Final Thesis-Muffins

PROCESS DEVELOPMENT FOR REDUCED CALORIE EGGLESS MUFFINS
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
KARNAL (HARYANA)
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
DAIRY TECHNOLOGY
BY
BHOPAL SINGH
B. TECH. (FOOD TECHNOLOGY )
DIVISION OF DAIRY TECHNOLOGY

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(I.C.A.R.)
KARNAL - 132001 (HARYANA), INDIA
2012
REGN. NO. 2031109

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It gives me immense pleasure and proud privilege to express my
deep sense of gratitude and heartfelt thanks to my guide Dr. Ashish
Kumar Singh, Senior Scientist, Dairy Technology Division, National
Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, for her unstinted encouragement,
benevolent guidance, morale boosting words, love, care and affections
not only towards academic work, but towards life as a whole. An
inspirational figure who has always made me realizes that ‘there is a
home away from home’.
I express my sincere thanks to members of Advisory Committee,
Dr. A. A. Patel, Principal Scientist & Head, Dairy Technology Division;
Dr. A.K. Dodeja, Principal Scientist & Head, Dairy Engineering
Division, Dr. P.N. Raju, Scientist Dairy Technology Division; Dr. Sumit
Arora, Principal Scientist, Dairy Chemistry Division; for their valuable
suggestions, encouragement and endless co-operation from time to time.
My sincere thanks to Dr. A.K. Srivastava, Director, NDRI,
Karnal, Dr. G.R. Patil, Joint Director, and Dr. S.K. Kanawjia,
Registrar, NDRI, Karnal for providing all necessary facilities to carry
out the present investigation. I gratefully acknowledge the Institutional
Fellowship awarded to me.
I am extremely grateful to Dr. A. A. Patel, Head, Dairy Technology

Division, for inspiring and valuable suggestions, constructive criticism
and timely help during the entire period of study.
I am deeply indebted to all the Scientists, Technical Officers and Staff of

the Dairy Technology Division, for their necessary help as and when
required.
I gratefully acknowledge the valuable help and all possible cooperation

extended by seniors Rekha Rani Mam, Sangita Mam, Yogesh khetra Sir
and labmates Manav, Ajay Sir, Priyanka Mam, Apramita mam, Kiran
Mam, Samunder Singh jee, Greesh jee, Ajay (Ajju), Ravi (Vicky), Vivek
and Pravin.
My heartfelt thanks to my batchmates Pravin Dahele, M. P. Singh,

Sanket, Dipak, Sharique, Amit Raj, Ronak, Gunwant, Mukesh Kumar,
Munirathna, Mohan Jee, Swapnil, Pal, Baz, Kesha, Rasmika, Anu and
my friends Mahesh, Renu, Gulab-Khansahab-Tazee(TNT), Manish, Salvi,
Kailash, Urmila, Kirti, Kumawat, Deependra, Ashish and Suraj for
caring and enjoyable moments I spent with them.
I am also thankful to my PhD Kunal Sir, Dipesh Sir, Abdul Sir, Anuj
Sir, Narendra Sir, Tanmay Sir, Bharat Sir, Shreyash Sir, Richa Mam,
Juhi Mam, Akanskha Mam, Upasana Mam, Neha Mam, Pravin Sawle
sir and Alok sir.
My parents are the earthy gods in my life deserve much more
than what I can weigh in words. Their silent prayers, aesthetic love and
affection, support and steel belief in my capabilities have enables me to
make this endeavor a successful one.
I express my deepest sense of gratitude to my sisters Neelam,

Rekha, Vinita, Pratibha, my sweet brother Raju, bhua ji (Radha) and
my senior chetan for their love, affections, encouragements and
blessings and my first nephew, whose presence, voice and growing steps
gives newness in life.
Financial support received in the form of Junior Research

Fellowship from Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, is
duly acknowledged.
Finally, my humble and absolute obeisance to God Almighty, who
have always been an invisible divine force behind my accomplishments.
All are not mentioned but no one is forgotten.
Date: July 1.., 2007 ( Bhopal Singh )

Dedicated to
my Sister
and Guide
Table of Contents
Chapter Title Page

No.
1.0 Introduction 1-4
2.0 Review of Literature 5-27
2.1 Prologue 5
2.2 Muffin: Definition, Manufacturing Process and Role of Ingredients 6
2.2.1 Definition 6
2.2.2 Muffin 6
2.2.2.1 Flour 6
2.2.2.2 Sugar 7
2.2.2.3 Fat 7
2.2.2.4 Water 7
2.2.2.5 Leavening Agents 8
2.1.5.1 Baking Powder 8
2.1.5.2 Emulsifier 9
2.1.6 Egg 11
2.1.6.1 Application of Egg in Industry 12
2.1.7 Milk Powder 12
2.1.7.1 Uses of Skim Milk Powder 13
2.1.8 Whey Protein Concentrate 13
2.1.8.1 Functional properties of whey proteins 14
2.1.8.2.1 Quality of WPC 15
2.1.8.2.2 Bioactivity of Whey Proteins 17
2.1.8.2.3 Applications of WPC in Bakery and 17
Confectionary Industry
2.1.8.2.4 Utilization of WPC in bakery and 18
confectionary products
2.3 Egg Replacement 20
2.4 Sugar Replacement 21
Intense Sweetener 21
2.4.1 Sucralose 21
2.4.2 Bulking Agents 22
2.4.2.1 Maltodextrins 22
2.4.2.2 Polydextrose 23
2.4.2.3 Sorbitol 25
2.5 Baking Process 25
2.5.1 Conventional Baking 26
3.0 Materials and Methods 28-41
3.1 Raw Ingredients Selection 28
3.1.1 Sugar 28
3.1.2 Flavour 28
3.1.3 WPC-70 28
3.1.4 SMP 28
Chapter Title Page
No.
3.1.5 Salt 28
3.1.6 Refined Wheat Flour 29
3.1.7 Shortening 29
3.1.8 Baking Powder and Cake Gel 29
3.1.9 Sucralose 29
3.1.10 Bulking Agents 29
3.1.10.1 Maltitol 29
3.1.10.2 Sorbitol 29
3.1.10.3 Maltodextrin 30
3.1.10.4 Polydextrose 30
3.1.11 Miscellaneous Materials 30
3.2 Equipments 30
3.2.1 FOSS Digestion and Distillation Assembly 30
3.2.2 Hobart Mixture 30
3.2.3 Texture Analyzer 30
3.2.4 Colour meter 30
3.2.5 Planetary Mixture 31
3.2.6 Convection Oven 31
3.2.7 Water activity meter 31
3.3 Chemicals 31
3.4 Glassware 31
3.5 Experimental Design 31
3.5.1 Methodology 31
3.5.1.1 Sugar Batter Processes 32
3.5.1.1.1 Sieving 32
3.5.1.1.2 Creaming 32
3.5.1.1.3 Mixing 32
3.5.1.1.4 Moulding and Baking 32
3.5.1.2 Flour Batter Processes 32
3.5.1.3 All-in-one Process 33
3.6 Analytical Methods 36
3.6.1 Chemical Analysis 36
3.6.1.1 Moisture 36
3.6.1.2 Crude Fat 36
3.6.1.3 Crude Protein 37
3.6.1.3.1 Digestion 37
3.6.1.3.2 Distillation 37
3.6.1.3.3 Titration 37
3.6.1.4 Total Ash 38
3.6.2 Physical Properties Analysis 38
3.6.2.1 Weight Loss 38
3.6.2.2 Determination of Colour Indices 38
3.6.2.3 Textural Analysis 39
Chapter Title Page
No.
3.6..2.4 Water Activity measurement 41
3.6.2.5 Specific Volume measurement 41
3.6.3 Sensory Evaluation 41
3.7 Statistical Analysis 41
4.0 Result and Discussion 42-76
4.1 Preparation of Eggless Muffin 42
4.1.1 Flour Level Selection 42
4.1.2 Sugar Level Selection 44
4.1.3 Selection of Egg Replacer 46
4.1.4 Selection of Fat 48
4.1.5 Selection of Minor Ingredients 51
4.1.5.1 Effect of baking powder on quality attributes of 51
muffins
4.1.5.2 Effect of cake gel on quality attributes of muffins 54
4.1.5.3 Effect of flavour on the quality attributes of muffins 56
4.1.6 Effect of Temperature 58
4.1.7 Comparison among different methods 60
4.2 Selection of Sugar Replacer 62
4.2.1 Effect of bulking agents on the sensory attributes of 62-65
artificially sweetened muffins at different levels of sugar
replacement
4.2.2 Effect of bulking agents on the colour attributes of 65-67
artificially sweetened muffins at different levels of sugar
replacement
4.2.3 Effect of bulking agents on the textural attributes of artificially 68-71
sweetened muffins at different levels of sugar replacement
4.3 Characteristics of Optimized Muffins 71-73
4.3.1 Sensory attributes of optimized muffins 71
4.3.2 Colour attributes of optimized muffins 72
4.3.3 Textural attributes of optimized muffins 73
4.4 Characteristics of eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins 73-
4.4.1 Proximate composition of control, eggless and reduced 73-74
calorie eggless muffins
4.4.3 Physical properties 74-76
4.4.3.1 Weight loss 74
4.4.3.2 Specific volume 76
4.4.3.3 Water activity (aw) 76
5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 77-82
BIBLIOGRAPHY i-xii
ANNEXURES i-v
LIST OF TABLES
Sr. No. TITLE Page No.

2.1 Composition (%) of whey protein forms 14
2.2 Functional Properties of whey protein Components in 15
Bakery and Confectionary Products
2.3 Comparative nutritive quality of food proteins 16
3.1 Selection of level of ingredients for muffins 33
4.1 Effect of refined wheat flour levels on sensory, colour and 43
textural parameters of muffins
4.2 Effect of sugar levels on sensory and colour attributes of 45
muffins
4.3 Effect of egg replacer on quality attributes of muffins 47
4.4 Effect of type of fat and their blend on quality attributes of 50
muffins
4.5 Effect of different levels of baking powder on quality 52
characteristics of eggless muffins
4.6 Effect of different levels of cake gel on quality 55
characteristics of eggless muffins
4.7 Effect of different levels of flavour on sensory and colour 58
attributes of eggless muffins
4.8 Effect of temperature on the quality attributes of muffins 59
4.9 Effect of method of preparation on quality attributes of 61
muffins
4.10 Effect of bulking agents on the sensory attributes of the 63
reduced calorie muffins at different levels of sugar
replacement
4.11 Effect of bulking agents on the colour attributes of the 67
replacement
4.12 Effect of bulking agents on the textural attributes of the 70
replacement
4.13 Quality attributes of optimized muffins 72
4.14 Proximate composition of optimized muffins 74
4.15 Physical properties of muffins 76
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr. No. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.1 Flow diagram for the preparation of eggless muffins 34
3.2 Flow diagram for preparation of Reduced calorie Eggless 35
Muffins
3.3 A typical annotated texture profile (Force-Time) curve 40
4.1 Effect of baking powder on sensory attributes of muffins 51
4.2 Effect of baking powder on colour attributes of muffins 53
4.3 Effect of baking powder on textural attributes of muffins 53
4.4 Effect of cake gel on sensory attributes of muffins 54
4.5 Effect of cake gel on colour attributes of muffins 54
4.6 Effect of cake gel on textural attributes of muffins 56
4.7 Effect of flavour on sensory attributes of muffin 57
4.8 Effect of flavour on colour attributes of muffins 57
4.9 Muffin Batter 69
4.10 Eggless muffins 69
4.11 Reduced calorie eggless muffins 69
4.12 Eggless muffins composition 75
4.13 Muffins composition 75
4.14 Reduced calorie eggless composition 75
LIST OF NOTATIONS & ABBREVIATIONS USED
% Percent
< Less than
> More than
~ Equals to
: Ratio
$ Dolar
(p<0.05) Significant at 5% level
C.D.0.05 Critical difference at 5% level of significance
aw Water activity
ACE Angiotensin Converting Enzyme
ADI Acceptance Daily Intake
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
ASMD Artificially Sweetened Misti Dahi
a* Redness
@ At the rate
BCAA Branched Chain Amino Acids
BIS British Institute Standards

BIS
BT Body and Texture
BV Biological Value
bw/day Body weight per day
b* Yellowness
CA Colour and Appearance

CD Critical Difference
CHD Coronary Heart Disease
cm Centimetre
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CVD Cardiovascular Disease
°C Degree Celsius
DATEM Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides
DE Dextrose Equivalent
df Degree of freedom
et al. And co workers
etc. And the others
EU European Union
FSA Food Safety Authority
FDA Food And Drug Administration
FSSAI Food Safety And Standards Authority of India
g Gram
GMS Glycerol Monostearate
h hour
H+ Hydrogen ion
H2O Hydrogen dioxide
hp Horsepower
i.e. That is
kcal Kilo Calorie

kg Kilogram
L* Lightness
Mal Maltitol
MD Maltodextrin
mg Milligram
mg/kg Milligram per kilogram
ml Millilitre
mm Millimetre
NaHCO 3 Sodium bicarbonate
Na+ Sodium ion
NPU Net Protein Utilization
OA Overall Acceptability
PD Polydextrose
PDCAAS Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score
PER Protein Efficiency Ratio
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PFA Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
PGME Propylene glycol mono fatty acid esters
rpm Rotation per minute
s Second
SFI Solid Fat Index
SMP Skim Milk Powder
Sor Sorbitol
SSL Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate
TPA Texture Profile Analysis
USA United States of America
WP Whey Protein
WPC Whey Protein Concentrate
WPI Whey Protein Isolates
WPNI Whey Protein Nitrogen Index

ABSTRACT
Muffins are sweet, high-calorie baked products which are appreciated by consumers due to
their good taste and soft spongy texture. In muffin formulation, besides wheat flour, egg and
sugar too play important role. Egg is a multi-functional ingredient as it performs thickening,
gelling, emulsifying, foaming, colouring, and flavouring properties and contributes to the texture
and sensory characteristics of cake, muffins and related products. Although egg possesses
excellent functional properties, there is need for its omission from muffin formulations because
of its high cholesterol content, possible source of Salmonella spp. and religious taboos
associated with its consumption. It is known that excessive consumption of sugar increases
the energy intake which in turn, can lead to chronic diseases like diabetes, obesity etc.
Therefore, there is a need for substitutes of egg as well as sugar. Ingredients levels selection
and processing parameters were done on the basis of sensory evaluation and instrumental
analysis –colour and texture profile. The levels of both flour and sugar was optimized as 24%
and among fat levels for preparation of eggless muffins, significant (P<0.05) differences were
found in overall acceptability and texture attributes of the product when butter and shortening
different levels (25, 50, 75, 100%) were tried, therefore 16% shortening level was selected.
Egg was replaced by combination of 6% WPC-70 and 2% SMP. Among minor ingredients-
cake gel 0.5%, flavour 0.4% and baking powder 1.2% has been selected. Muffins were
prepared by sugar batter method at 1800C. Combination of milk proteins and sugar replacer
(sucralose along with bulking agent) was used for development of reduced calorie eggless
muffins. Different levels of sucralose and bulking agents (polydextrose, sorbitol and maltitol)
were used for selection of highly acceptable sugar replacer. 50 percent sucralose along with
polydextrose was selected for preparation of eggless muffins. The proximate composition of
optimized eggless muffins having 17.43, 6.06, 1.62 and 50.58% fat, protein, ash and
carbohydrate respectively. The fat, protein, ash and carbohydrate content in reduced calorie
eggless muffins were 16.10, 6.01, 1.63 and 53.53% respectively. The calorific value of eggless
muffin and reduced calorie eggless muffin were 383.45 and 347.06 kcal/100g respectively. The
calorie content has been reduced 21.08% in reduced calorie eggless muffins compared to
muffins prepared with egg.
कम उ मांक युक्त अंडामुक्त मिफ स के िवकास के िलए प्रिक्रया
1. INTRODUCTION
Cereal based bakery products are one of the most important segment of
processed food industry. Bread, biscuits, cakes and muffin are essential part of our
diet as these are considered as impulse food items and mostly consumed to satiate
the palate. Bakery products are considered products of mass consumption primarily
due to their richness in nutrients and lower price. Rapid economic growth,
establishment of food chains and changing eating habits have created huge
popularity among masses. Indian bakery industry though still in unorganized sector,
ranks third in terms on revenue generation among the processed food sector. The
market size of bakery industry was US$ 4.7 billion in 2010, which is expected to
reach US$ 7.6 billion (researchandmarkets.com). The branded packaged segment in
bakery sector is estimated to be around Rs. 17000 crore in 2012 and expected to
grow @ of 13-14 percent in next 3-4 years. The major share among the bakery
products is of biscuits followed by bread and cakes. The per capita consumption of
bakery products in India is around 1- 2 kg per annum which is comparatively much
lower than 10-50 kg per annum in developed nations. With upsurge in economy and
establishment of eating joints demand for bakery products such as bread, buns,
pizza base, cakes, muffins, cookies etc. has increased tremendously. A significant
proportion of Indian population comprises of children and youths, who prefer to eat
away from home and fond of products like burgers, pizza, muffins, frozen desserts
and beverages. Therefore, the demand for these products is increasing day by day.
Health and nutritional virtues have become the focal point in new product
development due to increasing consumer awareness who desire to remain healthy
and fit and also increasing number of persons suffering with diet related ailments.
Last decades has witnessed the upsurge in population of people suffering with life-
style associated diseases namely diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer
and arthritis. The epidemic of diabetes around the world continues to deteriorate,
currently estimated 336 million people suffering from diabetes. Mortality from this
disease is 4.6 million per year cost and health to be incurred to reach 465 dollar
annually. (Source: IDF, diabetes atlas, 4th edition, 2011, National diabetes fact sheet,
2011). With an estimated population of 50.8 million diabetics, India is considered as
1 Introduction
“capital of diabetics”. Another major concern among medical practitioners, dieticians
and food formulators is the rapidly growing child obesity. Increasing incidences of
child obesity and diabetics could be attributed to consumption of high calorific diet
particularly rich in sugar, physical inactivity, obesity and partly related to genetics.
The growing consumer interest in health and in relationship with diet has led to
considerable rise in the demand for foods mainly the low sucrose and low fat
products (Martinez et al., 2012). Eighty percent of type II diabetes is preventable by
changing diet, increasing physical activity and improving the living environment
(Anon, 2012).
Muffins are characterized by a typical porous structure and high volume which
confer a spongy texture (Martinez et al., 2012). A muffin batter is a complex mixture
of interacting ingredients; which is consisted of high level of sugar and variable levels
of fat, flours, eggs and baking powder. Other minor or optional ingredients are
emulsifiers, preservatives and milk powders. For getting a desired spongy texture,
stable batters containing many small air bubbles are required. The bubbles are
produced during the mixing process, which will act as nuclei and grow in size when
the carbon dioxide generated by the baking powder leavens the product during
baking. Egg solids, particularly egg white to a lesser extent, milk proteins are
important foam stabilizers, slowing down the coalescence of air bubble. Shortening
and oil are used to give a softer structure and avoid a dry mouthful. During the
baking of muffins, starch present in flour gets gelatinized and denaturation of
proteins set the structure of cake (Baixauli et al., 2003).
Among all the ingredients egg and sugar play important role. Egg is a multi-
functional ingredient because its thickening, gelling, emulsifying, foaming, colouring,
and flavouring properties contribute to the texture and sensory characteristics of
foods. In bakery products, both egg white and yolk proteins contribute towards the
formation and stabilization of the aerated structure (Kiosseoglou and
Paraskevepoulou, 2005). Although egg possesses excellent functional properties, it
suffers from some disadvantages such as high cholesterol content and susceptibility
to microbial contamination specially the Salmonella spp. Furthermore, certain
individuals are allergic to egg proteins (Avidin) and religious taboo also prohibits
consumption of products containing egg or egg components. Such issues have led
to a research for suitable egg replacer and egg extenders (Rossi et al., 2010). Egg
2 Introduction
also adds to the increase in the production cost and it is estimated that 50 percent
cost in cake formulation belongs to egg solids. Whey protein concentrates (WPC)
are used in a wide range of food applications not only because of their nutritional
value but also because of their functional properties, such as the ability to form heat-
induced gels. WPC are used as functional ingredients in many foods, such as
processed meat, bakery and dairy products (Haeva et al., 2006).
Sugar imparts softness and sweetness and also helps in development of
adequate crust colour, helps in rising of dough and in producing a typical
caramelized flavour. Sugar assist in incorporation of air cells while creaming,
provides good grain structure, flavour and texture of the products. It aids in retention
of moisture, prolongs freshness and promotes good crust colour (Nip, 2007; Manisha
et al., 2012). It is known that excessive well consumption of sugar amounts
increases the energy intake which, in turn, can lead to chronic diseases like
diabetes, obesity etc. Therefore there is a need for substitutes for egg as well as
sugar. Eggs can be replaced by using Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC), Skim Milk
Powder (SMP) or Soy proteins. Sugar can be replaced with artificial sweeteners and
bulking agents. Emulsifiers like glycerol monostearate (GMS), sodium stearoyl-2-
lactylate (SSL), polysorbate-60, lecithin, diacetyl tartaric acid esters of
monoglycerides (DATEM) are used in the manufacture of bakery products
particularly to improve textural quality and check staling, one of the major issue
related to their storage stability. In cake making, emulsifiers aid the incorporation and
subdivision of air into the liquid phase to promote uniform dispersion of fat that
contain entrapped air cells, thereby providing more sites for the expansion of gas,
resulting in greater volume and soft texture(Manisha et al., 2012 ).
Attempts to provide sweetness for the diet have included modification of

