the seas in the mountains.
_____ 13. Galápagos tortoises have differently shaped shells depending on where they live.
_____ 14. Darwin’s book changed science forever.
_____ 15. Alfred Russel Wallace developed a theory of evolution at the same time as Darwin.
Multiple Choice. Write the capital letter of tha correct answer.
1. ____________ developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
(a) Alfred Russel Wallace
(b) Charles Darwin
(c) Jean Baptiste Lamarck
d) Charles Lyell
2. The voyage of the Beagle circled the globe. This voyage lasted
(a) 5 months.
(b) 2 years.
(c) 4 years.
(d) 5 years.
3. Aboard the Beagle, Darwin served as
(a) a naturalist.
(b) the captain.
(c) the captain’s first officer.
(d) the ship’s doctor.
4. During the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin
(a) experienced an earthquake that lifted the ocean floor 9 feet.
(b) dug up fossils of gigantic extinct mammals.
(c) saw many plants and animals he had never seen before.
(d) all of the above

5. Where did Darwin make some of his most important observations that helped him develop his
theory?
(a) England
(b) the Galápagos Islands
(c) South Africa
(d) South America
6. Who argued that human populations grow faster than the resources they depend on?
(a) Thomas Malthus
(b) Charles Lyell
(c) Jean Baptiste Lamarck
(d) Alfred Russel Wallace
7. One of the first scientists to propose that species change over time was
(a) Charles Darwin.
(b) Charles Lyell.
(c) Jean Baptiste Lamarck.
(d) Alfred Russel Wallace.
8. Natural selection states that
(a) a change in a species occurs over time.
(b) nature selects the variations within a species that are most useful for survival.
(c) fitness is an organism’s ability to survive and produce fertile offspring.
Match the vocabulary word with the proper definition.
Definitions
_____ 1. change in species over time
_____ 2. one of the first scientists to propose that species change over time
_____ 3. ship on which Darwin served as naturalist
_____ 4. his theory of evolution unifies all of biology
_____ 5. the process by which evolution occurs
_____ 6. argued that human populations grow faster than the resources they depend on
_____ 7. __ 8 small volcanic islands where Darwin made many important observations
_____ 8. selecting for plants and animals with useful traits
_____ 9. argued that gradual geological processes have gradually shaped Earth’s surface
_____ 10. states that traits an organism develops during its own life time can be passed on to offspring

_____ 11. developed a theory of evolution at the same time as Darwin
_____ 12. an organism’s relative ability to survive and produce fertile offspring
Terms
a. artificial selection
b. Darwin
c. evolution
d. fitness
e. Galápagos Islands
f. HMS Beagle
g. inheritance of acquired characteristics
h. Lamarck
i. Lyell
j. Malthus
k. natural selection
l. Wallace
Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.
1. In 1831, Darwin set sail on a scientific expedition on a ship called the HMS _______________________.
2. Darwin’s most important observations were made on the ____________________________ Islands.
3. Lamarck developed the idea known as the inheritance of __________________________

characteristics.
4. The ____________ _____________Darwin found helped convince him that species change over time.
5. The term ________________________ refers to an organism’s ability to survive and produce fertile
offspring.
6. ___________________________ paper on evolution confirmed Darwin’s ideas.
7. _________________________ said that Earth must be far older than most people believed.
8. Darwin was influenced by his knowledge of artificial ___________________________.
9. Darwin proposed that __________________________selects the variations in organisms that are most
useful.
10. The Galápagos Islands are known for having giant ______________________ with differently shaped
shells.
11. From Malthus, Darwin knew that populations could grow faster than their
___________________________.
Darwin’s theory of evolution unifies all of ____________________________.

Critical Writing
Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear and
complete
sentences.
1. Explain how a species can evolve through natural selection.
Name____________________________________ Rating ________
Section __________________________________ Date_______________
Activity Number 7
Evidence for Evolution
Critical Reading
Evidence from Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do. It provides
more evidence
for evolution. Let’s consider the camel family as an example.
Biogeography of Camels: An Example
Today, the camel family includes different types of camels. All of today’s camels are
descended from the same camel ancestors. These ancestors lived in North America about a million
years ago. Early North American camels migrated to other places. Some went to East Asia. They
crossed a land bridge during the last ice age. A few of them made it all the way to Africa. Others
went to South America. They crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Once camels reached these different
places, they evolved independently. They evolved adaptations that suited them for the particular
environment where they lived. Through natural selection, descendants of the original camel ancestors
evolved the diversity they have today.