natural products and substitution of artificial agents. Because high intensity
sweeteners provide only sweetness, combining bulking agent such as Maltodextrin
and polyols can provide functional properties of sugar in food. Sorbitol is 0.6 times
sweet as sucrose and its metabolisms do not require insulin, hence, sorbitol is
allowed for diabetics (Manisha et al., 2012). However removal of sugar from the
formulation adversely affects their sensory quality specially the flavour, colour and
textural properties. Various bulking agents including sugar alcohols,
oligosaccharides, modified starches have been successfully applied to overcome the
3 Introduction
textural problems in processed food products. Maltitol is a sweetener used specially
in confectionary and bakery products (Calorie Control Council, 2005). Its sweetness
value is 70-80 percent that of sugar and its energy content is only 2.1Kcal/g. Kanto
(2002) develop a formula for reduced calorie flaky Chinese pastry to achieve a
minimum 25% calorie content reduction. Physical and sensory characteristic
including the nutritional quality were determined in the study. Polydextrose which can
be used as a sugar and fat replacer is a cross linked, partially metabolized glucose
polymer that adds body and texture to reduced-calorie foods (Xyrofin, 1997; Kocer at
el., 2007). It has very low calorie content (1 kcal/g). Since polydextrose has shown
not to increase serum glucose values or create insulin demand in diabetics, it would
appear to a suitable component of special foods meant for diabetics (Martinez et al.,
2012). Hicsasmaz et al., (2003) studied the effect of polydextrose substitution on a
high-ratio-cake system and found that a higher sugar replacement level resulted in a
crack-like cells and an increase in small sphere-like cells, it caused a significant
decrease in cake volume.
Sucralose (1, 6-dichloro-1, 6-dideoxy-beta-D-dructofuranosyl-4-chloro-deoxy-

alpha-D-galactopyranoside) is a zero calorie sweetener, which is 600 times sweeter
than sucrose. It is heat stable, retaining its sweetness, and could therefore be
considered a suitable sweetener for bakery products (Brandt and Jackson, 1990;
Knight, 1994; Martinez et al., 2012).
Muffins are generally eaten for breakfast and liked by peoples of all age
groups. Few low calorie bakery products have emerged in recent days in Indian
market mainly cookies and biscuits that have been appreciated by the consumers.
Dairy ingredients specially the milk protein preparations are endowed with numerous
functional properties which could be effectively utilized in formulations of low calorie
bakery products. Egg replacement by whey protein concentrate (WPC) has already
been attempted successfully, but the cost of WPC is quite high and moreover these
products suffer with certain quality defects. Therefore, there is need to apply WPC in
combination with other ingredients to develop eggless muffins. Sugar replacement
may pose many inherent problems related to flavour, texture as well as storage
stability of muffins. However, no work has been done on egg replacement followed
by sugar replacement in any category of bakery products. Moreover, the role of dairy
ingredients in these products has also not been evaluated. Hence, there is need to
4 Introduction
evaluate various sugar replacers (High intensity sweeteners and bulking agent) in
eggless muffins. In view of the above justification the present study entitle “Process
Development For Reduced Calorie Eggless Muffins” has been conceptualized
with following broad objectives.
1. To standardize the level of ingredients and processing variables for

developing eggless muffins
2. To evaluate the type and levels of bulking agents in combination with sugar
replacer on quality characteristics of eggless muffins
5 Introduction
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 PROLOGUE
2.1.1 Majority of wheat produced in India is used for the preparation of chapatti at
household scale and remaining flour is used for the preparation of bakery products. Bakery
products including bread, biscuit, cakes, pasties, are one of the most important segments of
cereal based processed foods. Demand for bakery products has increased in recent past
mainly due to increase in youth population and also growth of food service sector that
cater the need of consumers who prefer food away from home. Changing consumer
preferences and technological developments in processing of foods are guiding factors in
new product development initiatives. People are becoming aware regarding the food
formulations and desire ingredients which may provide certain health benefits and
moreover for convenience, safety and ethnic choices also driven the innovation in food
formulations and products development. In India, still major proportion of bakery sector
falls in the domain of unorganized sector which has its own limitations in terms of
technological adoption and innovation, however to meet the demand of consumers bakery
industry has also geared up to take up the new challenges.
2.1.2 Bakery products like cakes, biscuits, muffins are quite rich in calorie as both sugar
and fats constitute the major proportion of ingredients. High calorific value of bakery
products limits its consumption and reducing or eliminating the sugar and fat (shortening)
from the formulations required careful selection of replacers and modification of
processing technology to yield a product of desired quality. Therefore, the present study
was undertaken to develop a commercial process for the manufacture of a reduced calorie
eggless muffins. In order to understand the complexities of processes involved in
developing such a process and product, pertinent literatures were reviewed which is being
presented below under the following headings:
 Muffins: Ingredients and their role

 Egg replacement in cake and muffin formulations
 Sugar replacement in bakery products
 Baking Process
5 Review of Literature
2.2 Muffin: Definition, Manufacturing Process and Role of Ingredients
2.2.1 Muffins are generally the small type of cake or quick bread which is baked in
muffin pans. They are also referred as “cup cake” and relished by the consumers because
of their sweet caramelized flavour and attractive appearance. In literature, the word muffin
is first appeared in 1703 and spelled as “moofin”, possibly derived from the German word
“Muffen”. Muffins are characterised by a typical porous structure and high volume which
confer a spongy texture. The characteristics texture of muffin is obtained by baking stable
batter with many tiny air bubbles incorporated into it.
2.2.2 Muffins or cake batters contain a significant proportion of highly reactive

components which interact with each other during the manufacturing process resulting in
development of desired properties in finished products. Muffins belongs to the category of
high-ratio cakes which are characterised by formulations containing higher proportion of
sugar and flour to water. For cakes containing high levels of sugar and water, an increase
in batter viscosity and an improvement in batter stability are important to obtain a non-
collapsing, porous cake structure (Kim and Walker, 1992b). Major ingredients used for
making muffins are refined wheat flour, sugar, eggs and shortening. Incorporation of
certain minor additives such as emulsifiers, hydrocolloids, humectants has been found
to be beneficial for improving the quality of baked products (Kaur et al., 2000).
2.2.2.1 Flour
Wheat flour is the major ingredient that gives unique textural and appearance
characteristics to bakery products and the criteria for using flour also varies with the
type of product in which it is used. Cake flours are generally made from soft wheat with
lower protein (7-9%), less gluten and low damaged starch content. When wheat starch
is heated in water, the granules begin to absorb water and swells many times to their
original size. On further heating the crystalline structure melts amylose leaches out of
the granules and the granules become deformed. The gelatinization occurs over a
wide temperature range and is influenced by the presence of other ingredients such as
sucrose or emulsifiers (Bennion and Bamford, 1997). Flour constituents mainly starch
and protein also interact with other ingredients primarily with fats and egg proteins and
influence the quality characteristics of cakes. Puranik (1997) prepared WPC-60
containing eggless cake by using different levels (23-27%) of refined wheat flour and
reported that the hardness of the product did not exhibit any definite trend with the
change in the flour level and highest sensory score was obtained at 27% flour level.
2.2.2.2 Sugar
Sucrose is the most common sweetener used during industrial processes and is
available in a wide variety of types and grain sizes to meet the particular requirements of
various foods (Nip, 2006). Sugar performs multiple functions in aerated or foamed baked
products. Sugar assists in incorporation of air cells while creaming, provides good grain
structure, flavor and texture to the product. Besides imparting sweet taste, sucrose provides
a considerable part of the bulk in batters or dough, assist in moisture retention (Nip, 2007)
and regulate the starch gelatinization, which helps to create afiner texture (Paton et al.,
1981; Gomez, 2008). Sugar participate both in maillard browning reactions and
caramalization thus contributes towards the colour and flavour development (Kocer et al.,
2007). During baking process sugar control the starch gelatinisation and protein
denaturation temperatures which facilitate the expansion of air bubbles by the carbon
dioxide and water vapour before the batter sets (Kim and Setser, 1992; Rosenthal, 1995).
Furthermore, sugar also promotes fat-crystal aggregates, thus enhancing air entrapment
and the stabilization of air bubbles during baking (Beesley, 1995). As a result, the cake
structure is highly aerated and voluminous (Baeva et al., 2003).
2.2.2.3 Fat
Fat or shortening is one of the important ingredients in a cake and muffins
formulation. In a cake system fat serves three major functions: entrapment of air during
the creaming process, physically interfere with the continuity of starch and protein
molecules and emulsify the liquid in formulation. Thus, the shortening affects the
tenderness and moisture retention of the cake (Freeland-Graves and Peckham, 1987). Fat
also imparts desirable flavour and softer texture to the cakes. Most types of cakes require
fairly higher amounts of shortening for the development of their characteristic crumb
structure. Fats also delay t h e gelatinization by reducing the absorption of water by
the starch granule due to the formation of complexes between the lipid and amylose
during baking (Larsson, 1980; Ghiasi et al., 1982; Elliasson, 1985).
2.2.2.4 Water
Water serves as a solvent to dissolve dry ingredients in cake batter. Water
assist in mixing of ingredients, control the rheological properties of batter,
necessary for starch gelatinization and influence storage stability (Mc Williams, 1989).
The quality of water used as an ingredient can have greater effects on bakery products
than is generally recognized. The amount and types of dissolved minerals and organic
substances present in the water may affect the flavour, colour, and physical attributes of
the finished bakery products. Soft waters may result in sticky dough which require less
than the normal amount of ingredient water, but this may be overcome by using more
salt in the formulation (Matz, 1972).
2.2.2.5 Leavening Agents

The three main leavening gases are air, steam, and carbon dioxide. Air is
incorporated into cakes by beating eggs, creaming fat and sugar or beating batters
(Bennion, 1995g). Liquid ingredients in cakes produce steam, leavening the flour mixture.
Carbon dioxide is produced by chemical leavening agents such as baking soda and baking
powder. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) releases carbon dioxide, in the presence of an
acid when it is heated. Baking powder contains mixtures of dry acid or acid salts and
baking soda (Bennion, 1995f).
2.1.5.1 Baking Powder

Baking powder acts as a leavening agent and consists of one or more acids in
combination with baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and a carrier such as starch or
flour. It yields not less than 12% of available carbon dioxide. The acid reacting materials
in baking powders are tartaric acid or its acid salts, acid salts of phosphoric acid and
compounds of aluminum (Matz, 1972). There are essentially two components in a
chemical leavening system as bicarbonate and acid. Bicarbonate supplies carbon
dioxide gas and acid triggers the liberation of carbon dioxide from bicarbonate upon
contact with moisture. Sodium bicarbonate is the primary source of carbon dioxide gas
in practically all chemical leavening systems. It is stable and obtainable as a highly
purified dry powder at relatively low production costs. The prevalent baking acids in
modern chemical leavening systems are sodium or calcium salts of ortho, pyro and
complex phosphoric acids (Chung, 1992). Chemical leavening involves the action of an
acid on bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide gas for aeration of a dough or batter during
mixing and baking. The aeration provides a light, porous cell structure, fine grain and
texture with desirable appearance along with palatability to baked goods.
Basically, there are two mechanisms of decomposition of sodium bicarbonate.
First one is the thermal decomposition and the second one is the acid activated
decomposition. Thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate takes place at high
temperatures (90°C and above) and is not of particular benefit in cake baking. In its
simplest form, it can be represented by the following chemical reaction:
2NaHCO3 + heat = Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Acid activated decomposition involves reactions of hydrogen ions in aqueous
solution and can be represented by the following general chemical reaction as given by
Bennion and Bamford (1997).
+ +
NaHCO3 + H = Na + CO2 + H2O
If too much baking powder is added the cell walls expand beyond their limit and
result in a coarse, irregular crumb. The addition of too little leavening insufficiently
expands the cell walls, resulting in a compact, low volume product.
2.1.5.2 Emulsifier
The use of emulsifier is a common practice in baking industry. An emulsifier
reduces the interfacial tension between oil and water and therefore facilitates the
disruption of emulsion droplets during homogenization. The emulsifier adsorbs to the
surfaces of emulsion droplets to form a protective coating that prevents the droplets
from aggregating with each other (McClements and Demetriades, 1998).
An emulsifier functions in two ways. It aids in the incorporation of air and

disperses the shortening in smaller particles to give the main number of available air
cells. Emulsifiers contain both a hydrophilic and a lipophilic portion, usually not in an
evenly balanced ratio but either primarily hydrophilic, being attracted to water, or
primarily lipophilic, being attracted to fat. It is thought that the hydrophilic emulsifiers
promote the uniform dispersion of fat which contains the entrapped air cells, therefore
giving many sites for both water vapour expansion and carbon dioxide given off by the
chemical leavening agents. The hydrophilic portion of the emulsifier extends itself into
the aqueous phase of the batter and creates a membrane between the oil-water
boundaries. This membrane appears to coat or encapsulate the fat droplets distributed
throughout the batter. This prevents the fat droplets containing air cells from migrating
into the liquid-aqueous phase. Therefore, emulsifiers can be said to aid in the
aeration of the batter (Painter, 1981). The effect of an emulsifier on gelatinization
depends on emulsifier type (Richardson et al., 2003). This might be attributed to an
amylase-lipid complex formation. The amount of complex formed was also affected by
the starch and lipid sources (Kim and Walker, 1992b).
The two main classes of food emulsifiers relevant to cake manufacture are proteins
and lipids, both of which can be used to aerate and reduce the density of batter (Sahi and
Alava, 2003). The mechanisms by which these two molecular species stabilize foams
differ: proteins do so by forming mechanically strong viscoelastic films, whereas lipid
films are weaker, relying on the diffusion of molecules to counteract changes in interfacial
tension when the interface is perturbed (Coke et al., 1990).
Several emulsifiers, such as Atlas A (a water dispersion of 32% sorbitan

monostearate and 8% polysorbate-60 with added preservative), propylene glycol mono
fatty acid esters (PGME), Atmul P-44 (a blend of mono-and diglycerides and sodium
stearoyl lactylate), RV (a mixture of sodium stearoyl lactylate, sorbitan monostearate
and polysorbate 60), RV-1 (a 50% water dispersion of RV) were used to observed the
effects on the functionality of white layer cake batters containing vegetable oil (Rasper
and Kamel, 1989). It was concluded that the cakes with different emulsifiers had
comparable quality attributes with the control.
Sanchez et al. (1995) evaluated the effects of reduced fat content in shortbread
cookies a n d used combinations of carbohydrate-based fat substitutes and
emulsifiers. The emulsifiers used in the study were diacetyl tartaric esters of
monoglycerides (DATEM), glycerol monostearate (GMS) and sodium stearoyl-2-
lactylate (SSL). It was found that addition of SSL appeared to have less negative
effect on cookie width than either addition of GMS or DATEM.
The effects of different emulsifiers on the properties of the dough, the volume and
the firmness of the microwave-baked breads were compared (Ozmutlu et al., 2001a).
TM
T h e e m u l s i f i e r s u s e d w e r e DATEM, Lecimulthin M-45 and Purawave .
TM
Purawave was observed to be the most effective emulsifier on bread quality. In another
study, the effects of different amounts of gluten, fat, emulsifier and dextrose on the
quality of breads baked in the microwave oven were estimated (Ozmutlu et al., 2001b).
Breads formulated with flour containing low gluten, the increase in fat and emulsifier
contents decreased the firmness and increased the specific volume of breads.
Sahi and Alava (2003) studied the effects of emulsifiers (glyceryl monostearate
and polyglycerol ester) and air inclusion on the structure of sponge batters. They found
that increasing the concentration of the emulsifier affected the distribution and size of the
air bubbles trapped in the batter during mixing as well as the texture and the volume of the
baked sponges.
TM TM
The emulsifiers Lecigran , Purawave and DATEM were added in microwave
TM
baked cakes to improve quality (Seyhun et al., 2003). Cakes formulated with Purawave
and DATEM had the highest moisture retention and were the softest.
2.1.6 Egg
Eggs can be devided in two parts as egg white and egg yolk. The egg white is
very viscous and alkaline in a fresh egg and contain natural inhibitors, such as
lysozyme, which form a chemical protection against invading microorganisms (Bennion
and Bamford, 1997). Egg white or albumen is made up of a complex structure of
proteins, such as ovalbumin and conalbumin. It contains in dry matter about 85% of
the total protein content of an egg. Egg yolk is a dispersion of p a r t i c l e s in a
continuous phase. This system contains egg lipids, 70% of which are triglycerides. The
particles make up 25% of the dry matter of the yolk, being phosvitin and lipovitellin.
The continuous phase contains 75% of the dry matter of the yolk in the form of
lipovitellin and globular protein. Cholesterol and lecithin are also present in egg yolk.
The color of the yolk is determined by the amount of xanthophyll, a yellow colouring
pigment.
The egg is a highly functional food ingredient and it has three primary attributes:
foaming, emulsification and coagulation. Foaming is the incorporation of air into a
product, usually achieved by whipping. While many food ingredients form foams, egg
and egg products are especially good foaming agents because they produce a large
foam volume which is relatively available for cooking and coagulate on heating to
maintain a stable foam structure. The second attribute is the emulsification which is the
stabilization of the suspension of one liquid in another. Egg yolk contains an excellent
food emulsifier and lecithin. Coagulation is the last attribute. It is the conversion of
the liquid egg to a solid or semi-solid state, usually accomplished by heating. This
property of egg is difficult to duplicate with any other food ingredient (Bennion and
Bamford, 1997).
2.1.6.1 Application of egg in bakery
Eggs contribute structure, emulsification, volume, texture, colour, flavour and
nutritive value. The easily coagulable proteins of egg contribute structure to cakes. Eggs
affect the texture of cakes as a result of their emulsifying, leavening, tenderizing, and
binding actions (Matz, 1972). Eggs that are gradually added to a creamed fat-sugar
mixture aid in forming a stable emulsion and retaining air, which will increase cake
volume. When the optimum amount of egg is added to a cake mixture, fine cells and thin
cell walls are produced (Bennion, 1995). In contrast, the addition of too many eggs
produces a tough, rubbery crumb.
2.1.7 Milk Powder

Milk powder is multi-functional product performing a variety of different
functions in different applications. The requirements for use in different products vary
and cannot be met by a single type of milk powder. For this reason a range of milk
powders are produced with properties matched to the end-use. Milk powders can be
classified according to extend of heat treatment into three categories: low, medium or
high-heat milk powder. A common classification of milk is based on denaturation of
whey proteins. Whey protein nitrogen index (WPNI) measures the amount of
undenatured whey proteins. Values greater than 6 mg nitrogen per gm skim milk, the
powder is called as low heat, but less than 1.5 mg nitrogen per gm, the powder is called
as high heat (Walstra and Jenness,1984). Milk powders can thus be prepared that find
application in different products, e.g. low-heat powder in yoghurt, cheese and rennet
casein manufacture and high-heat powder in bakery products (Kinsella, 1971). The effect
of heat on milk proteins can be considered to have two stages: alteration of the structure,
resulting in denaturation and aggregation of the proteins (Parry, 1980).
According to FSSAI (2011) skim milk powder is the product obtained from (skim
milk of) cow or buffalo milk or combination thereof, by the removal of water. It may
contain added calcium chloride, citric acid and sodium citrate, sodium salt of
orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acid, not exceeding 0.3 percent by weight of
the finished product. Such addition need not be declared on the label. Skim powder may
not contain more than 1.5 percent milk fat, and moisture may not exceed 5.0 percent. The
total acidity expressed as lactic acid should not exceed 5.0 percent. The standard plate
count should not exceed 50,000/g and the coliform count must not exceed 90/g. The
maximum solubility index should be 15 for roller-dried and 2 for spray-dried product.
According to FSSAI (2011) whole milk powder is the product obtained from
whole milk of cow or buffalo, or combination thereof, by the removal of water. It may
contain added calcium chloride, citric acid and sodium citrate, sodium salt of
orthophosphoric acid and polyphosphoric acid, not exceeding 0.3 percent by weight of
the finished product. Such addition need not be declared on the label. Whole milk
powder may contain not less than 26 percent milk fat, and moisture not more than 4.0
percent. The total acidity expressed as lactic acid should not exceed 1.2 percent. The
standard plate count should not exceed 50,000/g and the coliform count must not exceed
90/g. The maximum solubility index should be 2 for roller-dried and 1.8 for spray-dried
product.
The functional properties of proteins required in particular food system were
summarized by kinsella (1982). Proteins are of major importance in determining the
functional attributes of milk powders. The functional attributes of skim milk proteins
include water absorption, water binding, foaming, emulsification, solubility, viscosity,
gelation, buffer capacity and heat stability. The thermal loading during preheating plays a
major role in determining the structure and quality of dried milks. The extent of whey
protein denaturation during preheating has the major influence on the functional
properties of milk powder (Varnam and Sutherland, 1994).
2.1.7.1 Uses of Skim Milk Powder

The skim milk powder is used in baking industry to prepare cake, pancake, bread,
biscuit etc. It is widely used in the dairy products preparation i.e. ice-cream, sweets etc.
The meat industry uses dried skim milk and sweet–cream buttermilk powders in the
preparation of certain types of sausage.
2.1.8 Whey protein concentrate

The estimated world’s whey protein production exceeds 0.5 million tonnes
annually (Thompson, 2009). Proteins are the major constituent of human diet for
supporting their growth and well being. Milk proteins are generally classified into two
types as caseins and whey proteins (WP) based on their solubility at pH 4.6 (Huppertz et
al., 2005). Caseins are insoluble and consequently coagulated, whereas the whey proteins
remain soluble. Whey proteins include all of the essential amino acids and are easily
digested.
Commercially different types of WP powders are available. The most important
products are whey protein concentrates (WPC) and whey protein isolates (WPI). WPC
contains more than 35% protein, low levels of fat and cholesterol and typically a greater
amount of bioactive compounds and lactose. Whey protein concentrates (WPC) containing
around 80% protein are designed to compete with other protein ingredients in food, such
as egg white proteins (Foegeding and Luck, 2003). WPI contains more than 90% of
protein and has lower levels of fat and lactose and bioactive compounds (Fox and
McSweeney, 2003; Hettiarachchy and Ziegler, 1994; Huppertz et al., 2005).
Table 2.1 Composition (%) of whey protein forms
Component Whey Powder Whey Concentrate Whey Isolate

Protein 11 – 14.5 25 – 89 90 +
Lactose 63 – 75 10 – 55 0.5
Milk Fat 1 – 1.5 2 – 10 0.5
Source: (Geiser, 2003)
WPC is prepared by means of ultrafiltration/diafiltration of whey to remove mainly

water, lactose and minerals as a result of selective separation of whey proteins under mild
processing conditions such as temperature and pH. Ultrafiltration of whey usually results
in retentates of approximately 24 percent total solids and diafiltration gives retentates of a
higher total solid content approximately 28 percent with comparatively higher protein to
total solids ratio (Fox and McSweeney, 2003).
2.1.8.1 Functional properties of whey proteins in bakery and confectionary products
The ability of whey proteins to form gels, films, foams and emulsions are
important attributes in food applications as well as in product development (Foegeding
and Davis, 2011). WP products are generally used as food ingredients because of their
versatile functional and nutritional properties. The desirable functional properties of WP
such as solubility, foaming, emulsification, heat-induced gelation and coagulation, water
binding capacity and retention, dispersability, viscosity and turbidity have been primarily
utilized in food systems particularly in bakery and confectionary products (Firebaugh and
Daubert, 2005; Foegeding and Davis, 2011).
Table 2.2 Functional Properties of whey protein Components in Bakery and
Confectionary Products
S. No. Functional Mechanisms Products
Properties
1 Water absorption Hydrogen, covalent bonding Cakes, Caramel,

Toffee
and Binding
2 Gelation Heat induced denaturation and Muffins, Cakes,

formation of protein matrix, setting Caramel, Toffee,
of structure Taffy,
3 Cohesion- Chemical interactions between milk Bakery and Pasta

Adhesion protein and other ingredients products
4 Elasticity Hydrophobic binding in gluten Bakery products

disulfide link, in gels (Fermented baker
products)
5 Emulsification Formation and stabilization of fat Muffins, Cakes,

emulsion Confectionary
products
6 Whipping Formation of boundary film to Muffins, Cakes,

entrap air bubbles Fudge
7 Flavour formation Interaction between milk proteins Muffins, Caramels,

and lactose (Maillard reaction) Toffee, Cakes,
Biscuits, Cookies
8. Colour Maillard reactions, caramelization Muffins, Cakes,

of lactose at higher temperature Biscuits, Cookies
Caramel, Toffee,
9. Nutrition Supply of quality proteins, amino High protein

acids, milk minerals, water soluble biscuits, Cakes,
vitamins and lactose Confectionary
products etc.
Source: Singh (2005)
2.1.8.2.1 Quality of WPC

Whey proteins are also known to have high nutritional value due to their
varied amino acid composition and good digestibility (De Wit, 1998). In 1993, the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration adopted the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score
(PDCAAS) as the standard method to evaluate protein quality. It is based on the protein’s
amino acid content, true digestibility and its ability to supply indispensable amino acids in
amounts adequate to meet the amino acids requirements of a 2 to 5 year old (preschool-
age) child, the age group use as a standard. The protein quality ranking is determined by
comparing the amino acid profile of the specific food protein against a standard amino
acid profile.
Table 2.3 Comparative nutritive quality of food proteins

Food Protein Protein Digestibility Protein Biological Net
Corrected Amino Efficiency Ratio Value (BV) Protein
Acid Score (PER) Utilization
(PDCAAS) (NPU)
Whey protein 1.00 3.2 100 92
Whole egg 1.00 3.8 100 94
Cow’s milk 1.00 3.1 91 82
Casein 1.00 2.9 77 76
α-Lactalbumin 1.00 3.6 104 92
Beef 1.00 2.9 80 73
Soy protein 1.00 2.1 74 61
Rice 0.40 2.0 59 57
Wheat 0.40 1.5 54 41
Beans 0.60 1.4 49 39
Source: Renner (1983), Pasin and Miller (2000)
The highest possible score under the guidance is 1.0. This score means that after
digestion of food protein, it provide per unit protein, 100% or more of the indispensable
amino acid required by the preschool-age child. Protein with PDCAAS value exceed than
100% were not consider to contribute additional benefits in humans and were truncated to
100%. A commercial WPI (BiPRO®) has received a PDCAAS value of 1.14 when
analyzed by Nutrition International, an experienced laboratory in the USA for conducting
clinical analysis, but FDA restrics the values to the maximum of 1.0 to be declared on the
label (Davisco, 2004). Whey proteins have proportionately more sulphur containing
amino acids (cysteine and methionine) than caseins, which contributes to the higher
PER of whey proteins (3.2) than casein (2.6). Any protein with a PER of 2.5 is
considered as good quality (Walzem, et al., 2002). The biological value as well as their
PER, NPU and PDCAAS values with those of other dietary proteins are given in Table
2.3.
2.1.8.2.2 Bioactivity of Whey Proteins
Bioactivity of food refers to food components that can affect biological
processes or substrates and hence have an impact on body function or condition
and ultimately health. The role of proteins as physiologically active components in the diet
has been increasingly acknowledged in recent years. Such proteins or their precursors
may occur naturally in raw food materials, exerting their physiological action
directly or upon enzymatic hydrolysis in vitro or in vivo (Pihlanto and Korhonen,
2003). Bioactive peptides usually contain 3-20 amino acid residues per molecule. At
present, milk proteins are considered the most important source of bioactive peptides.
Milk contains components that provide critical nutritive elements, immunological
protection, and biologically active substances to both neonates and adults. From
these, bioactive peptides may be generated in vivo through gastrointestinal processes.
These peptides encoded with in the sequences of native protein precursors, may
also be generated in vitro by enzymatic hydrolysis (Clare and Swaisgood, 2000).
Apart from being a source of nitrogen, whey protein acts as carriers for ligands and
trace elements and have various biological functions (Pihlanto and Korhonen,
2003). Walzem et al., (2002), Bajaj and Sangwan (2002) and Steijns (2001)
reviewed the bioactivity of whey proteins. Opioid activity, antihypertensive activity,
antithrombotic activity, immune system stimulation, appetite suppression, antioxidant
activity, anticariogenic activity, HIV treatment ability, hypocholesterolemic property,
etc are some of the health benefits of the whey proteins.
2.1.8.2.3 Applications of WPC in bakery and confectionary products
Whey protein concentrate (WPC) is a high-quality protein source with many

applications in the food industry. Milk proteins in soluble and dispersed form are widely
valued as food ingredients, having excellent surface-active and colloid-stabilizing
characteristics (Singh and Dalgleish, 1998; Dickinson, 2001). WPC enzymatic
hydrolysates are used mainly as a nitrogen source in the formulation of baby foods and
enteral nutrition (González-Tello et al., 1994a). WP are used in sport beverages, liquid
meat replacements, baked products, processed meats, salad dressings, ice creams, artificial
coffee creams, soups and various other dairy products (Fox and McSweeney, 2003;
Fitzsimons et al., 2007).
Whey protein isolate (WPI) is used in nutritional supplements and protein-fortified

beverages (Foegeding and Luck, 2003). Both WPC and WPI are also being used in
applications such as sports nutrition (Luff, 2005), appetite suppression (Child, 2005) and a
derivatization procedure for producing a cold gelling WPI, which will affect foaming and
emulsifying characteristics of foods to which it is added (Resch and Daubert, 2002;
Firebaugh and Daubert, 2005).
2.1.8.2.4 Utilization of WPC in bakery and confectionary products
A study of the ingredients of the bakery products available at Indian market has
revealed that the country is not far behind the world as far as application of
nutraceuticals is concerned. Whey proteins have been considered as a potential
ingredient for the bakery industry in view of their desirable functional
characteristics and nutritive value.
Bread
Bread, with milk proteins added in one form or another shows a good crumb
structure, bread yield, flavor and keeping quality (Puranik, 2003). In bread making,
some denaturation of whey proteins is necessary to avoid adverse reactions
between whey proteins and other components of the system (Gupta and Puranik,
1997).
Biscuits
In the manufacture of high protein biscuits, milk proteins play an important

role as they increase the nutritive value and also the texture. The unbalanced
amino acid composition of wheat proteins, especially the deficit of lysine, can be
improved by supplementation. High protein biscuits developed by incorporating WPC
upto 30 percent was well accepted because of improved sensory attributes. The
improved color in the product was attributed to the Maillard reaction due to the
interaction of the lactose and the proteins present in the WPC (Raju, 2004). Such
biscuits contained about three times more protein.
Cake
Raju (2004) had developed high protein cake by incorporating WPC and observed that
addition of upto 30 percent level of WPC showed improved sensory characteristics and
functional properties. Such cakes when packed in metallized polypropylene bags and
stored at ambient temperatures had a shelf life of 15 days. A number of researchers
have investigated the possibility of replacing egg white with whey proteins in the
manufacture of cakes with varying degree of success. A situation quite different
from that in bread exists in some cakes, where the main functions of egg proteins
are encapsulation during the mixing process, stabilization of the aqueous foam in the
intermediate baking stage and coagulation of the egg proteins in the heat setting
stage of the cake batter. Singh et al., (2003) reported that the values of all
physical properties of cake decreased with the increase in the level of WPC and
cake volume decreased with 0 to 100% egg replacement .
Puranik (1997) prepared eggless cake containing WPC-60 and reported that
increasing the level of WPC-60 from 5-7% resulted in increased cake height but upon
further rise in the WPC-60 level to 9% the height remained unchanged (6.20 cm). The
hardness of cake increased as the level of WPC-60 incresed and found optimum level of
WPC-60 as 7%.
WPC is a high quality protein source with many applications in food industry.
Milk protein in soluble and dispersed form is widely valued as food ingredient, having
excellent surface-active and colloid-stabilizing characteristics (Singh and Dalgleish, 1988;
Dickinson, 2001 and Gonzelez-Tello, 2009). It is well known that excessive consumption
of sugar accounts to increased the energy intake which, in turn, can lead to chronic
diseases. Therefore, nowadays people have become more health conscious and the demand
for sugar-free products is rising day by day. Attempts to provide sweetness for the diet
fication of n atural products and substitution of ficial
have included modi arti agents
(Vishwanath and Waldshan, 1991). The growing consumer interest in health and its
relationship with diet has led to a considerable rise in the demand for low sucrose and low
fat products (Martinez et al., 2005). Due to the complex structural functionality of sucrose
in baked products, obtaining good quality low-sucrose products is a difficult task. Sucrose
replacement in baked products needs to consider both the sweetness and the bulking effect
of sucrose.
There are various quality problems in microwave baked products. These problems
are firm and tough texture, low volume, lack of colour and crust formation, high moisture
loss and rapid staling (Samnu, 2001). Seyhun et al., (2003) found that it was possible to
retard the staling of microwave baked cakes could be retarded by adding gum and
emulsifier to the formation and by varying the fat content.
Milk Chocolate
The addition of functional whey based ingredients to a milk chocolate

formulation improves the efficiency of the Maillard reaction, yielding better
chocolate taste and mouthfeel. Raju (2004) developed a high protein chocolate by
replacing the skimmed milk powder (SMP) with WPC and reported that 75 percent
replacement of SMP with WPC was best accepted. Such product had a very good
biting characteristic, which was attributed to the partial loss of solubility of whey
proteins when heated to more than 700C (Jayaprakasha and Brueckner, 1999).
Demineralized whey , WPC and blends are used as total or partial replacement for milk
powders in coating formulations. Polishing and glazing provides a brilliant surface
and a moisture barrier coating to high quality confectionaries.
2.3 EGG REPLACEMENT

In cake making, wheat flour, eggs, sugar and fat are the major ingredients. Among
different ingredients used in cake making, eggs are the most costly ingredients and
significant source of cholesterol. Therefore, partial or total substitution of eggs with
vegetable proteins in cake formulations is an interesting objective, especially so for the
people with specific dietary needs or restrictions (vegans, vegetarians, high cholesterol
people, etc.). The almost unique foaming, emulsifying and heat coagulation properties of
egg proteins impart important functional roles of cake characteristics, namely volume and
texture. This makes it extremely difficult to replace eggs successfully by a different source
of proteins, even by the use of several types of additives, such as hydrocolloids, in cakes
(Arozarena et al., 2001). Singh et al. (2003) reported that whey proteins could produce
good foam and this foam is almost similar to the uncooked egg white foam at different
concentration. Lee et al. (1993) also observed that an acceptable egg-less cake can be
prepared by replacing egg with whey protein concentrate. Hussain et al. (2009) prepared
eggless cake by substituting 66.67% of the total egg with different levels of whey proteins
(8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 g). The resulted cake volume was improved by increasing the level
of whey proteins had lower volume as compared to control cake and only two levels (16
and 20 g) of whey proteins (WP) were selected to be used in combination with lupine
protein for total substitution of egg in cake.
2.4 SUGAR REPLACEMENT

Sweeteners are important ingredients in bakery products. Besides providing a
flavor, dimensions, color, and
sweet taste, they also affect fermentability, appearance,
finished products. There are many available choices of sugars and
texture of the
sweeteners, and the type chosen depends on the degree of sweetness as well as the desired
appearance or texture of the baked product (Lai and Lin, 2006).
A successful strategy for partial sucrose replacement by low-caloric, high-intensity
sweeteners requires that these functions are considered. Fillers used to replace the bulk of
sugar in cake formulations are maltodextrin, polydextrose, cellulose, sugar alcohols,
inulin, plant fibers etc. (Gomez et al., 2010; Hicsasmaz et al., 2003; Kocer et al., 2007;
Ronda et al., 2005). Some of these replacers have the additional advantage of being
prebiotic or increase dietary fibre content (Devereux et al., 2003; Rose et al., 2010).
Koker et al. (2007) reported reduction in the calorific content of the high -ratio cake was
6.5% upon 20% sugar-replacement, whereas 10% upon 20% fat-replacement based on the
total sugar and fat content of the conventional high-ratio cake.
2.4.1 Intense sweetener

The primary function of intense sweetener is to impart sweetness in the product
without providing any calorie. Four intense sweeteners are permissible as per the
regulations such as aspartame, acesulfame-k, saccharin and sucralose (Calorie Control
Council, 2004).
2.4.1.1 Sucralose
FDA has recommended 5mg/kg bw/day as acceptable daily intake (ADI) for
sucralose (FDA, 1997). Sucralose is the only high-intensity sweetener obtained from
sucrose. It is very stable both in the solid form and in solution. It is highly soluble in
water. The high temperature stability of sucralose during food preparation had been
confirmed by a series of processing trials. Studies revealed the stability of sucralose in
baked products even during normal as well as diverse baking conditions (Barndt and
Jackson, 1990; Nip, 2006).
Lin and Lee (2005) conducted a trial to observe the effect of replacement of
sucrose by a mixture of sucralose and a type of indigestible dextrin in chiffon cakes.
Satisfactory results was obtained in terms of physical and sensory properties in samples
with less than 50 percent replacement.
Mariott and Alamprese (2012) observed that the dough containing sucralose
showed mechanical and rheological properties very similar to the dough produced with no
added sugars and resulted dough was firmer, more resistant to tensile forces and less
viscous than the doughs containing sucrose or fructose.
2.4.2 Bulking agents

When sugar is removed from food, it has to be replaced by alternative substances
which maintain the sweet taste of the product together with other functional attributes
which can be imparted by bulking agent such as polyols (Auerbach et al., 2006). Bulking
agents, which can replace the nonsweet functional attributes of sucrose, can be utilized as
an alternative to sucrose in bakery products (Beereboom, 1979; Deis, 1993; Giese, 1993),
unfortunately none of the bulking agent seems to possess all of the sucrose properties.
2.4.2.1 Maltodextrins
Maltodextrins are starch hydrolysate products hydrolyzed with either acids or
enzymes with a dextrose equivalent (DE) value of less than 20. The composition of
maltodextrin reveals that it contains a mixture of low molecular weight polysaccharides,
oligosaccharides and simple sugars (Xie et al., 2005). It is widely used for partial
replacements of fats in a variety of processed foods because of its ability to form a
particle gel cream in food systems (Sobczynska and Setser, 1991; Alexander, 1992).
Khouryieh et al., (2005) prepared no-sugar-added muffins using sucralose,
maltodextrin and xanthan gum. They declared that one serving or 55 g of no-sugar-added
muffin contained 1 g of sugar and 5 g of total fat. They further confirmed that 1 g of
sugar obtained in the cake was attributed to maltodextrin.
Syed et al., (2012) conducted an experiment to develop low calorie food stuff like
cake using carbohydrate-based fat replacers. Attempts have been made to replace fat in
cake by incorporation of pearl millet maltodextrin prepared by acid hydrolysis of pearl
millet starch at the rate of 20, 30 and 40 percent. The results of sensory evaluation of
cake by semi trained panellist showed that the cake prepared using 30 percent
maltodextrin had the highest score for each sensory attributes as compared to the
experimental control. The actual fat replacement in the finished product was 26.40
percent by using maltodextrin and other modified starches as fat replacer to obtain low
calorie food stuffs successfully and developed low calorie food stuff like cake using
carbohydrate-based fat replacers by incorporation of different levels of maltodextrin
(20, 30 and 40 %) and found that 30% replacement of fat with maltodextrin showed
better organoleptic characteristics than control cake.
2.4.2.2 Polydextrose
Polydextrose (PD) is a bulking agent which mimics the structural functions of
sucrose, other than imparting sweetness and crystallisation (Torres and Thomas, 1981). It
provides 1 kcal per g energy in comparison with 4 kcal/g by sucrose and 9 kcal/g by fat.
It has been observed that polydextrose do not increase serum glucose values or
create insulin demand in diabetics, it would appear to be a suitable component for special
foods for diabetics (Torres and Thomas, 1981; Roberfroid and Slavin, 2000). It has an
average degree of polymerization of 12 and an average molecular weight of 2000. It
increases the fiber content of food and is thought to be fermentable in the large intestine,
contributing towards the growth of the beneficial bacteria and production of their
metabolites (Craig et al., 1999). It is often used in low calorie food in place of sucrose
and fat due to similarities in body and texture (Chinachoti, 1995). Polydextrose is
considered to be a resistant polysaccharide and, in certain countries, a soluble fiber
(Craig et al., 1999). When used to replace sugar and fats, polydextrose contributes only
25 percent of the calories of sugar and 11 percent the calories of fats (Mitchell, 2001).
The excellent water solubility of polydextrose differentiates it forms the insoluble
bulking agents such as cellulosic products. It is soluble to approximately 80 percent at
25°C. Polydextrose acts in similar manner to sucrose in that, it results in clear solution
without formation of haze or turbidity. The viscosity of polydextrose solution is greater
than that of an equal amount of sucrose solution. In a manner similar to sucrose solution,
the viscosity of polydextrose solutions decreases with an increase in temperature. The
viscosity enhancing effect of polydextrose plays an important role in food uses such as
reduced calorie dressing and puddings. Under conditions of high relative humidity,
polydextrose is fairly hygroscopic. In food products, polydextrose functions as
humectants and can play an important role in product quality by controlling the rate of
moisture gain or loss. In baked products, polydextrose can retard the loss of moisture,
which helps to protect against staling (Mitchell, 2001). In this way, polydextrose serves
as an important ingredient in extending shelf-life.
Hicsasmaz et al., (2003) observed the effect of polydextrose substitution on a
high-ratio cake system. A higher level of sugar replacement resulted in a decrease in
crack-like cells and an increase in small sphere-like cells, causing a significant (P<0.05)
decrease in cake height. Ronda et al., (2005) studied the effect of total replacement of
sucrose by several bulking agents, including PD on the volume, colour and textural
properties of sponge cake. The results indicated that xylitol-PD combination was a good
option to replace sugar.
Pateras et al., (1994) studied the effect of sucrose replacement by polydextrose on
foam characteristics of cake batters. Polydextrose caused an increase in the mean size of
air bubbles, and introduced a larger variation in bubble size distribution in the cake
batter. It was observed that addition of high polydextrose concentrations in cake batters
resulted in a reduction in the air-holding capacity of the batters with a consequent
increase in bubble size variation and average bubble size. They also observed that bubble
expansion rate was slower in polydextrose batters during baking. Rosenthal (1995)
revealed that polydextrose elevated the starch gelatinization temperature while leaving
the egg protein denaturation temperature essentially unchanged.
Hicsasmaz et al., (2003) found the same increase in the mean bubble size and
reported that polydextrose was capable of imitating the sucrose cake batter in terms of
bubble size distribution. Also, they found that increase in polydextrose resulted in a
significant decrease in cake height and a sensible change in the lightness and in the
crumb colour hue.
Hicsasmaz et al., (2003) studied the usage of polydextrose as a sugar-replacer in
high-ratio cake formulations. They observed that increase in polydextrose content results
in a decrease in the number and size of crack-like pores which hinders interconnectivity of
the pore structure. Their study also showed that sugar replacement by polydextrose
resulted in increase in the numbers of bubbles in the cake batter which was attributed to
the fact that polydextrose can also be used as a fat replacer. Koker et al., (2007) prepared
high-ratio cake with polydextrose-substitution and it allowes 25% fat-replacement and
22% sugar-replacement, resulting in 22% reduction in calorific value based on total sugar
and fat content.
Martinez et al. (2012) prepared low sucrose muffins in which the sucrose had been
totally or partially replaced (25, 50 and 75%) by a sucralose: polydextrose mixture
(1:1012). They found that replacement of sucrose decreased the viscosity, viscoelasticiy
and specific gravity and thermosetting temperature of the raw muffin batter . They also
reported that sugar replacement in the batter resulted in muffin with less height, hardness,
springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness and resilience and fewer air cells than the control.
Fifty percent sucrose replacement was most acceptable in terms of appearance, colour,
texture, flavour and sweetness, whereas 100 percent sugar replacement was less acceptable
than control.
2.4.2.3 Sorbitol
Baeva et al., (2000) carried out studies on diabetic sponge cakes with complete
sucrose replacement with aspartame and bulking agent (sorbitol, wheat starch and wheat
germ). They reported that the energy value of the diabetic sponge cakes against the
control one was reduced to 25 percent for the ordinary cake without sucrose and 29
percent for sponge cake without sucrose containing wheat germ.
Manisha et al. (2012) reported that replacement of sugar with different levels of
sorbitol increased the moisture content of cakes from 20.3 to 25.8 percent and addition of
100 percent sorbitol was significantly (P<0.05) better in improving the quality
characteristics of cake without sugar.
2.4.2.4 Maltitol
Ronda et al., (2005) prepared sponge cakes with seven bulking agents (maltitol,
mannitol, xylitol, sorbitol, isomaltose, oligofructose and polydextrose) were used to totally
replace sucrose and observed that the sponge cake prepared with xylitol and maltitol was
more similar to the control with the highest acceptance level in sensory evaluations and
lower quality sponge cakes were those developed with mannitol.
2.5 BAKING PROCESS