Island Biogeography
The biogeography of islands yields some of the best evidence for evolution. Consider the birds
called finches that Darwin studied on the Galápagos Islands. All of the finches probably descended
from one bird that
arrived on the islands from South America. Until the first bird arrived, there had never been birds on the
islands. The first bird was a seed eater. It evolved into many finch species. Each species was adapted
for a different type of food. This is an example of adaptive radiation. This is the process by which a
single species evolves into many new species to fill available niches.
Eyewitness to Evolution
In the 1970s, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant went to the Galápagos Islands. They wanted
to re-study Darwin’s finches. They spent more than 30 years on the project. Their efforts paid off. They
were able to
observe evolution by natural selection actually taking place. While the Grants were on the
Galápagos, a drought occurred. As a result, fewer seeds were available for finches to eat. Birds with
smaller beaks could crack open and eat only the smaller seeds. Birds with bigger beaks could crack
and eat seeds of all sizes. As a result, many of the small-beaked birds died in the drought. Birds with
bigger beaks survived and reproduced. Within 2 years, the average beak size in the finch population
increased. Evolution by natural selection had occurred.
Questions
1. What is biogeography and what does it provide?
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Where do all camels come from?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why did camels evolve?
________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is adaptative radiation? Give an example.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What did the Grants study? What did they observe?
_________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Evidence of evolution includes
(a) DNA sequence analysis.
(b) the fossil record.
(c) anatomical evidence.
2. Which of the following is true about horse evolution? (1) Early horses were about the size of a fox.
(2) Early horses had toes. (3) During evolution, their molars became covered with cement.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2, and 3
3. Examples of analogous structures are
(a) the tails of mice and rats.
(b) the limbs of humans and apes.
(c) the wings of bats and birds.
4. An example of a vestigial structure is the
(a) kangaroo pouch.
(b) human tail bone.
(c) cat forelimb.
5. The strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor is
(a) similar DNA sequences.
(b) similar body structures.
(c) similar embryological structures.
(d) similar fossils.
6. Island biogeography
(a) provides information on the migration and evolution of the camel.
(b) provides information on the migration and evolution of the finch.
(c) provides information on the migration and evolution of the ape.
(d) none of the above
7. Biogeography shows that all camels
(a) came from ancestors that lived in North Africa.

(b) came from ancestors that lived in North America.
(c) came from ancestors that lived in North Egypt.
(d) evolved from the llama.
8. Peter and Rosemary Grant
(a) spent more than 30 years studying Darwin’s tortoises.
(b) studied the migration of the camel.
(c) actually observed evolution by natural selection taking place.
Write True if the statement is true or False if the statement is false.
_____ 1. Fossils provide clear evidence that evolution has occurred.
_____ 2. Embryos of many different vertebrates look much more similar than the adult organisms.
_____ 3. Early horses were about the size of a fox.
_____ 4. Darwin’s comparison of DNA sequences provided strong evidence of evolution.
_____ 5. Today’s scientists compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of modern organisms to
understand
how they evolved.
_____ 6. Homologous structures are structures that are different in related organisms because they
were
inherited from a common ancestor.
_____ 7. Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the structures of
different species.
_____ 8. Homologous embryology is the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of
different species.
_____ 9. Analogous structures are structures that are similar in related organisms.
_____ 10. Peter and Rosemary Grant were actually able to observe evolution by natural selection
taking place.
_____ 11. The wings of bats and birds serve the same function and are homologous structures.
_____ 12. Adaptive radiation is when one species evolves into a new species to fill an available niche.
_____ 13. Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do.
_____ 14. The Galápagos finches have provided a tremendous amount of information about
evolution.
_____ 15. DNA sequence similarities are the strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor.
Definitions

_____ 1. the strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor
_____ 2. shows how organisms are related by descent from common ancestors
_____ 3. structures that are similar in related organisms because they were inherited from a
common ancestor
_____ 4. scientists who find and study fossils
_____ 5. structures that are similar in unrelated organisms
_____ 6. provide clear evidence that evolution has occurred
_____ 7. reduced structures that are no longer used
_____ 8. the process by which a single species evolves into many new species to fill available niches.
_____ 9. the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species
_____ 10. the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do
_____ 11. the study of the similarities and differences in the structures of different species
Terms
a. adaptive radiation
b. analogous structure
c. biogeography
d. cladogram
e. comparative anatomy
f. comparative embryology
g. DNA sequences
h. fossils
i. homologous structure
j. paleontologist
k. vestigial structur
1. Humans and apes are evolutionarily closely related, based on analysis of their ____________________
sequences.
2. Wings of bats and birds serve the same function and are _________________________structures.
3. Comparative _________________________ is the study of the similarities and differences in the

structures of
different species.
4. _________________________ demonstrate that during the evolution of the whale, the whale moved
from land
into the sea.
5. The human tail bone and appendix are ___________________________structures.