Baking is a complex process that brings about a series of physical,
chemical and biochemical changes in food such as gelatinization of starch, denaturation
of protein, liberation of carbon dioxide from leavening agents, volume expansion,
evaporation of water, crust formation and browning reactions. It can be described as a
simultaneous heat and mass transfer within the product and with the environment inside
the oven.
There are three main stages of cake baking; batter preparation and the early
part of baking, intermediate baking stage, and finally the structure development. In
batter preparation and the early part of baking, sugar is beaten into the fat to give an
aerated cream. Specific volume of cake is closely related to the entrapped air in the
batter. The incorporation of air cells during batter preparation creates final texture of the
cake. After preparing the fat sugar cream, the next step is egg addition. The sugar goes
into solution and water-in-oil emulsion is formed, the air cells being dispersed in
the fat phase only. Addition of flour results in a change to a multiphase structure. In
batter water is the continuous phase but parts of it are still in water-in-oil emulsion type.
The flour particles are suspended in the aqueous phase of the complete batter (Shepherd
and Yoell, 1976). In the early stages of baking of the batter, there is little apparent
change. However at 37 to 40 °C as the fat in the batter melts, the irregular shaped fat
particles roll up into spherical droplets, and any water-in-oil emulsion portions of the
batter convert into oil-in-water. Finally the air bubbles are released from the fat phase to
the aqueous phase (Shepherd and Yoell, 1976).
The intermediate stage has been defined as the period between the final melting
of fat and the beginning of setting up the final structure. The flour particles are
still suspended in the continuous aqueous phase, throughout which the fat is dispersed
as liquid droplets. During this stage, cake batter can undergo a considerable amount of
bulk flow. The air bubbles incorporated in the batter preparation step act as a nuclei for
the expansion of total batter by the movement of water vapour and carbon dioxide into
air cells (Shepherd and Yoell, 1976). The third and final stage of cake baking mechanism
is the development of cake structure. This is a result of gelatinization of starch and
coagulation of proteins in the final stages of baking (Shepherd and Yoell, 1976).
fin batter and found that

Shelke et al. (1990) observed the properties of the muf
the structural changes that occur during baking are determining factors in bubble
formation and evolution and in the final baked product structure and texture.
1.4.1 Conventional Baking

During conventional baking heat is transferred, mainly by convection, from
the heating media and by radiation from oven walls to the product surface followed by
conduction to the centre (Sablani et al., 1998). There is also conduction from the
product container and convection in the product by the movement of water vapour
as the temperature rises. Pei (1982) has classified conventional baking into four baking
stages; formation of white crust, heat transmission from crust to interior, gelatinization or
cooking process and browning.
Baik et al. (2000a) characterized the baking conditions inside the baking chamber
in two different multi-zone industrial ovens, in order to understand the general
industrial cake baking process. They had measured the internal temperature
profile, air velocity, absolute humidity and oven wall temperature and estimated heat and
mass transfer parameters in each zone of two different tunnel type multi-zone industrial
ovens (gas fired band oven and electric powered mold oven). In addition to
characterization of baking conditions during industrial cake baking, some important
quality parameters such as texture, color, density and viscosity of the cake batter were
also evaluated (Baik et al., 2000b).
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Present chapter deals with the raw materials used, experimental design
followed and details of the methodologies adopted to standardize the formulation
and processing technology for eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins. The
analytical techniques related to characterization of intermediate and finished
products for various physico-chemicals, textural, rheological, microbial and
sensory parameters during and after the manufacture of product, have been
discussed. The statistical tests used for drawing the logical inference are also
outlined hereunder.
3.1 RAW INGREDIENTS SELECTION

3.1.1 Sugar
Good quality white crystalline food grade cane sugar (Brand name-Trust
classic) was procured locally from the super store. Crystal sugar was ground in a
laboratory grinder and sieved properly before being used in the manufacturing of
muffins.
3.1.2 Flavour
Vanilla flavour was procured from International Flavours and Fragrance
India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai.
3.1.3 WPC-70
Whey protein concentrate (WPC-70) containing 70% protein was
purchased from M/s Modern Dairies Ltd., Karnal (Haryana). It was free from any
abnormal flavour, colour and microbial contamination. Details of the composition
and quality as provided by supplier are given in Annexure-I.
3.1.4 Skim milk powder
Spray dried skim milk powder (SMP) was purchased from M/s Modern
Dairies Ltd., Karnal (Haryana). Details of the composition and quality as provided
by supplier are given in Annexure-I
3.1.5 Salt
Commercially available good quality crystal iodised salt (TATA®) was
obtained from the local market of Karnal.
28 Materials and Methods
3.1.6 Refined Wheat Flour
Refined wheat flour (Brand Name: Rajdhani) was procured from the local
market of Karnal and it contained 9% protein.
3.1.7 Shortening
Bakery shortening (Marvopride) was procured from Bunge India Pvt. Ltd.,
Mumbai. It was stored placed in cool and dry place.
3.1.8 Baking powder and Cake gel

Double acting Baking powder and Cake gel was procured from the local
market of Karnal. It was placed in cool and dry place. Cake gel was mixture of
emulsifiers: INS 471 (Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids) and INS 477
(Propylene glycol esters of fatty acids) and humectants: INS 1520 (propylene
glycol) and INS 422 (Propylene glycol esters of fatty acids).
3.1.9 Sucralose
Sucralose (Brand name-SpelendaR) was used for the replacement of sugar
and it was manufactured by Tate and Lyte Sucralose, Inc., Decatur, II, USA. It
was stored at controlled room temperature (250C). It should be kept away from
odoriferous materials and reseal container before storing unseal product. It
provides no calorific value and it was 600 times sweeter than the sucrose.
3.1.10 Bulking agents

3.1.10.1 Maltitol
Maltitol (Brand Name: Sweetperl P 200) was provided as free sample by
Roquette India Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai. It was white crystalline powder having sweet
taste and odourless. It was used as a bulking agent. Details of the composition
and quality as provided by supplier are given in Annexure-II.
3.1.10.2 Sorbitol
Food grade liquid sorbitol was used as a bulking agent and it was
purchased from Shilex Chemical Pvt. Ltd., Delhi. It was of food grade quality and
in powdered form. Details of the composition and quality as provided by supplier
are given in Annexure-III.
3.1.10.3 Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin was used a bulking agent in the present investigation and it
was procured from M/S Riddhi Siddhi Gluco Biols Ltd. Plot, Pantnagar
(Uttarakhand). Maltodextrin was of food grade quality.
3.1.10.4 Polydextrose
Polydextrose was used as a bulking agent and procured from Unique
Sugars Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Details of the composition and quality as provided by
supplier are given in Annexure-IV.
3.1.11 Miscellaneous Materials
The sieves of desired mesh size, muffin moulds, muffin paper cup,
polystyrene cups (100 gm capacity), bowls, spoons, spatulas, tissue paper and
other required materials were obtained from the local market.
3.2 EQUIPMENTS
3.2.1 FOSS Digestion and Distillation Assembly
Kjeldahl unit (digestion, distillation and titration) was used for estimation of
protein content in samples.
3.2.2 Hobart Mixture

Hobart planetary mixer (bowl capacity, 5L) fitted with the mixing hook (flat
beater) manufactured by Hobart Corporation, U.S.A. was used for creaming and
mixing of raw materials.
3.2.3 Texture Analyzer

Textural attributes were evaluated by using Texture Analyzer TAXT21
(Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, Surrey, UK) fitted with a 25 Kg load cell.
3.2.4 Colour meter

Colour was measured by reflectance spectroscopy technique employing
reflectance meter, Colorflex® (Hunter lab, Reston, Virginia, USA) supplied with the
Universal Software (version 10).

3.2.5 Planetary Mixture
Planetary Mixture was used for blending of raw materials and preparing
batter for muffins and capacity of mixer was 5 to 20 kg of raw materials.
3.2.6 Convection Oven

Convection oven was used for baking of muffins batter. It was procured
from HCS Enterprises.
Specification of convection oven given by supplier as stated below:
Model number HCS-Minj
Electrical Requirement 2 hp
Type of control panel Electro-mechanical
3.2.7 Water Activity measurement

Water activity was measured using water activity meter “Aqua Lab’ (Model
Series 3 TE) supplied by Decagon Devices, W.A., U.S.A. (Plate-6).
3.3 CHEMICALS
All the chemicals used for the preparation of different reagents and for
carrying out chemical analysis were of Analytical Grade (AR) and were procured
from standard suppliers. The reagents required for analysis were prepared fresh
adopting standard procedures.
3.4 GLASSWARE
All the glassware used during the course of investigations were procured
from reputed suppliers. Glassware were cleaned using laboratory soap solution,
washed thoroughly with tape water and then rinsed with distilled water and dried
in hot air oven maintained at 400C before use.
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

3.5.1 Methodology:
Levels of different ingredients namely flour, sugar, baking powder, cake

gel, flavour, combination of WPC-70 and SMP and shortening were standardized
by adopting one variable one time procedure. Muffins were prepared by using
various levels of ingredients as outlined in table 3.1 by adopting the sugar batter
creaming method. Eggless and reduced calorie eggless Muffins were prepared as
per the methods outlined in Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2. The final products were
evaluated for sensory, colour and textural parameters.
3.5.1.1 Sugar–Batter Processes

The essential feature of this process was:
3.5.1.1.1 Sieving:
All the dry ingredients (refined wheat flour, baking powder, WPC- 70) were
sieved together using 12 micron mesh size sieve for four times for proper mixing.
3.5.1.1.2 Creaming:
Creaming of the shortening was done at medium speed (418 rpm) for 5
minutes. The sugar and shortening was creamed together at the same speed and
time. The sugar crystals aid the incorporation of air bubbles into the mixture, and
the density reduced as the mixing continues, which can be seen by the
progressive ‘whitening’ of the mixture. The cake gel was added to the mixture and
it was creamed for 2 minutes to improve the quality of the batter and final product.
3.5.1.1.3 Mixing:
In this step WPC was added to the fat–sugar mixture in four to six
individual portions with in between blending after the addition of each portion so
that uniform dispersion can be obtained without deaeration of the mixture. It was
done at slow speed (218 rpm) for 3 minutes. In the control Muffins egg was added
into the sugar–shortening mixture. Egg was added as the same temperature of
the mixture to avoid the separation of the fat from the mixture (curdling). Then
flour and baking powder was added to the mixture and blended continuously for 3
minutes at medium speed. Finally the liquids e.g., milk and water were added and
blended at low speed (218 rpm).
3.5.1.1.4 Moulding and Baking:
The batter was filled into the muffins moulds and was baked at 1800C for
18 minutes into the conventional oven.
3.5.1.2 Flour–Batter Process

I. The shortening and a portion of the flour (typically three quarters of the
flour mass) was creamed together at low speed for about 10 min, during
the time, air was incorporated into the mixture.
II. The WPC and sugar was whisked then separately at high speed (618 rpm)
for 3 minutes. In the control sample WPC was replaced by eggs.
III. Then the mixture of fat–flour and WPC–sugar was blended at low speed
(218 rpm) for 2 minutes.
IV. Skim milk powder was reconstituted separately and added into the mixture
and this mixture was finally blended at low speed for 2 minutes.
V. The remaining flour and baking powder was blended into the mixture at low
speed followed by moulding and baking.
3.5.1.3 All-in one Process
In this method, all of the ingredients were placed into the mixing bowl and
blended together at low and medium speed. The all-in process method is
particularly suitable for use with recipes that contain an emulsifier.
Table 3.1 Selection of level of ingredients for muffins
Ingredients Levels of ingredients (%)
Flour 21, 24 and 27
Sugar 21, 24 and 27
Sugar replacer 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100
Shortening + Butter 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100
Flavour 0.4 and 0.6
Baking powder 1.2, 1.4 and 1.7
Cake gel 0.25, 0.40 and 0.50
WPC-70 + SMP 0, 25, 50,75 and 100

Selection of ingredients
Creaming of fat and

sugar
Mixing with cake gel
Sifting (RWF+WPC-70
+SMP + Baking
powder)
Mixing
Flavour + Water
Preparation of batter
Moulding
Baking
Cooling
Eggless Muffins
Figure 3.1 Flow diagrams for the preparation of eggless muffins

Selection of ingredients
Creaming of fat and

bulking agent
Mixing with cake gel
Sifting (RWF + WPC-

70 + SMP + Baking
Mixing
Flavour + Water +
Sucralose
Preparation of batter
Moulding
Baking
Cooling
Reduced Calorie Eggless

Muffins
Figure 3.2 Flow diagram for preparation of Reduced calorie Eggless Muffins

3.6 ANALYTICAL METHODS
The ingredients used in the manufacture of reduced calorie eggless
muffins, intermediate as well as final products were analyzed for various physico-
chemical parameters using the following methods.
3.6.1 Chemical Analysis

Various analytical methods and techniques that were used for chemical
analysis are described in the following section.
3.6.1.1 Moisture
Moisture content of eggless and reduces calorie eggless muffins were
determined by the gravimetric method as described in AOAC (2000). About two g
of sample was taken in clean, dry, and previously weighed in aluminium moisture
dish and transferred to hot air oven maintained at 105ºC for 3 h. The process of
heating, cooling and weighing was continued at half hour intervals till the loss of
weight between successive weighing is less than one mg was obtained. The
lowest weight was recorded.
where,
W = Weight of empty dish, (grams)
W2 = Weight of dish with sample (grams)
W3 = Weight of dish with dried sample (grams)
3.6.1.2 Crude Fat

Crude fat in the eggless and reduces calorie eggless muffins were
estimated using standard method of AOAC (1995). Five grams of sample was
weighed and transferred to extraction thimble. Sample was extracted with
petroleum ether for 45 min using SOCS PLUS, Pelican Equipments, India. Beaker
with extracted fat was dried in an oven at 1020C followed by cooling in
desiccators. After cooling, it was weighed. Crude fat in the sample was calculated
using the following formula:
where,
W1 = Weight of empty beaker (grams)
W2 = Weight of beaker with extracted fat (grams)
S = sample weight (grams)
3.6.1.3 Crude protein
Crude protein content in the samples was determined by micro Kjeldahl
method as described in AOAC (2000).
3.6.1.3.1 Digestion
The measured sample (0.1g) was transferred to 30 ml kjeldahl digestion
tube, followed by addition of digestion mixture (about 0.5 g of copper sulphate and
five g of potassium sulphate) and 5 ml of concentrated H2SO4. The contents were
then digested to a transparent clear fluid by heating in the digestion chamber.
3.6.1.3.2 Distillation
The digested content was transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask and made
up the volume by distilled water. An aliquot (10 mL) of digested sample was
distilled with 10 ml 50% sodium hydroxide and the liberated ammonia was
collected in 10 ml saturated boric acid containing 2-3 drops of mixed indicator
(one part of 0.2% alcoholic methyl red and five parts of 0.2% alcoholic
bromocresol green solution). Approximately 50-60 mL of distillate was collected in
a 100 ml conical flask.
3.6.1.3.3 Titration
The contents of the flask were titrated against 0.02N HCl. Blank was
determined by using distilled water in place of sample. The total nitrogen and
percent protein were calculated as follows:
where,
S = mL of HCl required for sample
B = mL of HCl required for blank
N= Normality of HCl used, and
W= Weight of the sample in mg
Percent Total Protein = Percent total nitrogen x conversion factor*

3.6.1.4 Total ash
Total ash content was estimated by using standard method of AOAC
(2000). Three gram of sample was weighed and transferred in pre-weighed
porcelain crucible. The weighed sample was charred till the smoke ceased from it.
The crucible was then transferred to muffle furnace maintained at 550+50C and
incinerated until light gray ash was obtained. The crucibles were then cooled in
desiccator and weighed. Ash content in the sample was calculated by using the
following formula:
Where,
W1 = Weight in g of dish with material before ashing,
W2 = Weight in g of dish with material after ashing, and
W = Weight in g of empty dish.
3.6.2 Physical properties analysis

Various tests conducted for physical analysis of reduced calorie eggless
Muffins.
3.6.2.1 Weight loss

The muffins were numbered by marking the underside of the mould and
were weighed before (W 3) and after baking followed by one hour cooling (W 4).
The weight loss upon baking was calculated as follows:
Weight loss = (W 3 ̶ W4) ×100/W 3

Where,
W3= Weight of muffin batter before baking
W4= weight of muffin after baking
3.6.2.2 Determination of colour indices
Colour of eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins samples were
measured by reflectance spectroscopy technique employing reflectance meter,
Colorflex® (Hunter lab, Reston, Virginia, USA) supplied with the Universal
Software (version 10). Before the test, the instrument was calibrated with standard
black and white tiles as specified by the manufacturer. The light source was duel
beam xenon flash lamp. The colour values of eggless muffins and reduced calorie
eggless muffins were expressed in terms of L* (Lightness) ranging from 0 (black)
to 100 (white), a* (Redness) ranging from +60 (red) to -60 (green) and b*
(Yellowness) ranging from +60 (yellow) to -60 (blue) as per the international
colour system. The samples were filled in sample container up the 0.8-1.0 mm
height and measured at 200C. The colour indices of the samples were measured
in triplicate.
3.6.2.3 Textural Analysis
The eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins samples were evaluated
for their textural attributes, using Texture Analyzer TAXT2i (Stable Micro Systems,
Godalming, Surrey, UK) fitted with a 25 Kg load cell. Triplicate measurements
were made for each sample. The samples were tempered at a temperature 200C
prior testing. The muffins were cut horizontally at the height of the mould, the
upper half was discarded and the 2.5 cm-high lower halves were removed from
the mould. A double compression test was performed to a height of 1.25 cm (50%
flat
compression) with a 75 mm diameter -ended cylindrical probe (P/75), at a
speed of 1 mm/s with a 5 s waiting time between the two cycles. The parameters
obtained from the curves were hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess,
chewiness.The test conditions maintained were as under:
Mode : Measure force in compression
Option : Return to start
Pre-test speed : 2.0 mm/s
Test speed : 1.0 mm/s
Post-test speed : 2.0 mm/s
Trigger type : Auto
Data acquisition rate : 200.00 PPS
Force : 0.98 N
Time interval : 5 Sec
Probe : P-75
Load cell : 25 kg
Distance : 50% strain
Rupture test distance : 4.0%
The textural parameters were worked out from the force-time curve thus
obtained for each sample with force experienced by the probe on Y-axis and time
on X-axis.

Fig. 3.3 A typical annotated texture profile (Force-Time) curve
a. Hardness: The TPA hardness is described as the peak force of the first
compression of product.
b. Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is how well the product withstands a second
deformation relative to how it behaved under the first deformation. It is measured
as the area of work during the second compression divided by the area of work
during the first compression. (Area 2/ Area 1).
c. Springiness: Springiness is how well a product physically springs back after it
has been deformed during the first compression. The spring back is measured at
the down-stroke of the second compression. Springiness is typically measured by
the distance of the detected height of the product on the second compression
(Length 2) divided by the original compression distance (Length 1).
d. Gumminess: Gumminess only applies to semi-solid products and is product of

hardness and cohesiveness (Area 2 × Area 1).
e. Chewiness: Chewiness only applies for solid products and is calculated as the
product of gumminess and springiness (Length1/Length2). Chewiness is mutually
exclusive with gumminess since a product would not be both a solid and a semi-
solid at the same time.
3.6.2.4 Water Activity measurement
Water activity (aw) is vital parameter in deciding the shelf life of product. It
does greatly affected by the composition of complementary food and processing
variables and affects the reconstitutional properties. Water activity of

complementary food was measured using AquaLab TE series 3B-version 3.4
(Decogoa) and uses software package Aqualink, WINDOS based program design
for collection and graphing of data. The instrument measures water activity of
product with accuracy @ 0.003 at 250C. AquaLab operates on the principle of
chilled mirror dew point technique to measure aw of sample. For determination of
aw of complementary food, 2 gm of representative sample were weighted in plastic
dish, provided with instrument, and subjected to instrumental measurement of aw.
Each measurement was carried out in triplicate.
3.6.2.5 Specific Volume measurement
Specific volume was measured by the rapeseed displacement method
(Chopin, S.A, France). Muffin mix was filled into the measuring cylinder and than
measure the volume and then press it by putting the rapeseeds followed by
tapping and observe the volume.
Specific volume= (W 1- W2/ W 2)* 100
Where,
W1 = weight before rapeseed addition
W2= weight after rapeseed addition
3.6.3 Sensory evaluation

The reduced calorie eggless muffin samples were analyzed for sensory
parameters using a composite sensory evaluation score card (Annexure VI). The
sensory parameters evaluated for eggless and low calorie eggless muffin were
flavour, sweetness, body and texture, colour and appearance and overall
acceptability. The samples were served to a panel of 10 trained judges and
research scholars to evaluate the product by using score card.
3.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The data obtained during the study was subjected to various statistical analyses
using different software. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out by
using the general linear model of SPSS software (version 20.0). The critical difference
(CD) was used to differentiate between two treatments and calculated by using the
equation given below:
Where,
Emss= The mean sum square of errors,
n = Number of experiment, and
tf = The t- value at error degrees of freedom.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The present study was undertaken to develop the technology of reduced calorie eggless
muffin by utilizing dairy ingredients like whey protein concentrate and skim milk powder,
bulking agents and sugar replacer like sucralose. The work was carried out in two distinct
phases as outlined below:
• Standardization of the base ingredients for eggless muffin of acceptable quality,
process modification including mixing method and
• Effect of the type and levels of bulking agents in combination with high intensity
sweetener i.e sucralose for production of reduced calorie eggless muffin.
4.1 PREPARATION OF EGGLESS MUFFIN

4.1.1 Flour level selection
For preparation of muffins refined wheat flour (RWF) was added at three different
levels (21, 24 and 27%) of the total weight of muffin batter. Wheat muffins of above flour
level were compared with control muffins. Muffins prepared with three levels of flour
were subjected to sensory evaluation, instrumental colour and texture profile analysis
(TPA). Sensory evaluation revealed that muffin with flour level has no significant effect
on the sensory attributes of muffins. There was no significant difference in respect of
colour and appearance, body and texture, sweetness, flavour and overall acceptability.
However, muffins prepared with 24 percent flour level obtained maximum scores for all
the sensory attributes except flavour.
Instrumental analysis of colour showed that the lightness (L*) of muffins
containing egg (control) was higher than the eggless muffin. There was significant
difference in the lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) value of the control
muffin and eggless muffins. Muffins prepared with 24 percent RWF exhibited lowest
lightness (L*) and highest redness (a*) values. However, muffins with 21 percent RWF
showed maximum yellowness (b*) value. Difference in instrumental colour values could
be attributed to variation in RWF and levels of other ingredients specially milk
ingredients. Milk ingredients contained both proteins and lactose, which may be involved
in maillard browning reaction. Likewise sugar also undergoes caramalization reactions.
42 Result and Discussion

Intensity of browning reactions depends on various factors such as concentration of
reactions, temperature of baking and pH.
Table 4.1 Effect of refined wheat flour levels on sensory, colour and textural
parameters of muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control 21% flour 24% flour 27% flour C.D.0.05
CA 7.36a±0.21 7.00a±0.22 7.64a±0.36 7.57a±0.30 0.56
BT 7.21a±0.29 6.79a±0.24 7.29a±0.18 7.00a±0.33 0.54
Flavour 7.50a±0.19 7.14a±0.34 7.36a±0.18 7.07a±0.23 0.47
Sweetness 7.07a±0.2 7.07a±0.2 7.14a±0.28 6.86a±0.24 0.49
7.14a±0.18 6.82a±0.14 7.20a±0.19 6.89a±0.28 0.41

OA
Colour attributes
L* 72.14a±0.02 69.10c±0.02 71.47b±0.04 65.75d±0.06 0.098
a* 2.34d±0.02 5.42b±0.01 3.26c±0.01 6.41a±0.05 0.07
b* 25.11c±0.02 27.36a±0.04 24.98d±0.02 25.79b±0.06 0.09
Textural attributes
d
Hardness(N) 16.43 ±1.17 28.56b±0.9 24.42c±0.65 33.32a±0.2 1.85
Cohesiveness 0.35a±0.07 0.30a±0.01 0.34a±0.01 0.27a±0.00 0.08
Gumminess 5.83b±1.62 8.71a±0.61 8.41a±0.34 9.11a±0.14 2.01
Springiness 0.72a±0.05 0.64a±0.01 0.70a±0.02 0.55b±0.00 0.06
Chewiness(N) 4.35a±1.48 5.62a±0.45 5.89a±0.39 5.00a±0.10 1.82
C. D. (critical difference) at 5% level of significant;

abcde: mean value with different superscript within a column differs significantly (P<0.05).
CA: colour and appearance, BT: body and texture, OA: overall acceptability, L*: lightness, a*:
redness, b*: yellowness.
Texture profile analysis (TPA) of muffins for control as well as eggless muffins
prepared with three different levels of RWF varied significantly (P<0.05) for their
hardness value. Hardness value of control muffin was 16.43N which was highly
significantly lower than eggless muffin. Eggless muffin prepared with 27 percent RWF
was hardest among all (Table 4.1). However, there was no statistical significant difference
among the muffin samples for cohesiveness and chewiness. There was no definite trend
among the muffin samples for textural attributes. Control muffin was least gummy in
comparison with all the three eggless muffins, however eggless muffins did not differ
significantly (Table 4.1). Springiness value of eggless muffin prepared with 27 percent
RWF was significantly lower than the control and eggless muffin prepared with 21 and 24
percent RWF. Eggless muffin made with 24 percent RWF scored maximum except flavour
on sensory evaluation, having lowest lightness value and no significant difference from
control muffins for cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness was selected for further
standardization.
Values were higher than other levels of flour and these values were close to
control. Statistically (P<0.05) there was significant difference in the hardness value of the
control muffin and eggless muffin and there were no significant difference in cohesiveness
and chewiness values of control and eggless muffins at all levels of flour. Therefore 24%
flour level was selected for the preparation of eggless muffin.
4.1.2 Sugar level selection

To standardize the sugar level in eggless muffin ground sugar was added at three
different levels (21, 24 and 27%) of the total weight of muffin batter. Muffin was prepared
as outlined in section 3.6 and sensory panellists rated eggless muffin with 24% sugar level
best for colour and appearance (7.64), body and texture (7.43), sweetness (7.70), flavour
(7.35) and overall acceptability (7.43) in comparisons with eggless muffin made with 21
and 27 percent sugar respectively.
As the sugar level increased colour become darker due to the maillard browning
and caramalization. Although there was no significant difference in sweetness of the
eggless muffins made with 21 and 27 percent sugar but both were rated significantly lower
in comparisons to control and eggless muffin containing 24 percent sugar (P<0.05) (Table
4.2). eggless muffin prepared with 21 percent sugar was pale in colour and reported to be
less sweet, whereas the one made with 27 percent sugar was darker and more sweet, hence

not liked by the panellists. It is evident from the table that control and eggless muffin
containing 24 percent sugar did not differ significantly for all sensory attributes; hence 24
percent sugar level was selected for further trials. Puranik (1997) also used different sugar
levels (18, 21 and 24%) for preparation of eggless cake and reported that increased sugar
level has dark crust colour and excessive sweet and lower level of sugar had pale colour.
Instrumental colour analysis showed that crust colour of eggless muffins was
darker, more red and yellow than control muffins. The increase in darkness and redness
could be attributed to use of milk solids in eggless muffins which contain substantial
amount of lactose. All muffins differ in lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*)
value from each other significantly (P<0.05) expect for yellowness values of eggless
muffins made with 21 and 24 percent sugar, respectively (Table 4.2). Among eggless
muffins the one containing 27 percent sugar was lighter. Redness (a*) value of control
muffin was 2.21 which was significantly (P<0.05) lower than eggless muffins. Redness
value showed increasing trend with increasing sugar content in formulation.
Table 4.2 Effect of sugar levels on sensory and colour attributes of muffins
Sensory attributes
Attributes
Sample Control 21% sugar 24% sugar 27% sugar C.D.0.05
CA 7.29ab±0.29 7.07ab±0.32 7.64a±0.32 6.64b±0.26 0.60
BT 7.50a±0.19 7.04a±0.22 7.43a±0.25 7.14a±0.26 0.47
Flavour 7.57a±0.17 7.39a±0.13 7.36a±0.24 7.14a±0.24 0.40
Sweetness 7.71a±0.18 6.93b±0.23 7.57ab±0.23 7.00b±0.22 0.44
OA 7.41a±0.19 7.11ab±0.3 7.45a±0.24 6.82b±0.22 0.48
Colour attributes
L* 71.22a±0.02 68.93c±0.03 69.36b±0.02 67.59d±0.1 0.11
a* 2.21 d ±0.01 3.88 c ±0.01 4.81 b ±0.02 7.31 a ±0.05 0.06
b* 24.20d ±0.04 25.07 b ±0.04 25.04 b ±0.02 25.88 a ±0.09 0.11

abcd : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).
CA: colour and appearance, BT: body and texture, OA: overall acceptability.

4.1.3 Selection of egg replacer
Replacement of egg from cake and muffin formulation required selection of
suitable replacer that can demonstrate functionally similar to egg. Dairy ingredients such
as whey protein concentrate (WPC) and skim milk powder (SMP) could replace egg in
muffin manufacture, because of the excellent functional properties they could impart in
muffins and cakes.
For the selection of the cost effective egg replacer muffins were prepared by
using the blend of WPC and SMP alone or using the blend of WPC and SMP (75:25,
50:50 and 25: 75) and compared with control. Sensory evaluation of muffins prepared
with SMP or higher proportion of SMP scored lower if compared with those made with
WPC-70. Colour and appearance score for control and eggless muffin (SMP: WPC, 25:75)
did not differ significantly (P<0.05) however their colour and appearance score was
significantly higher than other eggless muffins. The muffins made with SMP, WPC and
their combination were more darker and brown as compared to control muffin, more ever
SMP base formulation also lacked characteristics glassiness of control or WPC based
muffins.
Instrumental colour values showed that statistically there was significant (P<0.05)
difference in the lightness value of control and eggless muffins prepared with the WPC
and SMP alone and in combination. Similarly, redness value of eggless muffins differs
significantly as compared to control. Statistically there was non-significant difference in
the yellowness of control and eggless muffin prepared with the use of combination of milk
proteins (WPC: SMP, 25:75). Instrumental analysis of texture showed non-significant
difference in the control and eggless muffins prepared with the blend of milk proteins
(WPC: SMP, 75:25). Hardness value of combination of milk proteins (SMP: WPC, 75:25)
containing muffin was closed to the control.
Eggless muffin made with a blend of WPC and SMP (75:25) scored maximum for
body and texture parameter, however it did not differ significantly from control and WPC
based muffin (P<0.05). Eggless muffins containing SMP alone or higher proportion of
SMP alone in combination with WPC scored significantly lower body and texture scores
in comparison to WPC based or control muffin. Whey proteins especially partially
denatured and delipidized possess excellent foaming, emulsifying and gelling properties
which assisted in appropriate incorporation and dispersion of air cells in muffin batter.
Denatured whey proteins possess both hydrophilic and hydrophobic, which assist in
proper emulsification of added fat/shortening and its uniform dispersion in cake batter.
The WPC based muffins were having porous, soft crumb and with uniform sized air cells.
In SMP based muffins crumb grain was compact, densely packed air cells with thick cell
walls and less voluminous than control or WPC based muffins.
Table 4.3 Effect of egg replacer on quality attributes of muffins
Attributes Sensory attributes
Sample control SMP WPC 2WPC 4WPC 6WPC + C.D.

+ + 2SMP
6SMP 4SMP
CA 7.71a± 6.93b± 6.75b± 6.79b± 6.50b± 7.57a± 0.57
0.10 0.30 0.09 0.24 0.05 0.17
BT 7.00ab± d a
5.68 ± 7.21 ± 6.11cd± 6.43bc± 7.43a± 0.66
0.15 0.34 0.10 0.22 0.11 0.23
Sweetness 7.29a± b a
5.79 ± 7.43 ± 5.86b± 7.29a± 7.50a± 0.82
0.15 0.43 0.17 0.28 0.10 0.27
Flavour 7.36a± b a
5.46 ± 7.36 ± 5.75b± 7.00a± 6.93a± 0.70
0.13 0.31 0.14 0.20 0.09 0.34
OA 7.50a± c a
5.48 ± 7.41 ± 5.86c± 6.76b± 7.36a± 0.64
0.08 0.32 0.25 0.17 0.10 0.19
Colour attributes
L* 70.00a± 65.00f± 67.09d± 69.36b± 66.45e± 68.00c± 0.13

0.00 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.15 0.00
a* 2.00d± 7.00a± 4.84b± 4.81b± 4.29c± 4.21c ± 0.06
0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.00
b* 25.00c± 28.75a± 26.73b± 25.04c± 26.56b± 29.00a± 0.23
0.00 0.25 0.11 0.02 0.03 0.00
Textural attributes
Hardness 18.50e± 34.17a± 27.72c± 33.46b± 25.02d± 18.30e± 0.23

(N) 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.16 0.10 0.18
Cohesiveness 0.31b± 0.46a ± 0.24c ± 0.26b± 0.31b± 0.32b± 0.01
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Gumminess 5.74e± 15.85a± 6.74d± 8.68b± 7.78c± 5.78e± 0.20
0.06 0.16 0.05 0.12 0.02 0.07
Springiness 0.56b± 0.72a± 0.58b± 0.43c± 0.72a± 0.55b± 0.08
0.03 0.00 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.02
Chewiness 3.23c± 11.37a± 3.92c± 3.73c± 5.58b± 3.19c± 0.72
(N) 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.77 0.03 0.17
ab : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).
CA: colour and appearance, BT: body and texture, OA: overall acceptability.
There was no significant difference for flavour and sweetness of control and so 75
percent or 100 percent WPC based eggless muffins; however their flavour and sweetness
scores were significantly higher than 75 percent or 100 percent SMP based eggless
muffins. SMP based muffins possessed predominant milky flavour than caramelized nutty
flavor of control and WPC based eggless muffins. They were also reported to be less
sweet as compared to control and WPC based eggless muffins.
Overall acceptability scores of control and eggless muffins prepared with 75

percent or 100 percent WPC were not significantly different (P<0.05). Eggless muffin
made with 100 percent SMP scored lowest for all sensory attributes, hence it was also
least liked by the panellists. SMP contained only 35 percent protein (on dry basis) and
nearly 52 percent lactose as compared to 70 percent protein and 15 percent lactose in
WPC, hence eggless muffins made with SMP were less sweet, having darker crust colour,
compact and hard texture that resulted in lower sensory scores.
Srivastava and Rao (1993) reported that with increasing SMP level in bread
hardness of bread increased. The porosity was also adversely affected by increasing SMP
in the cake. Srivastava and Rao, (1993) reported that at higher level of SMP, the body and
texture was observed to be crumbly and dry in bread. Puranik (1997) used different milk
by-products (SMP, WPC-35, WPC-50, WPC-60, Skim milk retentate, buffalo milk
powder and butter milk retentate) in formulation of eggless cake and observed that WPC-
70 added cake was best by the panellists and the amount of WPC required to produce an
acceptable quality cake depends on their protein content.
4.1.4 Selection of fat

Fat or shortening is major ingredient in cake or muffin which play significant
important role in texture formation, palatability and storage stability of these products
(Kumari et al., 2011). On the basis of preliminary trials shortening level was standardized
for preparation of eggless muffins. However, panellists reported that shortening must be
compared with butter alone or in combination for their effect on quality of resultant
muffins. Therefore shortening (T1) and white butter (T2) alone (i.e.100 percent) or in blend
of shortening and butter [25:75 (T3), 50:50 (T4) and 75:25 (T5)] were added at the rate of
16 percent in eggless muffin formulation and muffins were evaluated for sensory

attributed on 9-point hedonic scale, instrumental colour and texture profile analysis.
Results obtained are discussed hereunder.
It is evident from table 4.4 that there was no significant difference for all the
sensory attributes between the control and eggless muffins made with shortening, although
average sensory scores of control muffin were higher than eggless muffin (T1) prepared
with shortening. Butter added eggless muffins (T2) were not significantly different in
colour and appearance, but scored lesser for body and texture, sweetness, flavour and
overall acceptability in comparison to control and T1 (P<0.05). Increasing the proportion
of butter in blend resulted in lowering of body and texture, sweetness, flavour and overall
acceptability scores. Butter containing muffins reported to be denser, predominant cooked
milk fat flavour and appearance of liquid fat on the surface and within the crumb. No
adverse quality defects were observed in eggless muffins prepared with shortening.
Shortening used in present investigation is made by partial hydrogenation of wide variety
of oil blends (palm oil, palm kernel oil, coconut oil, rice bran oil, sesame oil and
palmolein) having melting point in the range of 37-41⁰C.
Application of shortening might have assisted in air incorporation during the
creaming process involved in complexing of starch and protein molecules and
emulsification of aqueous phase that contributes towards the crumb texture, tenderness
and moisture retention; which resulted in better sensory scores. Fresh white butter used
during experiments and replaced shortening on weight basis in formulation; since butter
contained almost 15 percent moisture and about 84 percent fat whereas shortening had
only 0.10 percent so effective fat content in eggless muffin containing butter was less.
Moreover, air incorporation in cake batter is influenced by the solid fat index (SFI)
and crystal structure and size of fat. Milk fat contain appreciable amount of unsaturated
fatty acids and thus low SFI value, which might have resulted in lower entrapment of air
during creaming with sugar causing cake with decreased volume and harsh crumb. Kumari
et al. (2011) observed that use of vegetable oils (i.e. sunflower oil and coconut oil)
decreased batter viscosity, increased specific gravity and decreased overall quality scores
of cakes.Instrumental analysis of colour showed that the lightness (L*) value of control
muffins was higher than the eggless muffins. It was observed in earlier experiments as
well. The L* value of eggless muffin containing equal proportion of shortening and butter
(T4) was similar to control muffin. In general eggless muffin made with butter (T2) or

higher level of butter in blend (T3) were darker in colour and there was no significant
difference among them (P<0.05). Redness (a*) value of control muffin was significantly
lower than eggless muffins. Redness (a*) value of eggless muffin made with shortening
was 4.16 unit which was significantly lower than the one made with butter (6.76 unit)
Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Effect of type of fat and their blend on quality attributes of muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample control (T1) (T2) T3 T4 T5 C.D.
CA 7.86a± 7.60a± 7.57ab ± 7.50ab ± 7.64a ± 6.93b ± 0.63

0.09 0.22 0.20 0.31 0.18 0.13
BT 8.07a ab
7.70 ± 7.07 ± c
7.57b± 7.43bc± 7.07c ± 0.49
±0.07 0.15 0.07 0.23 0.20 0.13
Sweetness 7.79a± a
7.68 ± 7.20 ± ab
7.64a± 7.43a ± 7.20a ± 0.56
0.21 0.16 0.15 0.21 0.20 0.10
Flavour 8.00a ± ab
7.70 ± 6.89 ± c
7.57ab± 7.29bc± 7.20bc± 0.58
0.13 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.29 0.10
OA 8.00 a ± ab
7.70 ± 7.12 ± c
7.55bc± 7.43bc± 7.10c± 0.51
0.07 0.15 0.14 0.22 0.23 0.09
Hunter Colour values
L* 69.20a± 63.34b± 62.90c± 62.80c± 69.46a± 64.10d ± 0.10