6. ________________________structures are structures that are similar in related organisms because they
were
inherited from a common ancestor.
7. Comparative ________________________ is the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos
of
different species.
8. Early North American camels migrated to other places, some crossing a land bridge during the last
_____________________.
9. The forelimbs of all mammals have the same basic bone ___________________________.
10. _________________________ who find and study fossils are called paleontologists.
11. Peter and Rosemary Grant studied Darwin’s _________________________in the Galápagos Islands.
12. The biogeography of _________________________yields some of the best evidence for evolution.
Critical Writing
complete
sentences.
1. Describe how fossils help us understand the past. Provide an example.
Name____________________________________ Rating ________
Section __________________________________ Date_______________
Activity Number 7
Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations
Critical Reading
Forces of Evolution
The conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are unlikely to be met in real populations. The
Hardy-
Weinberg theorem also describes populations in which allele frequencies are not changing. By
definition,

such populations are not evolving. How does the theorem help us understand evolution in the real
world?
From the theorem, we can infer factors that cause allele frequencies to change. These factors are the
forces
of evolution. There are four such forces: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.
Mutation
Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. It is how all new alleles first arise. In
sexually
reproducing species, the mutations that matter for evolution are those that occur in gametes. Only
these
mutations can be passed to offspring. For any given gene, the chance of a mutation occurring in a
given
gamete is very low. Thus, mutations alone do not have much effect on allele frequencies. However,
mutations provide the genetic variation needed for other forces of evolution to act.
Gene Flow
Gene flow occurs when people move into or out of a population. If the rate of migration is high,
this
can have a significant effect on allele frequencies. Both the population they leave and the
population they
enter may change.
During the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s, many American servicemen had children with
Vietnamese
women. Most of the servicemen returned to the United States after the war. However, they left copies
of
their genes behind in their offspring. In this way, they changed the allele frequencies in the
Vietnamese
gene pool. Was the gene pool of the American population also affected? Why or why not?
Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small population. When
a small
number of parents produce just a few offspring, allele frequencies in the offspring may differ, by
chance,
from allele frequencies in the parents. This is like tossing a coin. If you toss a coin just a few times,
you may by chance get more or less than the expected 50 percent heads or tails. In a small
population,
you may also by chance get different allele frequencies than expected in the next generation. In this
way,
allele frequencies may drift over time. Genetic drift occurs under two special conditions. They are
called
bottleneck effect and founder effect.
1. Bottleneck effect occurs when a population suddenly gets much smaller. This might happen
because
of a natural disaster, such as a forest fire. By chance, allele frequencies of the survivors may be
different from those of the original population.
2. Founder effect occurs when a few individuals start, or found, a new population. By chance, allele
frequencies of the founders may be different from allele frequencies of the population they left.
Questions
1. What are the forces of evolution?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the type of mutations that affect evolution. Why?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Was the gene pool of the American population also affected by the gene flow described above?
Why or
why not?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is genetic drift?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe one special condition under which genetic drift occurs.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
____1. The fossil record reflects macroevolution.
____ 2. Population genetics is a combination of evolutionary theory and Darwinian genetics.
____ 3. For a gene with two alleles, if the frequency of one allele is 0.65, the frequency of the other
allele is 0.30.
____ 4. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can exist only in populations undergoing normal natural selection.
____ 5. A forest fire can result in a bottleneck effect.
____ 6. Individuals with sickle-cell anemia have a high fitness because they are resistant to malaria.
____ 7. Natural selection causes allele frequencies to change.
____ 8. Microevolution occurs over a very long period of time within a population or species.
____ 9. Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool.
____ 10. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can only occur in a very small population.