0.02 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.02
a* 3.92a ± b
4.16 ± 6.76 ± c d
5.65 ± 6.91e± 6.44f± 0.06
0.01 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01
b* 24.05a± 22.93 ± 21.36 ± 27.66 ± 27.20c±
b b c
28.21d± 0.04
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01
Textural Profile Analysis
Hardness 17.17e± 17.56e± 23.75d± 26.57c± 29.50b± 33.84a± 0.53

(N) 0.15 0.25 0.27 0.18 0.32 0.23
Cohesiveness 0.31ab± 0.33a± 0.31ab± 0.29b± 0.31ab± 0.34a± 0.01
0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
Gumminess 5.31d± 5.77d± 7.31c± 7.61c± 9.28b± 11.59a± 0.61
0.31 0.20 0.55 0.07 0.13 0.13
Springiness 0.76a± 0.37d± 0.68b± 0.63c± 0.65bc± 0.67bc± 0.02
0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Chewiness 4.05d± 2.11e± 4.97c± 4.77cd± 6.01b± 7.74a± 0.54
(N) 0.36 0.10 0.45 0.07 0.08 0.10
abcde : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).
CA: colour and appearance, BT: body and texture, OA: overall acceptability, T1-shortening, T2-
butter, (shortening:butter, 75:25- T3), (shortening:butter,50:50- T4), (shortening:butter, 25:75 -T5)
All the blended shortening-butter based eggless muffins too differ significantly
(P<0.05) among themselves for redness value (a*). Yellowness (b*) value of eggless
muffin prepared with butter was lowest (T2) followed by shortening (T1) and control
muffins. However, the yellowness (b*) value of eggless muffins increased significantly
when blended fat was used in formulation. The variation in colour values of muffins could
be attributed to the number and size of air cells formed, and the uniformity of crumb
which in turn depends on air incorporation in muffin batter during creaming, subsequent
mixing steps and also their retention during baking process.
4.1.5 Selection of minor ingredients
4.1.5.1 Effect of baking powder on quality attributes of muffins

Three different levels (1.2, 1.4 and 1.7%) of the total weight of muffin batter was
added in eggless muffin and leavening action of baking powder during muffin batter
influence the muffin texture. Baking powder contain an alkali, mainly sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda), an acid and filler material (corn starch). CO2 produce during baking assist
in expansion of cake batter and diffusion of gases influence the number and size of air
cells.
8
Sensory scores
0
CA BT Flavour Sweetness OA
control 1.20% 1.40% 1.70%
Fig. 4.1 Effect of baking powder on sensory attributes of muffins
It is evident from the Table (4.5) that increase in the baking powder level from 1.2
percent to 1.7 percent decreased the sensory acceptability of eggless muffins. Control
muffins having 1.2 percent baking powder had highest scores for sensory attributes but it
was not significantly superior from the eggless muffins prepared with similar level of
baking powder. Eggless muffin made with 1.4 and 1.7 percent baking powder did not
differ significantly for most of the sensory parameter except colour and appearance. The
colour of eggless muffins containing 1.7 percent baking powder was dark brown and
having rough uneven surface which could be related to acceleration of browning reactions
at higher pH. Decrease in flavour scores on increasing the level of baking powder is due to
perceived soapy taste of muffins.
Table 4.5 Effect of different levels of baking powder on quality characteristics of
eggless muffins
Attributes Sensory attributes
Sample Control 1.2% 1.4% 1.7% C.D.
CA 7.21a ±0.26 7.00a ±0.31 7.07a ±0.25 5.88b ±0.83 0.53

BT 7.64a ±0.26 7.11ab ±0.28 6.71b ±0.31 6.79b ±0.26 0.56
Flavour 7.57a ±0.17 7.14ab ±0.18 6.79b ±0.21 6.64b±0.26 0.47
Sweetness 7.57a ±0.20 7.07ab ±0.23 7.00b ±0.29 6.71b ±0.31 0.49
OA 7.46a ±0.21 7.18ab ±0.22 6.82b ±0.23 6.75b ±0.28 0.41
Colour attributes
L* 72.17b±0.08 74.27a±0.06 74.32a±0.03 70.12c±0.03 1.17

a* 1.64d±0.03 2.19b±0.04 1.98c±0.01 4.45a±0.03 0.58
b* 24.53c±0.03 25.63a±0.04 24.01d±0.01 25.99a±0.03 0.58
Textural attributes
d
Hardness 17.49 ±1.01 36.35a±0.06 32.55b±0.20 26.49c±0.22 1.85
Cohesiveness 0.20 a ±0.03 0.15 a±0.00 0.20 a±0.01 0.20a±0.01 0.09
Gumminess 7.35 d±0.86 20.22 a±0.52 17.16 a±2.01 11.33 b±0.87 2.74
Springiness 0.78 a±0.03 0.78 a±0.02 0.83 a±0.00 0.84 a±0.01 0.04
Chewiness 5.79c±0.86 15.83 a±0.55 14.18 a±1.67 9.51b±0.66 2.34
C. D. at 5% level of significant;
abcde: mean value of superscript in a column differ significantly (P<0.05) within the same row
Instrumental colour analysis using colourflex showed that eggless muffins made
with 1.2 and 1.4 percent baking powder were significantly higher lightness (L*) value than
control than the one containing 1.7 percent level produced darker (less L* value),

maximum redness (a*) and yellowness (b*)value in eggless muffins. Variations in crust
colour of muffins might be due to increase in the rate of browning reactions related to
change in pH.
Texture profile analysis (TPA) of muffin samples reflected that the hardness,
gumminess and chewiness values decreased with increasing in formulation. However
cohesiveness and springiness values increased by increasing the levels of baking powder,
but the increase were not significant. Control muffin samples recorded significant
(P<0.05) lower values for hardness, gumminess and chewiness than eggless muffins, but
there was no significant difference for cohesiveness and springiness parameters.
80
70
60
50
Scores
40
30
20
10
0
L* a* b*
control 1.2 baking powder 1.4 baking powder 1.7 baking powder
Fig. 4.2 Effect of baking powder on colour attributes of muffins
40
30
Scores
20
10
control 1.2% baking powder

Fig. 4.3 Effect of baking powder on textural attributes of muffins
1.5.2 Effect of cake gel on quality attributes of muffins
With the advancement in food science specially in elucidating the role of additives
for quality improvement has led to the development of ingredients with multifunctional
properties. Cake gel is one such innovative ingredient, commercially available, and used to
enhance the textural characteristics and storage stability of cakes and muffins.
Cake gel (consist of emulsifier, shortening and humectants) was added in
formulation of eggless muffins at three different levels i.e. 0.25, 0.40 and 0.50 percent of
the total weight of muffin batter.
8.2
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8
6.6
CA BT Flavour Sweetness OA
Control 0.25% cake gel 0.4% cake gel 0.5% cake gel
Fig. 4.4 Effect of cake gel on sensory attributes of muffins
80
70
60
50
scores
40
30
20
10
0
L a b
control 0.25 cake gel 0.4 cake gel 0.5 cake gel

Fig. 4.5 Effect of cake gel on colour attributes of muffins
Table 4.6 Effect of different levels of cake gel on quality characteristics of eggless
muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control 0.25% cake 0.4% cake 0.5% cake C.D.
gel gel gel
CA 8.03a±0.11 a
7.39 ±0.29 a
7.25 ±0.28 a
7.83 ±0.32 0.60
BT 7.81a±0.17 7.11b±0.12 7.25b±0.16 7.36ab±0.26 0.42
Flavour 7.61a±0.19 7.22a±0.19 7.28a±0.24 7.56a±0.24 0.41
Sweetness 7.67a±0.14 7.64a±0.22 7.50a±0.22 7.67a±0.12 0.49
OA 7.80a±0.16 7.19b±0.12 7.29ab±0.22 7.51ab±0.22 0.42
Colour attributes
L* 70.16a±0.02 64.94c±0.08 64.88c±0.04 67.84b±0.01 0.23
a* 1.82d±0.01 7.23b±0.04 7.38 a±0.01 6.92c±0.01 0.11
b* 24.77d±0.01 26.59c ±0.05 28.66 b±0.1 29.38a±0.02 0.28
Textural attributes
Hardness 13.16c±0.99 34.11a±0.21 24.99b±1.90 22.96b ±0.84 1.52
Cohesiveness 0.25ab±0.10 0.10b±0.16 0.33a±0.03 0.35a ±0.01 0.13
Gumminess 3.36b±1.48 6.67a±2.85 7.52a±0.96 8.76a ±0.62 2.24
Springiness 0.60ab±0.17 0.43b±0.15 0.72a±0.01 0.72a ±0.02 0.15
Chewiness 2.18b±1.57 4.67a±1.19 5.39a±0.73 6.30a ±0.59 1.44
Control muffin containing egg solids and without cake gel was used for comparative
evaluation. Increasing the concentration of cake gel in eggless muffin formulation slightly
improved the body and texture, flavour and overall acceptability scores.
However, eggless muffins made with 0.5 percent cake gel scored maximum
sensory scores for all sensory parameters but increase in scores were non-significant.
Control and 0.5 percent cake gel containing too did varied on sensory evaluation
significantly (P<0.05). Cake gel addition mainly enhance softness of muffins.
Instrumental colour analysis showed in consistent trend with varied level of cake
gel. All the samples differed significantly (P<0.05) for lightness (L*), redness (a*) and
yellowness (b*) values. Eggless muffins prepared with 0.4 percent cake gel showed lowest
L*, a* and highest b* values. The difference among the muffin samples colour value cold
not explained.
40
30
Scores
20
10
control 0.25% cake gel 0.50% cake gel 0.40% cake gel
Fig. 4.6 Effect of cake gel on textural attributes of muffins
Instrumental analysis of texture of cake gel showed that the cohesiveness,

gumminess and chewiness values increased and hardness values decreased as the level of
cake gel increases. There was no significant difference in the chewiness and gumminess of
eggless muffin at any level of cake gel and but it significantly (p<0.05) higher than
control. There was no significant difference in the springiness value of eggless muffin at
0.4 and 0.5% level of cake gel and it was significantly (p<0.05) differ with eggless muffin
at 0.25% level of cake gel. There was non-significant difference in the cohesiveness of
eggless muffin at 0.4 and 0.5% level of cake gel and it was significantly differ from
eggless muffin prepared with 0.25% cake gel. There was non-significant difference in the
control and eggless muffin prepared at any level of cake gel.
4.1.5.3 Effect of flavour on the quality attributes of muffins

Vanilla flavour was incorporated at two different levels (0.4 and 0.6%) of the total
weight of muffin batter. Muffin of above flavour level was compared with control one.

Sensory score revealed that muffin with 0.4 % flavour level have highest score for colour
and appearance (7.96), body and texture (7.57), sweetness (7.32), flavour (7.36) and
overall acceptability (7.55). ANOVA table revealed that there is statistically (P<0.05) no
significant difference in respect of colour and appearance, body and texture, sweetness,
flavour and overall acceptability and no significant difference was observed at higher level
of flavour but overall acceptability of 0.4 % flavour level was highest and it was also
observed that flavour of eggless muffins liked more by the panellists as compared to
muffins containing egg.
8
7.8
Sensory scores
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8
control 0.4% flavour 0.6% flavour
Fig. 4.7 Effect of flavour on sensory attributes of muffin
80
70
60
50
Scores
40
30
20
10
0
L* a* b*
control 0.4% flavour 0.6% flavour
Fig. 4.8 Effect of flavour on colour attributes of muffins

Table 4.7 Effect of different levels of flavour on sensory and colour attributes of
eggless muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control 0.4% flavour 0.6% flavour C.D.
CA 7.43a±0.17 7.96 a ±0.19 7.79 a ±0.32 1.53
BT 7.93 a ±0.28 7.57 a ±0.28 7.21 a ±0.24 1.72
Flavour 7.32 a±0.19 7.36 a ±0.24 7.36 a ±0.26 1.50
Sweetness 7.25 a ±0.09 7.32 a ±0.26 7.36 a ±0.21 1.30
OA 7.48 a ±0.14 7.55 a ±0.18 7.43 a ±0.19 1.10
Colour attributes
L* 72.12a±0.01 69.11c±0.01 71.47b±0.06 0.08
a* 2.34 c ±0.02 5.41 b ±0.01 3.25 a ±0.01 0.035
b* 25.09 b ±0.02 27.35 a ±0.05 25.00 b ±0.02 0.076
Table 4.7 shows that instrumental analysis of colour showed that the lightness of
muffins containing egg was higher than the eggless. Redness and yellowness value of
eggless muffin was highest and statistically (P<0.05) there was no significant difference in
the yellowness value of the control muffin and eggless muffin. Redness and yellowness
value of eggless muffin was higher than the control muffin. Therefore 0.4% level of
flavour was selected.
4.1.6 Effect of temperature

Temperature of baking had a significant effect on the colour and appearance, body
and texture and flavour of muffin, which determine overall acceptability of product.
Muffins were baked at three different baking oven temperatures i.e. 170, 180 and 190oC
for 20 minutes, can be observed from table 4.8 as it was observed to complete the baking
process. Sensory analysis of control and eggless muffins baked at three different
temperatures indicated that muffins baked at 1900C scored significantly lower for colour
and appearance, body and texture and flavour scores in comparison to control and the one

baked at 1700C and 1800C (Table 4.8 ). However, there was no significant difference for
flavours and overall acceptability scores among muffin samples.
Table 4.8 Effect of temperature on the quality attributes of muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control 1700C 1800C 1900C C.D.0.05
CA 7.00a±0.65 6.94 a ±0.62 7.53 a ±0.57 5.88 b ±0.83 0.62
BT 7.22 a ±0.8 7.34 a±0.35 7.53 a±0.39 6.16 b±1.42 0.78
Flavour 6.88ab ±0.58 6.88 ab ±1.03 7.22 a ±0.96 6.00 b ±0.60 0.71
Sweetness 7.19 a ±0.80 7.13 a ±0.69 7.25 a ±0.65 7.06 a ±0.94 0.75
OA 7.12 a ±0.41 7.10 a ±0.70 7.46 a ±0.67 6.71 a ±1.18 0.72
Colour attributes
L* 68.93a±0.03 68.94a ±0.12 67.59 b ±0.1 59.61c±0.04 0.20
a* 3.88c ±0.01 4.20 b ±0.06 4.00 c ±0.02 7.31a ±0.05 0.11
b* 25.07b±0.04 24.93b ±0.06 25.88 a ±0.09 23.45c±0.06 0.17
Textural attributes
Hardness(N) 15.66 ±0.74 18.91b±0.28
bc
11.38c±0.53 36.55a±4.16 4.87
Cohesiveness 0.28 b ±0.01 0.18 c ±0.00 0.28 b ±0.01 0.33 a ±0.01 0.01
Gumminess 4.35 b ±0.32 5.28 b ±0.09 2.06 c ±0.15 12.09 a±0.91 1.12
Springiness 0.63 a ±0.02 0.48 b ±0.02 0.63 a ±0.01 0.70 a ±0.04 0.06
Chewiness(N) 2.75 c ±0.21 3.34 b ±0.11 0.98d±0.05 8.39 a ±0.12 0.30


Eggless muffins baked at 1800C was rated best for all sensory parameters, but it
was not significantly different from control and muffin baked at 1700C . Baking
temperature play important role in development of colour, formation of flavouring
compounds and setting of desirable texture. Chemical reactions such as starch
gelatinization, protein protein denaturation, interaction among macromolecules,
dextrinization, maillard browning reactions and caremalization all occur during the cake/
muffin butter baking process are temperature dependent. Any deviation from the optimum
temperature may adversely affect the underlying mechanism related to development of
flavour, colour, texture and other sensory attributes.
Instrumental analysis of colour showed that the lightness of control muffins

containing egg was higher than the eggless muffins. Lightness (L*) values decreases with
increasing baking temperature. Lightness (L*) value of eggless muffin baked at 1700C was
similar to control muffin. Redness (a*) followed no definite trend and eggless muffin
baked at 1900C was most reddish among all. Yellowness (b*) values also did not indicate
any dependence temperature. Eggless muffin baked at 1900C showed lowest yellowness
value. Yellowness value of muffin samples significantly affected by baking temperature.
Surface colour of baked goods is an important characteristics which depend on physico-
chemical characteristics of dough or batter (i.e. moisture content, pH, reducing sugar and
amino acids) and the prerating condition used during baking (i.e. temperature, air
velocity, relative humanity, modes of heat transfer) (Zanoni et al., 1995). Texture profile
analysis of muffin sample indicated that eggless muffin baked at 1800C had lowest value
of hardness (11.38 N), gumminess (2.06) and chewiness (0.98). These value were
significantly lower than eggless muffin baked at 170 and 1900C. However, expext
gumminess and chewiness eggless muffin baked at 1700C did not differ significantly from
control muffin. Lower baking temperature might have affected the texture development
due to incomplete geletinization and denaturation of protein. Higher baking temperature
might result in higher moisture loss and thus higher values for hardness, gumminess and
chewiness.
4.1.7 Comparison among different methods

Different methods were used for preparation of muffins and these were compared
to control. Sensory score revealed that muffins prepared with sugar batter method have
highest score for colour and appearance (7.91), body and texture (7.82), sweetness (7.64),
flavour (7.55) and overall acceptability (7.75). ANOVA table revealed that there is
statistically (P<0.05) no significant difference in respect to colour and appearance, body
and texture, sweetness and flavour but overall acceptability of muffins prepared with all in
one method was significantly different from other methods and it was observed that
muffins prepared with sugar batter method received highest overall acceptability scores. In
sugar batter method creaming of shortening and sugar entrap air and stabilize air cells that
are generated during mixing. Other ingredients added subsequently. Therefore sugar batter
method was selected for the preparation of muffins.
Table 4.9 Effect of method of preparation on quality attributes of muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control All in one Sugar batter Flour batter C.D.0.05
CA 7.52ab ±0.17 7.10b ±0.21 7.91a ±0.09 7.91a ±0.11 0.46

BT 7.59a ±0.19 7.36a ±0.18 7.82a ±0.15 7.82a ±0.14 0.499
Flavour 7.28a ±0.2 7.09a ±0.19 7.64a ±0.20 7.41a ±0.23 0.56
Sweetness 7.64a ±0.14 7.27a ±0.24 7.55a ±0.16 7.39a ±0.21 0.62
OA 7.45ab ±0.15 7.15b ±0.18 7.75a ±0.13 7.55ab ±0.15 0.47
Colour attributes
L* 71.22a±0.02 61.58b±0.18 61.54b±0.18 60.75c±0.07 0.33
a* 2.21d±0.01 6.54a±0.08 5.75b±0.02 5.54c±0.02 0.11
b* 24.20b±0.04 24.39a±0.03 24.19b±0.02 23.22c±0.03 0.08
Textural attributes
Hardness(N) 15.19d±0.27 24.46a±0.16 23.58b±0.12 17.49c±0.07 0.39

Cohesiveness 0.36a ±0.00 0.36a ±0.00 0.36a ±0.00 0.35a ±0.00 0.01
Gumminess 5.62 d ±0.09 10.52 c ±0.13 7.40 b ±0.06 6.21a ±0.04 0.19
a b a c
Springiness 0.73 ±0.00 0.65 ±0.01 0.74 ±0.00 0.35 ±0.00 0.01
Chewiness(N) 4.24b±0.02 5.14 a ±0.03 5.28 a ±0.09 4.39 b ±0.05 0.13
abcd : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).

Instrumental analysis of colour showed that the lightness of muffin containing egg
was higher than the eggless muffins. There was non-significant (P<0.05) difference in the
lightness value of eggless muffins prepared by the all-in-one and sugar-batter method.
Statistically there was significant (p<0.05) difference in the redness value of control
muffin and eggless muffin prepared by different methods. Statistically there was
significant (p<0.05) difference in the yellowness value of the eggless muffin prepared by
different methods and there was non-significant difference in the yellowness value of
control and eggless muffin prepared by sugar batter method.
Methods of batter making exerted significant effect on textural properties of
muffins mainly on hardness, gumminess and chewiness. Muffin made by all ingredients in
single stage mixing was hardest and gummy among all, whereas the one made with flour
batter method possessed lowest hardness and gumminess values. Hardness and gumminess
are the two textural parameters which differed significantly in all the samples.
4.2 SELECTION OF SUGAR REPLACER

The growing consumer interest in health and direct relationship with diet has led to
considerable rise in the demand for speciality foods mainly the low calorie foods with low
or no sugar and fat ( Martinez et al., 2012). There is need to reduce the sugar in bakery
products by incorporating low calorie sweetener and bulking agents in the product.
Priliminary trials were conducted using four bulking agents: sorbitol, maltitol,
maltodextrin and polydextrose and expect maltodextrin there was non-significant
difference in the colour and appearance, body and texture, flavour and overall
acceptability of muffins made with sucralose and bulking agents.
4.2.1 Effect of bulking agents on the sensory attributes of the reduced calorie muffins
at different levels of sugar replacement
It is evident from Table 4.10 that the sensory analysis for colour and appearance of
the eggless muffin with sucralose and bulking agents (polydextrose, maltitol and sorbitol)
added to replace @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent of sugar. The highest sensory score for
colour and appearance (8.15) was observed for formulation 50 percent sugar replacement
with sucralose and polydextrose.

Table 4.10 Effect of bulking agents on the sensory attributes of artificially sweetened
muffins at different levels of sugar replacement
Level of sugar Type of Bulking Agent

replacement
Polydextrose Sorbitol Maltitol
Colour and appearance
Control 8.18a±0.47 8.18a±0.16 8.18a±0.14
25% 7.80a±0.13 7.44b±0.88 7.65b±0.19
50% 8.15a±0.34 7.58b±0.14 8.00a±0.00
75% 7.40b±0.27 7.23c±0.21 6.75c±0.79
100% 7.45b±0.29 6.65d±0.21 6.50c±1.20
C.D. 0.39 0.18 0.21
Body and texture
a
Control 7.85 ±0.13 7.85a±0.18 7.85a±1.17
25% 7.60b±0.22 7.33b±0.87 7.20b±0.11
50% 7.85a±0.71 7.70a±0.21 7.58ab±0.22
75% 7.20c±0.25 7.15b±0.17 6.90d±0.39
100% 7.10c±0.21 6.65c±0.17 6.25d±1.06
C.D. 0.11 0.23 0.44
Flavour
Control 7.60a±0.13 7.60a±0.15 7.60a±0.84
25% 7.70a±0.15 7.40ab±0.12 6.89b±0.78
50% 7.70a±0.26 7.70a±0.79 7.50ab±0.13
75% 7.33c±0.13 7.30b±0.26 6.55c±0.60
100% 7.13d±0.15 6.65c±0.17 6.25c±0.42
C.D. 0.18 0.37 0.35
Sweetness
a
Control 8.00 ±0.15 8.05a±0.12 8.18a±0.34
25% 7.40c±0.16 7.50bc±0.27 6.78b±0.75
50% 7.98a±0.75 7.88a±0.11 7.80d±0.13
b
75% 7.10 ±0.15 7.30c±0.26 6.65b±0.67
100% 7.15b±0.11 6.90c±0.22 6.28c±0.73
C.D. 0.07 0.45 0.19
Overall acceptability
Control 8.10a±0.12 8.10a±0.12 8.10a±0.12
25% 7.75a±0.17 7.40bc±0.22 7.11c±0.78
50% 7.90a±0.10 7.75b±0.82 7.69a±0.11
c
75% 7.20 ±0.25 7.15a±0.16 6.63d±0.40
100% 7.16b±0.14 6.65c±0.20 6.20d±0.54
C.D. 0.39 0.35 0.43
C.D. (critical difference) at 5% level of significance
abcde : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05)
.
Increasing the polydextrose level beyond 50 percent decreased the colour and
appearance scores significantly (P<0.05) and muffins made with 100 percent replacement
of sucrose by polydextrose scored lowest (6.50) colour and appearance scores. There was
no significant difference in colour and appearance scores of muffins prepared with
maltitol, which was used to substitute sugar at 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent level. There was
lowering in colour and appearance scores of eggless muffins by increasing the level of
sorbitol to replace sucrose in formulation. Increasing the level of bulking agent as sugar
replacer, may affected the leavening or volume rise that resulted in muffins with uneven
surface.
The sensory analysis for body and texture of the eggless muffin with sucralose and
bulking agents (polydextrose, maltitol and sorbitol) @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent
showed a similar trend i.e sugar replacement lowered the body and texture scores except
at 50 percent level of replacement where slight increase in body and texture scores was
observed for all bulking agents (Table 4.10). In general muffins based on polydexrose
scored maximum except at 50 percent level of substitution, while those made with maltitol
scored minimum at all levels of substitution. Body and texture scores of muffins made
with three bulking agents were not significantly different from control samples. Body or
texture of muffins or cake is determined by the height, porosity, bulk density, shape
distribution, average pore size and shape. All these characteristics depends on their
formulation and manufacturing process.
Flavour scores of reduced calorie egless muffins were 7.7, 7.5 and 7.7 for
formulations where 50 percent sugar was replaced with sucralose in combination with
polydextrose, sorbitol and maltitol respectively. These values were not significantly
different from control samples. At 50 percent level of sugar replacement, panelists
reported slightly inferior flavour, whereas beyond 50 percent level of substitution there
was lack of caramelized flavour that resulted in significant reduction in flavours scores.
Maltitol based reduced calories muffins scored minimum flavour scores.
Similar trend was observed for sweetness attributes as sweetness of eggless muffin
decreased when sugar was replaced from the formulation. It might be due to the
persistence sweet taste on consumption of reduced calorie eggless muffins. Sucralose was
used as sugar replacer, which is made from sucrose and is almost 600 times sweeter than
sucrose (Mariotti and Alamprese, 2012). Sucralose however, among the available high
intensity low calorie sweeteness, sucralose has sweetness profile similar to sucrose. It
remains stable under prevailing alkaline condition and higher temperature of baking (Nip,
2006). Panellists reported muffins with 25 percent substituted sugar as less sweet than the
scores for 50 percent substituted sugar as more sweet.
Overall acceptability score of eggless muffin made by replacing 50 percent sugar
with sucralose and polydextrose was highest, whereas 100 percent substitution of sugar by
sucralose and maltitol obtained lowest overall acceptability scores above 50 percent sugar
substitution in all formulations was observed which was significantly lower than the
scores of 50 percent sugar substituted muffins. Similar trend was observed for other
sensory attributes as well.
4.2.2 Effect of bulking agents on the colour attributes of the Reduced Calorie muffins
at different levels of sugar replacement
Colour is an important quality characteristic that determine the acceptability of the

product. Bakery products are characterized by the light brown to brown crust or surface
and lighter whitish or creamish or yellowish crumb colour. Colour development in bakery
product depends on the ingredients used and the baking conditions. Sugar plays an
important role in colour development via maillard browning reactions and through
caramalization. Hence, replacement of sugar may also affect the colour properties of the
resultant products and hence their acceptability. During the present investigation
replacement of sugar in formulation of reduced calorie eggless muffin by sucralose in
combination with different bulking agents affected the colour values of muffins.
Lightness (L*) or whiteness values of the eggless muffin prepared by substituting
sugar with sucralose and polydextrose were lower than the control muffin. However there
was no consistent trend for lightness values of polydextrose based muffins as at 25 percent
level L* value decreased and with further substitution with polydextrose at 50 and 75
percent level L* values increased. However, the muffin with 100 percent level of sugar
replacement exhibited lowest L* value of 54.34. The lowering in whiteness or lightness of
muffins by replacing polydextrose may be because of higher amount of reducing groups
contributed by polydextrose for maillard browning reactions. Stanyon and Costello (1990)
also noticed increase in darkness of biscuit samples prepared with wheat bran and
polydextrose as sugar replacer and the increase in intensity of darkening was linearly
correlated with polydextrose level. During present investigation lack of definite trend

could be attributed to the relative predominance of maillard or caramalization browning
reactions during baking. The reactions are known to be influence by various formulation
and processing variables. Among all levels of sugar replacement, highest score of
lightness (61.10) was observed at 50 percent replacement with sucralose and polydextrose.
The statistical analysis for L* value revealed that significant (P<0.05) difference existed in
lightness of eggless muffin at 25 and 50 percent replacement; however it was non-
significant muffins with 75 and 100 percent replacement of sugar with sucralose and
polydextrose.
It can be inferred from the Table 4.11 that the lightness or whiteness of the control
sample and eggless muffin with sucralose and sorbitol @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent
level of sugar replacement were 66.79, 67.10, 67.27, 68.39 and 62.75 respectively. The
statistical analysis for lightness values showed that significant (P<0.05) difference existed
in lightness of control and reduced calorie muffins. The lightness value increased with
increasing level of substitution; however the darkest product was obtained at 100 percent
level of substitution. Manisha et al. (2012) also noticed increase in L* value of cake on
sugar substitution by sorbitol and the value increased with enhancing the level of
substitution from 25-100 percent. Similar trend was also observed in present investigation
except at 100 percent sorbitol based muffins. Variations may be due to the difference in
other ingredients used in formulation during the present investigation. The higher L*
values of muffins may be because of the decrease in rate of browning reactions in absence
of sugar. No consistent trend was observed for reduced calorie muffins made with maltitol.
The L* values of the eggless muffin with sucralose and maltitol @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%
were 66.57, 66.99, 67.21, 62.69 and 68.32 respectively. There was significant difference
among the samples for L* value.
Redness (a*) values of the eggless muffin with sucralose and polydextrose @ 0,
25, 50, 75 and 100% were 5.49, 8.87, 6.90, 10.95 and 11.38 respectively. These values
differed significantly with each other. Increase in redness values of eggless muffin could
be explained on the basis of enhancement in browning reaction. The redness values of
muffins based on polyols were lower than control and polydextrose based ones. The
polyols do not participate in maillard browning reactions due to absence of reducing
sugars, and did not affect the colour cookies (Zoulias et al., 2000). However, they noted
that maltitol based cookies were lighter in colour and similar trend was also obtained
during the present investigation.
Table 4.11 Effect of bulking agents on the colour attributes of artificially sweetened
Level of sugar Type of bulking agent

replacement Polydextrose Sorbitol Maltitol
Lightness
e
Control 66.79 ±0.08 66.79c±0.08 66.79d±0.08
d
25% 59.40 ±0.04 67.10b±0.09 66.99c±0.05
50% 61.10c±0.01 67.27b±0.06 67.21d±0.04
75% 60.37b±0.03 68.39a±0.06 62.69a±0.09
100% 54.34a±0.04 62.75d±0.16 68.32e±0.05
C.D. 0.16 0.25 0.16
Redness
e
Control 5.49 ±0.03 5.49e±0.03 5.49e±0.03
25% 8.87c±0.02 3.92c±0.03 3.97c±0.04
d
50% 6.90 ±0.05 3.77d±0.09 3.78d±0.01
75% 10.95a±0.052 3.40b±0.03 6.07b±0.04
100% 11.38b±0.02 6.07a±0.06 3.42e±0.01
C.D. 0.61 0.08 0.07
Yellowness
e
Control 24.66 ±0.03 24.66e±0.03 24.66b±0.03
25% 25.40c±0.04 24.45d±0.04 24.46d±0.01
50% 24.10b±0.01 23.79b±0.01 23.77b±0.03
a
75% 26.57 ±0.06 23.12c±0.05 23.15c±0.05
100% 25.53d±0.03 22.57e±0.02 22.63e±0.03
C.D. 0.14 0.09 0.19
abc : mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).
Yellowness (b*) values of the eggless muffin with sucralose and polydextrose @ 0,
25, 50, 75 and 100 percent level of substitution were 24.99, 25.09, 24.46, 26.57 and 25.53
respectively. The statistical analysis for b* value showed that significant (P<0.05)
difference existed in yellowness of eggless muffin at all levels of replacement of sugar.
The yellowness values of muffins increased by increasing the polydextrose level in
muffins. Similar results were noticed by Manisha et al. (2012).
Yellowness of the eggless muffin with sucralose and sorbitol @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and
100 percent level of substitution were 24.68, 24.45, 23.79, 23.12 and 22.57 respectively.
The statistical significant (P<0.05) difference observed in yellowness of eggless muffin at
all levels of replacement of sugar by sorbitol. The replacement of sugar by maltitol also
produced muffins with significant lower yellowness as compared to control.

Table 4.2.3 Effect of bulking agents on the textural attributes the Reduced Calorie
Textural properties of reduced calorie products is also affected by the level of
sugar or fat replacement and type of bulking agents or fat replacers utilized in their
manufacture. Textural profile analysis (TPA) of reduced calorie muffins reflected that the
textural properties were affected by the type and level of bulking agents used in
combination with sucralose. The hardness value of muffins enhanced with increasing level
of bulking agents (Table 14.2). The hardness value of control muffin was 11.59 N which
enhanced to 12.14, 16.73, 19.32 and 19.86 N when sugar was replaced by polydextrose at
25, 50, 75 and 100 percent level respectively. The hardness values of control and 25
percent replacement did not differ significantly (P<0.05), likewise there was no significant
difference in hardness value of muffin with 75 and 100 percent replacement. There was
significant enhancement in hardness value of muffins by replacing the sugar from 25 to
100 percent level with sorbitol. The hardness values of eggless muffin with sucralose and
sorbitol @ 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% were 14.36, 17.05, 25.03, 33.99 and 43.01 N
respectively. However, among the three bulking agents maltitol based muffins were
hardest at any level of sugar replacements. Zoulias et al. (2000) reported significant
reduction in hardness values of cookies prepared with polyols as sugar replacers.
Cohesiveness of the eggless muffin with sucralose and polydextrose @ 0, 25, 50,
75 and 100 percent level of replacement were 0.62, 0.63, 0.64, 0.64 and 0.63 respectively.
The statistical analysis for cohesiveness revealed that there was non-significant (P<0.05)
difference in cohesiveness value of eggless muffin at all levels of replacement of sugar
with polydextrose and sucralose. The cohesiveness values of polyols based muffins are
similar upto 50 percent sugar replacements but decreased significantly when the level of
polyols enhanced to 75 and 100 percent sugar replacement. The maltitol based muffin was
least cohesive. Similar trend was also reported for springiness parameter. There was in-
significant variation among the springiness values of muffins made with polydextrose,
sorbitol and maltitol upto 50 percent sugar replacement. However, in polyols based
muffins substitution above 50 percent lowered the springiness significantly.

Figure 4.9 :Muffin Batter
Figure 4.10 : Eggless muffins
Figure 4.11 :Reduced calorie eggless muffins
Figure: Optimized Muffins

Table 4.12 Effect of bulking agents on the textural attributes of the Reduced Calorie
Level of sugar Type of Bulking Agent

replacement
Polydextrose Sorbitol Maltitol
Hardness
Control 11.59c±0.41 14.36e±0.50 14.36e±0.50
c
25% 12.24 ±0.71 17.05d±0.36 18.15d±0.49
50% 16.73b±0.05 25.31c±0.71 26.50c±1.34
a
75% 19.32 ±0.63 33.99b±0.71 47.84b±0.06
100% 19.86a±0.33 43.01a±0.14 53.34a±0.34
C.D. 1.97 2.32 2.15
Cohesiveness
Control 0.62b±0.00 0.62a±0.01 0.62a±0.00
ab
25% 0.63 ±0.01 0.61a±0.01 0.63a±0.01
50% 0.64ab±0.00 0.61a±0.01 0.64a±0.00
a
75% 0.64 ±0.01 0.49b±0.02 0.49b±0.02
100% 0.63ab±0.00 0.50b±0.01 0.45c±0.02
C.D. 0.01 0.05 0.03
Gumminess
Control 5.90d±0.44 5.90d±0.44 5.90d±0.44
c
25% 7.64 ±0.38 10.45a±0.34 11.40c±0.31
50% 5.97d±0.40 15.52b±0.73 16.95b±0.88
b
75% 10.75 ±0.08 16.68b±0.88 23.57a±0.85
100% 12.52a±0.23 21.42c±0.45 24.10a±0.86
C.D. 0.72 1.69 0.81
Springiness
Control 0.79b±0.02 0.81a±0.02 0.81ab±0.02
a
25% 0.83 ±0.01 0.82a±0.02 0.85a±0.01
50% 0.82ab±0.01 0.82a±0.01 0.76ab±0.05
ab
75% 0.82 ±0.00 0.78a±0.00 0.76ab±0.01
100% 0.83a±0.01 0.81a±0.01 0.73b±0.03
C.D. 0.03 0.04 0.13
Chewiness
Control 4.74d±0.25 4.74d±0.25 4.74d±0.25
d
25% 4.90 ±0.27 8.54c±0.20 9.66c±0.35
50% 6.35c±0.28 12.78b±0.48 13.03b±1.59
b
75% 8.78 ±0.05 12.93b±0.71 18.02a±0.87
100% 10.43a±0.21 17.24a±0.12 17.65a±1.29
C.D. 0.76 1.48 0.59
C. D. (critical difference) at 5% level of significant.
Gumminess values also enhanced with increasing level of sugar replacement with
bulking agents. There was significant increase in gumminess of muffins specially in
polyols based muffins. Lowest values of gumminess were observed in polydextrose based
muffins. The effect is more pronounced at higher level of sugar substitution by bulking
agents. Chewiness values of muffins also enhanced with increasing levels of bulking
agents in formulation. The increase in chewiness value was significant except those made
with 50 and 75 percent substitution by sorbitol and 75 and 100 percent substitution by
maltitol. Like gumminess the polydextrose added muffins were least chewy and maltitol
based one were most chewy.
Charecteristics of opotimized muffins
4.3.1 Sensory attributes of optimized muffins
The sensory scores for colour and appearance of the control, eggless and reduced
calorie eggless muffin were 7.55, 7.73 and 7.63 respectively. Eggless muffins had
maximum sensory score followed by control and reduced calorie eggless muffins. The
statistical analysis for these score revealed that there was no significant difference among
all muffins. Eggless muffins had light brown colour, glossy surface and uniform crust
because of the application of WPC and SMP.
Body and texture scores of the control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffin
were 7.75, 7.25 and 7.58 respectively. Highest score was obtained for control muffin.
Body and texture score was higher for reduced calorie eggless muffin than the eggless
muffin. Body and texture score was higher for reduced calorie eggless muffins among all
the samples. Slight variation in body and texture scores among the samples could be
attributed due to difference in volume, crust and crumb texture.
Flavour scores of the control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffin were
7.50, 7.40 and 7.50 respectively. The statistical analysis for these score revealed that no
significant (P<0.05) difference existed in flavour of control, eggless and reduced calorie
eggless muffin. Similar trend was noticed for sweetness scores.
It can be inferred from the (Table 4.13) that the overall acceptability of the
control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffin were 7.56, 7.39 and 7.70 respectively
and overall acceptability score was highest for reduced calorie eggless muffin. However,
overall acceptability did not differ significantly. Polydextrose addition in the formulation
might have increased the viscosity of muffin batter and also influenced the starch
gelatinization temperature that is critical for setting the texture. Partial sugar replacement
also minimized caramalization that affected both flavour and colour and appearance.
4.3.2 Colour attributes of optimized muffins
Instrumental colour analysis of these three variants of muffins reflected that there
was significant (P<0.05) difference among samples for lightness (L*), redness (a*) and
yellowness (b*) values. Control muffins had maximum L* and b* values and lowest a*
values. Reduced calorie eggless muffins exhibited lowest L* and b* values and higher a*
values. The significant (P<0.05) difference among muffin samples can be explained on the
basis of variation in formulation of three types of muffins.
Table 4.13 quality attributes of optimized muffins
Attributes
Sensory attributes
Sample Control Eggless Reduced calorie C.D.0.05
CA 7.55a±0.14 7.73a ±0.18 7.63a ±0.16 0.62
a b a
BT 7.75 ±0.13 7.25 ±0.11 7.58 ±0.22 0.61
Flavour 7.50a ±0.13 7.35a ±0.15 7.70a ±0.19 0.59
Sweetness 7.50a ±0.15 7.40a ±0.12 7.50a ±0.13 0.51
OA 7.56a ±0.15 7.39a ±0.1 7.70a ±0.11 0.46
Colour attributes
L* 69.27b ±0.02 63.34a ±0.01 62.90c±0.06 0.12
a* 3.92a ±0.01 6.91b ±0.03 6.76c ±0.04 0.04
b* 24.05a ±0.01 22.93b ±0.02 21.36c ±0.03 0.09
Textural attributes
Hardness(N) 13.16b±0.57 17.17a ±0.15 12.24b ±0.71 1.27
Cohesiveness 0.25b±0.06 0.31b ±0.02 0.63a ±0.01 0.09