____ 11. Inbreeding in certain populations, together with the founder effect, can result in rare
phenotypes
within the population.
____ 12. Directional selection occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for.
____ 13. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium conditions rarely occur in real populations.
____ 14. Emigration results in gene flow.
_____15. Disruptive selection occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of the phenotypic distribution
are selected against.
1. The main difference between macroevolution and microevolution is
(a) the time frame of the evolutionary process.
(b) the species that evolve during each.
(c) that microevolution is only for small organisms, and macroevolution is for large
organisms.
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Individuals do not evolve, genes do evolve.
(b) Individuals do not evolve, populations do evolve.
(c) Populations do not evolve, individuals do evolve.
(d) Populations do not evolve, species do evolve.
3. Which of the following statements is true concerning mutations? (1) Mutations are how all new
alleles first arise. (2) Mutations create new genetic variation in a gene pool. (3) Only
mutations that occur in gametes influence evolution. (4) Mutations really do not have much
influence on allele frequencies.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2, and 3
(d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
4. In a population with 100 members, the total number of copies of each gene in the population is
(a) 50.
(b) 100.
(c) 200.
(d) 400.
5. In a population with 100 members, if there are 120 dominant alleles, how many recessive alleles
are there?

(a) 60
(b) 80
(c) 120
(d) 240
6. In a population with 100 members, if 9 individuals have the recessive phenotype, how many
individuals are
heterozygous?
(a) 9
(b) 21
(c) 42
(d) 70
7. The forces of evolution include
(a) natural selection.
(b) gene drift.
(c) genetic flow.
8. Which of the following describes disruptive selection?
(a) Selection that occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for.
(b) Selection that occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of the phenotypic distribution are
selected
against.
(c) Selection that occurs when phenotypes in the middle of the range are selected against.
(d) Selection that occurs when one phenotype is disrupted and goes extinct.
Definitions
_____ 1. consists of all the genes of all the members of the population
_____ 2. creates new genetic variation in a gene pool
_____ 3. occurs over geologic time above the level of the species
_____ 4. occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for
_____ 5. refers to differences between the phenotypes of males and females of the same species
_____ 6. occurs when phenotypes in the middle of the range are selected against
_____ 7. occurs when people move into or out of a population

_____ 8. occurs over a relatively short period of time within a population or species
_____ 9. occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of the phenotypic distribution are selected
against
_____ 10. how often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the other alleles for that gene
_____ 11. the science that focuses on evolution within populations
_____ 12. shows that allele frequencies do not change in a population if certain conditions are met
Terms
a. allele frequency
b. directional selection
c. disruptive selection
d. gene flow
e. gene pool
f. Hardy-Weinberg theorem
g. macroevolution
h. microevolution
i. mutation
j. population genetics
k. sexual dimorphism
l. stabilizing selection
1. _________________________ occurs over a relatively short period of time within a population or

species.
2. _________________________ occurs over geologic time above the level of the species.
3. The _______________________theorem shows that allele frequencies do not change in a population if
certain conditions are met.
4. Natural selection occurs when there are differences in ________________________among members of

a
population.
5. Genetic _____________________ is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small

population.
6. The gene __________________________ consists of all the genes of all the members of the population.
7. Mutation creates new _____________________________ variation in a gene pool.
8. Gene ___________________________ occurs when people move into or out of a population.
9. Allele _____________________________ is how often an allele occurs in a gene pool.

10. _____________________________selection occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected
for.
11. _____________________selection occurs when phenotypes in the middle of the range are selected
against.
12. Population _____________________________ focuses on evolution within populations.
Critical Writing
complete
sentences.
1. Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.
Name____________________________________ Rating ________
Section __________________________________ Date_______________
Activity Number 7
Macroevolution and the Origin of Species
Critical Reading
Introduction
Macroevolution is evolution over geologic time above the level of the species. One of the main
topics inmacroevolution is how new species arise. The process by which a new species evolves is
called speciation.
How does speciation occur? How does one species evolve into two or more new species?
Origin of Species
To understand how a new species forms, it’s important to review what a species is. A species is
a group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring together in nature. For a new
species to arise, some
members of a species must become reproductively isolated from the rest of the species. This means
they
can no longer interbreed with other members of the species. How does this happen? Usually they
become
geographically isolated first.
Allopatric Speciation

Assume that some members of a species become geographically separated from the rest of
the species. If they remain separated long enough, they may evolve genetic differences. If the
differences prevent them
from interbreeding with members of the original species, they have evolved into a new species.
Speciation
that occurs in this way is called allopatric speciation.
Sympatric Speciation
Less often, a new species arises without geographic separation. This is called sympatric
speciation. The following example shows one way this can occur.
1. Hawthorn flies lay eggs in hawthorn trees. The eggs hatch into larvae that feed on hawthorn fruits.
Both the flies and trees are native to the U.S.
2. Apple trees were introduced to the U.S. and often grow near hawthorn trees. Some hawthorn flies
started to lay eggs in nearby apple trees. When the eggs hatched, the larvae fed on apples.
3. Over time, the two fly populations — those that fed on hawthorn trees and those that preferred
apple
trees — evolved reproductive isolation. Now they are reproductively isolated because they breed
at different
times. Their breeding season matches the season when the apple or hawthorn fruits mature.
4. Because they rarely interbreed, the two populations of flies are evolving other genetic
differences.They appear
to be in the process of becoming separate species.
Questions
1. What is a species?
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is speciation?
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How do new species arise?
________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe allopatric speciation.
________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe sympatric speciation. Provide an example.
________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Which statement best describes allopatric speciation?
(a) Speciation that occurs without reproductive separation.
(b) Speciation that occurs without geographic separation.
(c) Speciation that occurs when some members of a species become geographically
separated from the rest of the species.
(d) Speciation that occurs when some members of a species become reproductively
2. Which statement best describes sympatric speciation?
(a) Speciation that occurs without reproductive separation.
(b) Speciation that occurs without geographic separation.
(c) Speciation that occurs when some members of a species become geographically
(d) Speciation that occurs when some members of a species become reproductively
3. Which is the best definition of a “species”?
(a) A group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring together.
(b) A group of organisms that can breed and produce infertile offspring together.
(c) A group of organisms that can breed together.
(d) A group of organisms that look and act similar.
4. An example of coevolution would be
(a) the evolution of wings in bats and birds.
(b) the toad and the flies they eat.
(c) the hummingbird and the tubular flower it pollinates.
5. Which statement is true concerning gradualism? (1) Gradualism occurs when geologic and
climatic conditions are stable. (2) Darwin thought evolution occurred this way. (3) This type
of evolution may result in long periods of little change.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1, 2, and 3

6. Punctuated equilibrium is
(a) well supported by the fossil record.
(b) a slow form of evolution.
(c) how Darwin proposed evolution occurs.
(d) none of the above
7. The hawthorn fly
(a) is undergoing allopatric speciation.
(b) can live on either hawthorn trees or apple trees.
(c) has been geographically separated by the planting of new tree species.
8. The Kaibab squirrel
(a) is undergoing allopatric speciation.
(b) is undergoing sympatric speciation.
(c) were geographically separated from Abert’s squirrels by the formation of the Grand
Canyon.
d) both a and c
Critical Thinking
complete
sentences.
1. Describe two ways that new species may evolve.
Definitions
_____ 1. a group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring
_____ 2. when a new species arises without geographic separation
_____ 3. the process by which a new species evolves

_____ 4. when some members of a species become geographically separated from the rest of the
species
_____ 5. evolution over geologic time above the level of the species
_____ 6. when species in symbiotic relationships evolve together
_____ 7. evolution that occurs gradually
_____ 8. evolution that occurs quickly
Terms
a. allopatric speciation
b. coevolution
c. gradualism
d. macroevolution
e. punctuated equilibrium
f. speciation
g. species
h. sympatric speciation
_____ 1. The process by which a new species evolves is called speciation.
_____ 2. For a new species to arise, members of a species must no longer be able to breed with
each other.
_____ 3. Coevolution occurs when members of one species evolve independently of a symbiotic
species.
_____ 4. Darwin believed evolution occurred both through gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
_____ 5. Geographic separation usually leads to sympatric speciation.
_____ 6. A new river separating a population can result in allopatric speciation.
_____ 7. When geologic and climatic conditions are stable, punctuated equilibrium occurs.
_____ 8. The hummingbird and the flower it pollinates have coevolved.
_____ 9. When geologic and climatic conditions are changing, evolution may occur more quickly.This
is known as
gradualism.
_____ 10. Hawthorn flies are undergoing geographic separation.
_____ 11. During coevolution, as one species changes, the other species goes extinct.
_____ 12. The Kaibab squirrel is in the process of allopatric speciation.
_____ 13. A new mountain range or canyon separating a population can result in sympatric

speciation.
_____ 14. A species is a group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
_____ 15. Punctuated equilibrium is a relatively slow process.
1. __________________________ is slow, gradual evolution.
2. __________________________equilibrium is illustrated by bursts of rapid change.
3. The very long mouth part of the hummingbird has ________________________ with the tubular flower
it pollinates.
4. __________________________ speciation is speciation without geographic separation.
5. __________________________ speciation may occur when some members of a species become
geographically separated from the rest of the species.
6. Evolution occurs in response to a change in the ____________________________.
7. A _________________________ is a group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
8. New species arise in the process of __________________________.
10. Macroevolution is evolution over ____________________________ time.
The evolution of one species into two or more species as a result of different populations becoming
reproductively isolated from each other is:
A) adaptive radiation
B) creationism
C) photosynthesis
Which of the following ideas was developed by Thomas Malthus?
Peppered moths living near English industrial cities provide a good

example of evolution.
The diversity of Galápagos finch species is the result of natural

selection.
Living things often produce far more offspring than are needed to
maintain their numbers.

Which of the following is NOT part of Darwin's theory of evolution?
A.Organisms in a population show a natural variation in heritable traits.
B.Organisms must compete for resources because organisms produce more offspring than
can survive
C.Species alive today are descended with modification from ancestral species that lived in
the distant past
D.Evolution unites all organisms into a single tree of life
E.Acquired traits can be inherited
1. Which of the following is NOT a component of the Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection?
A) competition for food and space
B) variation among species
C) inheritance of acquired characteristics
D) survival and reproduction
3. What structure seems to serve no purpose in an organism?
A) homologous
B) vestigial
C) dichotomous
D) fossilized
5. A group of mice becomes separated by the formation of a river. Over time, the
northern mice became smaller and whiter, while the southern mice became larger and
browner. Which one illustrates this?
A) divergence
B) homology
C) gigantification
D) industrial melanism
6. Larmarck is to "Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics" as Darwin is to?
divergence of related species
homologous structures
evolution by natural selection
speciation by common descent
7. Any variation that can help an organism survive in its environment is called a(n):
A) adaptation
B) characteristic
C) competition
D) vestigial structure
8. The strongest evidence for change over a long period of time comes from:
A) DNA
B) fossils
C) embryo studies
D) direct observation of living species
9. The dog breeds we have today were developed through:
A) natural selection
B) artificial selection (selective breeding)

C) sexual selection
D) acquired selection
10. The finches on the Galapagos island were similar in form except for variations of
their beaks. What use are these variations for?
A) attracting a mate
B) defending territory
C) building nests
D) gathering food

Geologic Time Scale Glossary:: Uc-Shs 1

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Geologic Time Scale Glossary:: Uc-Shs 1

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Geologic Time Scale

Two Conceptions of Earth History

DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 1

▾ Also known as Radiocarbon dating

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 2

PRINCIPLES OR RULES THAT EXPLAIN STRATIGRAPHY:

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 3

Principle of Faunal Succession

Two types of radioactive decay.

Methods Used to Measure Geologic Time:

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 4

What do fossils tell us?

FIVE MAIN TYPES OF FOSSILS

CHARLES DARWIN – 1809-1882

Darwin on Natural Selection:

Ideas that Shaped Darwin’s Thinking

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 7

The Galapagos Islands

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 8

Evolution by Natural Selection

Adaptations Can Be:

Common Descent- were derived from common ancestors

Takes Place Over Long Periods of Time

Vestigial organs-organs that serve no useful function in an organism

All organisms have evolutionary adaptations

Populations are the units of evolution

Evolutionary Time Scales

Four agents of microevolution

Why doesn’t natural selection eliminate all genetic variation in populations?

Many populations exhibit polymorphism and geographic variation

Not all genetic variation may be subject to natural selection

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 11

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 12

Reproductive barriers between species

Three Types of Natural Selection

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 14

Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

The Voyage of the Beagle

suggested that slow, steady processes also change Earth’s surface.

The Galápagos Islands

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 20

1. What was Darwin’s role on the Beagle?

2. What was significant about the new habitats Darwin visited?

4. What was significant about the fossils Darwin found?

5. What did Darwin notice about life on the Galápagos Islands?

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

UC-SHS Prepared by: Ms. G. Mercado 21

_____ 8. Fossils proved to Darwin that species can evolve.

_____ 14. Darwin’s book changed science forever.

Multiple Choice. Write the capital letter of tha correct answer.

1. ____________ developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

(a) Alfred Russel Wallace

(b) Charles Darwin

(c) Jean Baptiste Lamarck

3. Aboard the Beagle, Darwin served as

(b) the captain.

(c) the captain’s first officer.

(d) the ship’s doctor.

4. During the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin

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