Gumminess 3.36b ±0.85 5.31b ±0.31 7.64a ±0.38 1.35
Springiness 0.60b ±0.1 0.76a ±0.02 0.83a ±0.01 0.134
Chewiness(N) 2.18b ±0.91 4.05b ±0.36 6.35a ±0.28 1.4
C.D. (critical difference) at 5% level of significance
abc: mean value with different superscript within a column differ significantly (P<0.05).
CA: colour and appearance, BT: body and texture, OA: overall acceptability, L*:
lightness, a*: redness, b*: yellowness.
4.3.3 Textural attributes of optimized muffins
Texture profile analysis (TPA) of three types of muffins revealed that eggless muffin had
highest value of hardness (17.17 N), followed by control (13.16 N) and reduced calorie
eggless muffin (12.24 N). Reduced calorie eggless muffin exhibit highest cohesiveness,
gumminess, springiness and chewiness values, which were significantly different from
control and eggless muffins except springiness. Textural properties of food products are
determined by moisture content, cellular arrangement, compactness of cells etc.
4.4 Characteristics of eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins
4.4.1 Proxiamate composition of control muffins, eggless muffins and reduced calorie
eggless muffins
Moisture content in control muffins, eggless muffins and reduced calorie eggless
muffins were 19.73, 17.43 and 16.10 percent respectively. Variation in moisture content of
muffins could be attributed to difference in formulation and relative interaction of water
with other constituents. Control muffins contain egg yolk that being rich in phospholipids
and ability to act as emulsifier might have been able to retain more moisture in emulsified
form. In eggless muffins sugar, shortening and milk solids exhibits excellent water binding
ability. Increased moisture for control muffins has also been reported by Grigelmo et al.
(2001) for muffins in which part of the fat had been replaced by peach fibre.
Protein content of eggless muffins was 5.63 percent (on dry basis) which was
slightly lower than eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins. Low protein (8-9%) flour
confers dough extensibility and spreadability which is desirable for texture and quality of
soft wheat products like cake, muffins etc., was reported by Khatkar (2003). However, the
fat content as maximum for control muffins (19.73) probably due to the contribution of
egg yolk fat, whereas reduced calorie eggless muffins contained 16.10 percent. The
differences in the fat content of the eggless muffins and reduced calorie eggless muffins
was due to the inherent difference in the fat content of egg and WPC-70 with SMP i.e.
12.25 and 5.80 and 1.40 respectively as reported by Singh et al. (2003).
Ash content of three types muffins was almost similar, however, aggregates
variation is observed in carbohydrate content and control muffin contained lowest
carbohydrate content (47%), while eggless muffin had 50.58 percent and reduced calorie
eggless muffin contained 53.53 percent (on dry weight basis). The differences in the ash
content of dry mixes in this study can be due to the inherent differences in the ash content
of egg and milk proteins. Ash content of about 8.5% in skim milk powder was reported by
Walstra et al., (2003). Carbohydrate increased in the eggless muffins was due to the
lactose present in the WPC and SMP, used as egg replacer and it was further increased in

the reduced calorie eggless muffins due to the application of polydextrose and sucralose
(Knight, 1994).
Table 4.14 Proxiamate composition of optimized muffins
Constituents (%) Muffins Eggless Muffins Reduced Calorie
Eggless Muffins
Moisture 19.23±0.21 16.46±0.24 17.64±0.22
Protein 5.63±0.02 6.06±0.04 6.01±0.04
Carbohydrate 47.00±0.23 50.58±0.26 53.53±0.25
Fat 19.73±0.06 17.43±0.04 16.10±0.02
Ash 1.65±0.05 1.62±0.03 1.63±0.05
Energy(kcal/100g) 439.79 383.45 347.06
(Mean ± SE) average of three batches
Difference in proximate composition of three types of muffin also reflected in their
calorie content, which was 439.79, 383.45 and 347.09 kcal for control, eggless and
reduced calorie eggless muffins respectively. Barndt and Jackson, (1999) reported that
sucralose (SC) is a zero-calorie sweetener, which is 600 times sweeter than sucrose. The
lowest calorific value of reduced calorie eggless muffin could be attributed to 50 percent
sugar replacement by polydextrose which has calorific value of 1 kcal/g only as reported
by Roberfroid and slavin (2000).
Thus removal of egg and 50 percent replacement of sugar from the formulation
resulted in about 21 percent reduction in calorific value without affecting its sensory
acceptability.
4.4.3 Physical properties
4.4.3.1 Weight loss
Weight loss of control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins was 17.65,
13.48 and 16.26% respectively. Martinez et al. (2012) observed similar results and
reported that the values for weight loss during baking were significantly (P<0.05) lower
for the samples containing polydextrose- sucralose.
4.4.3.2 Specific volume
Specific volume of control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins was 1.54, 1.40
and 1.34 cm3/g respectively.
Eggless muffins
1.62
Fat
16.46 17.43
6.06 Protein
Carbohydrate
50.58
Moisture
Ash
Figure 4.12: Eggless muffins composition
muffins
1.65
Fat
19.23 19.73
5.63 Protein
Carbohydrate
47
Moisture
Ash
Figure 4.13: muffins composition
Reduced Calorie muffins

1.63
17.64 Fat
16.1 6.01
Protein
Carbohydrate
53.53
Moisture
Ash
Figure 4.14: Reduced calorie eggless
Figures: Proxiamate Composition of muffins

Specific volume of control muffins was higher due to the functional properties of egg which
exhibits excellent foaming and emulsifying properties. Slightly higher values were noted for
eggless cakes containing WPC and SMP. Jyotsana et al., (2007) reported that the specific volume
of eggless cake was 1.84 cm3/g and it was increased with the addition of 20% WPC-70 as the
replacement of flour. Similarly Manisha et al., (2012) reported that control cake with sugar showed
the highest volume (150 cm3/60 g) when compared to cakes with stevioside and sorbitol (110-125
cm3/60 g. According to Yamazaki and Kissel (1978), the sugar plays an important role in delaying
starch gelatinization during cake baking so that the air bubbles can be properly expanded by
carbon dioxide and water vapour before the cake sets. Thus the resulting cake structure is highly
aerated and has a higher volume. Coleman and Harbers (1983) also reported that replacement with
high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) at 50, 75 or 100% of sucrose resulted in foams with lower
specific gravities, decreased volume of cakes and firmer texture.
Table 4.15 physical properties of muffins
Parameters Control Eggless Muffin Reduced calorie eggless
muffin
Weight loss (%) 17.65±0.07 13.48±0.26 16.26±0.05
Specific volume 1.52±0.02 1.40±0.01 1.34±0.01

3
(cm /g)
Water activity 0.87±0.01 0.78±0.01 0.83±0.01
Mean±SE, average of three replicates.
4.4.3.3 Water activity (aw)

Water activity of control, eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins was 0.87,
0.78 and 0.83 respectively. Water activity represents the ratio of the vapour pressure of the
food to the vapour pressure of pure water under same condition (Labuza, 1980). Water
activity is an important property which affects the shelf life of dry products. Smith and
Simpson, (1995) classified cakes and muffins under high moister foods. Similarly water
activity for chocolate chip muffins was 0.85 was observed by Michael Lopez (2011). The
moisture content of control muffin was significantly higher than eggless and reduced
calorie eggless muffins. Milk proteins and lactose present in eggless cake formulations
posses excellent water binding properties that might be the reason for low water activity.

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Muffins are ready-to-eat breakfast foods liked by all age groups of people. Muffins
are characterized by a typical porous structure and high volume which confer a spongy
texture and a muffin batter consists of high level of sugar and variable levels of fat, flours,
eggs and baking powder. Among all the ingredients egg and sugar play important role. Egg
is a multi-functional ingredient because its thickening, gelling, emulsifying, foaming,
colouring, and flavouring properties contribute to the texture and sensory characteristics of
foods. Although egg possesses excellent functional properties, it suffers from some
disadvantages such as high cholesterol content and susceptibility to microbial contamination
specially the Salmonella spp. Furthermore, certain individuals are allergic to egg proteins
(Avidin) and religious taboo also prohibits consumption of products containing egg or egg
components together with incorporation of egg enhance cost of the product. Egg replacement
by whey protein concentrate (WPC) has already been attempted successfully, but the cost of
WPC is quite high and moreover these products suffer with certain quality defects. Therefore,
there is need to apply WPC in combination with other ingredients to develop eggless muffins.
Sugar imparts softness and sweetness and also helps in development of adequate crust colour,
helps in rising of dough and in producing a typical caramelized flavour. Sugar assist in
incorporation of air cells while creaming, provides good grain structure, flavour and texture
of the products, aids in retention of moisture, prolongs freshness and promotes good crust
colour. Sugar replacement may pose many inherent problems related to flavour, texture as
well as storage stability of muffins.
In recent times health and nutritional virtues have become the focal point in new product
development due to increasing consumer awareness who desire to remain healthy and fit and
also increasing number of persons suffering with diet related ailments. Consumers are trying
to reduce energy intake and are in search of low calorie food products. Few low calorie
bakery products have emerged in recent days in Indian market mainly cookies and biscuits
that have been appreciated by the consumers. Dairy ingredients specially the milk protein
preparations can be effectively utilized in formulations of low calorie bakery products.
However, no work has been done on egg replacement followed by sugar replacement in any
category of bakery products. The present project “process development for reduced calorie
eggless muffins” was undertaken with two objectives to study the process optimization and
selection of ingredients for eggless muffins. The findings of the investigation are
summerized in the following paragraphs.
Different levels of refined wheat flour (21, 24 and 27%) were taken for the selection
of the level of the refined wheat flour in the formulation if eggless muffins. Sensory
evaluation revealed that muffin with flour level has no significant effect on the sensory
attributes of muffins. There was no significant difference in respect of colour and appearance,
body and texture, sweetness, flavour and overall acceptability. However, muffins prepared
with 24 percent flour level obtained maximum scores for all the sensory attributes except
flavour. Instrumental analysis of colour showed there was significant difference in the
lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) value of the control muffin and eggless
muffins. Texture profile analysis of muffins for control as well as eggless muffins prepared
with three different levels of RWF varied significantly (P<0.05) for their hardness value and
there were no significant difference in cohesiveness and chewiness values of control and
eggless muffins at all levels of flour. As highest sensory scores were obtained for eggless
muffins prepared with 24%, therefore 24% flour level was selected for the preparation of
eggless muffin.
Different levels of sugar (21, 24 and 27%) were taken for the selection of the level of
the sugar in the formulation of eggless muffins. Eggless muffin with 24% sugar level was
observed best for colour and appearance (7.64), body and texture (7.43), sweetness (7.70),
flavour (7.35) and overall acceptability (7.43) in comparisons with eggless muffin made with
21 and 27 percent sugar respectively. Eggless muffin prepared with 21 percent sugar was pale
in colour and reported to be less sweet, whereas the one made with 27 percent sugar was
darker and more sweet, hence not liked by the panellists. Control and eggless muffin
containing 24 percent sugar did not differ significantly for all sensory attributes; hence 24
percent sugar level was selected for further trials.
Egg was completely replaced by using the combination of milk proteins i.e. WPC-70 and
SMP at different levels. Sensory evaluation of muffins prepared with SMP or higher
proportion of SMP scored lower if compared with those made with WPC-70. A blend of
(6% WPC + 2% SMP) got highest score for colour and appearance (7.57), body and texture
(7.43), flavour (7.50), sweetness (6.93) and overall acceptability (7.36) and statistically non-
significant differences were observed in respect of all sensory and textural parameters.
Therefore the blend of protein (2 percent SMP and 6 percent WPC-70) was selected for
further trials.
Shortening (T1) and white butter (T2) alone (i.e.100 percent) or in blend of shortening and
butter [25:75 (T3), 50:50 (T4) and 75:25 (T5)] were added at the rate of 16 percent in eggless
muffin formulation and muffins were evaluated for sensory On the basis of preliminary trials
16 percent shortening was selected for prepation of eggless muffins. There was no significant
difference for all the sensory and thextural attributes between the control and eggless muffins
made with shortening, although average sensory scores of control muffin were higher than
eggless muffin (T1) prepared with shortening.
Addition of emulsifier improve the body of bakery products so that different levels of
cake gel (0.25, 0.40 and 0.50%) were added in the eggless muffins and non-significant
difference were observed at 0.5 percent level of cake gel as compared to control on the basis
of sensory evaluation. There were non-significant difference in cohesiveness and springiness
and significant (P<0.05) differences were observed in the L*, a* and b* values of control and
eggless muffins at all levels of addition of cake gel.
Different levels (1.2, 1.4 and 1.7%) of baking powder was incorporated into the eggless
muffins. Control muffins having 1.2 percent baking powder had highest scores for sensory
attributes but it was not significantly superior from the eggless muffins prepared with similar
level of baking powder. Addition of level of baking powder was directly proportional to the
hardness, cohesiveness and springiness of the eggless muffins and bitterness also increased.
Therefore 1.2 percent level of baking powder was selected for further trials.
Cake gel (consist of emulsifier, shortening and humectants) was added in

formulation of eggless muffins at three different levels i.e. 0.25, 0.40 and 0.50 percent of the
total weight of muffin batter. Increasing the concentration of cake gel in eggless muffin
formulation slightly improved the body and texture, flavour and overall acceptability scores.
Eggless muffins made with 0.5 percent cake gel scored maximum sensory scores for all
sensory parameters and comparable with control. Instrumental analysis of texture of cake gel
showed that the cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values increased and hardness
values decreased as the level of cake gel increases.
Flavour was used as a minor ingredient and on the basis of sensory evaluation there
were non-significant difference in all sensory attributes at 0.4 and 0.6 percent levels of
flavour as compared to control but at 0.4 percent flavour level there was highest scores for
colour and appearance (7.96) and overall acceptability (7.55). L*, a* and b* values of control
and eggless muffins at all levels of addition of baking powder differ significantly
(P<0.05).Therefore it was selected for further trials.
For optimization of temperature, eggless muffins were prepared at different

temperatures (170, 180 and 1900 C). Highest scores for colour and appearance (7.53), body
and texture (7.53), flavour (7.22), sweetness (7.25) and overall acceptability (7.46) was
observed for eggless muffins prepared at 1800 C and there was non-significant difference in
the a* value of control (3.88) and eggless muffins prepared at 1800 C temperature (4.00).
There were non-significant difference in hardness, cohesiveness and springiness of control
and eggless muffins prepared at the temperature of 1800 C. Hence baking temperature of
1800 C was selected.
For selection of the highly desirable procedure for preparing eggless muffins,
different methods (flour batter method, sugar batter method and all in one method) were used.
Highest scores for colour and appearance (7.91), body and texture (7.82), flavour (7.64) and
overall acceptability (7.75) were observed for muffins prepared with sugar batter method.
Therefore sugar batter method was selected for the preparation of muffins.
Optimized formulation for preparation of eggless muffins having 24 % flour, 24%

sugar, a combination of 6% WPC-70 and 2% SMP, 16% shortening, 1.2% baking powder,
0.4% flavor and 0.5% cake gel was selected and the final product was prepared by sugar
batter method at the baking temperature of 1800C.
Than this optimized formulation was used for the preparation of reduced calorie
eggless muffins. Sugar was replaced partially or completely by the sugar replacer sucralose
along with bulking agents.
On the basis of preliminary trials three bulking agents i.e. sorbitol, maltitol and
polydextrose was selected for replacement of sugar along with sucralose.
Sugar was replaced by sucralose at different levels (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) with a
bulking agents (polydextrose/ sorbitol/ maltitol) and it was analysed for sensory, colour and
texture profile. There were non-significant difference in the sensory attributes of reduced
calorie eggless muffins at all levels of replacement of sugar but highest sensory scores for
colour and appearance (8.15), body and texture (7.85), flavor (7.70) and overall acceptability
(7.69) was observed for the muffins prepared with 50 percent replacement of sugar with
sucralose and polydexrose.
On the basis of colur there were non-significant difference in the L* and a* value of
control and eggless muffins prepared with sucralose and maltitol at 50 percent replacement of
sugar. There were non-significant difference in the yellowness of control and eggless muffins
prepared with sucralose and all three bulking agent at 50 percent replacement of sugar.
Nutritional and physico-chemical properties of developed eggless and reduced

calorie eggless muffins after optimization
• The proximate analysis of optimized products :Eggless and Reduced calorie eggless
muffins, revealed that it comprised 17.43±0.04 and 16.10±0.02 % fat, 6.06±0.04 and
6.01±0.04 % protein, 50.58±00.26 and 53.53±0.25 % carbohydrate, 16.46±0.24 and
17.64±0.22 moisture, 1.62±0.03 and 1.63±0.05% ash and 383.45 and 347.06 Kcal/ g
energy, 63.34±0.01 and 62.90±0.06 L* value, 6.91±0.03 and 6.76±0.04 a* value,
22.93±0.02 and 21.36±0.02 b* value, 17.17±0.05 and 12.24±0.71N hardness,
0.31±0.31 and 0.63±0.01 cohesiveness, 5.31±0.31 and 7.64±0.38 gumminess,
0.76±0.02 and 0.83±0.01mm springiness, 4.05±0.36 and 6.35±0.28 N.mm chewiness
respectively.
• Weight loss was lower in eggless muffins (13.48%) and reduced calorie eggless
muffins (16.26%) as compared to the control muffins (17.65%).
• Specific volume of eggless muffins (1.40g/ml) and reduced calorie eggless muffins
(1.34g/ml) was lower than control muffins (1.54g/ml).
• Aw of control muffins was higher (0.87) than eggless (0.78) and reduced calorie
eggless muffins (0.83).
There was 21.06 % calorific value reduced in the reduced calorie eggless muffins as
compare to control and both eggless and reduced calorie eggless muffins were liked
more and egg flavour was less acceptable by the panellists and consumers.
In view of the growing significance of reduced calorie foods in day to day for food nutrition,
development of a process for reduced calorie eggless muffins at industrial level could provide
a nutritional alternative to the consumers. This will also enable to bring out the virtues in
milk proteins and sugar replacer for their commercial usage. It may be beneficial to elderly
people having diabetes and vegetarians they do not consume egg . However, further research
work can be carried out on the reduced calorie eggless muffins to increase its shelf life with
improved textural properties by adding chemical preservatives or by using novel packaging.
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ANNEXURE I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WPC-70 AND SMP
S. No. Parameter WPC-70 SMP

1 Moisture (%) 3.89 3.50
2 pH 6.89 -
3 Acidity (% L.A.) - 1.10
4 Milk fat (%) 5.80 1.40
5 Protein (%) (on dry basis) 70.56 35.15
6 Ash (%) 4.12 8.0
7 Heat stability test (95C) - -
8 Insolubility Index - 0.20

9 SPC/g 2800 2300
10 Coliform/0.1g Negative Negative
11 Yeast and Mould/g 20 -
i
ANNEXURE II
MALTITOL SPECIFICATIONS
Contents Amount
Water content 0.1%
Reducing sugar 0.1%
D-Maltitol 99.4%
Specific rotation +107.4 degree
End of melting 1500C
pH ion solution 5.3
ii
ANNEXURE III
SHORTENING SPECIFICATIONS
Shortening Specification
Type Plastic Shortening
Melting Point 37-410 C
Moisture 0.10%
Major Ingredients Palm oil, Palm kernel oil, Sesame

oil, Rice bran oil, Coconut oil,
Palmolein oil
Method Of Preparation Partial hydrogenation of oil blend
iii
ANNEXURE IV
SORBITOL SPECIFICATIONS
Sr. Tests Specification

No.
1 Description A clear, colourless or faintly yellow,
syrup liquid, odourless, taste sweet
2. Solubility Passes the I.P. test
3. Identification Passes the I.P. test
4. Acidity or Alkalinity Shall require not more than0.2 ml of 0.01

M NaOH or 0.3 ml of 0.01 M HCl
5. Optical rotation +1.50° to +3.50°
6. Refractive Index 1.455 to 1.456 at 20°C
7. Relative Density Not less than 1.285 at 25°C
8. Clarity & Colour of solution Clear and colourless
9. Arsenic Not more than 2 ppm
10. Heavy Metals Not more than 10 ppm
11. Chlorides Not more than 50 ppm
12. Nickel Not more than 1 ppm
13. Sulphates Not more than 125 ppm
14. Reducing Sugars Shall require not less than 12.8 ml of

0.05 M Sodium thio-sulphate
15. Sulphated ash Not more than 0.1 %
16. Assay for solid matter 68 to 72 %
17. Assay for polyols Not less than 62 %
iv
ANNEXURE V
POLYDEXTROSE SPECIFICATIONS
Sr. No. Determination I.P. Limits Results
01. Identification As per IP 2007 Complies
02. Acidity Ml of o.10 M NaOH/ 6 gm 0.15 0.096
03. Clarity, colour of solution Clear Clear
04. Odour Odorless Odorless
05. Specific optional Roatation +52.50 to 53.30 +53.05
06. Arsenic PPM Complies Complies
07 Heavy Metal PPM Complies Complies
08. Chloride PPM Complies Complies
09. Sulphate PPM Complies Complies
10. Sulphite Complies Complies
11. Barium Complies Complies
12. Foreign Sugars soluble Starch & Complies Complies

Dextrins
13. Sulphated Ash % 0.10 0.030
14. Water % 1.00 0.50
v
ANNEXURE VI
SCORE CARD FOR SENSORY EVALUATION OF MUFFINS
DT Division, NDRI, KARNAL
Date:
Please evaluate the given samples of Muffins using 9-point Hedonic scale.
Hedonic Rating Score
Like Extremely 9
Like Very Much 8
Like Moderately 7
Like Slightly 6
Neither like nor dislike 5
Dislike Slightly 4
Dislike Moderately 3
Dislike Very Much 2
Dislike Extremely 1
Score of samples
Sensory attributes Product Codes
Colour and appearance

Body and texture
Flavour
Sweetness
Overall acceptability
Suggestion/ Remarks:
Signature: ____________________
Name: ______________________
vi

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Final Thesis-Muffins

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PROCESS DEVELOPMENT FOR REDUCED CALORIE EGGLESS MUFFINS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

DIVISION OF DAIRY TECHNOLOGY

REGN. NO. 2031109

I am extremely grateful to Dr. A. A. Patel, Head, Dairy Technology

I am deeply indebted to all the Scientists, Technical Officers and Staff of

I gratefully acknowledge the valuable help and all possible cooperation

My heartfelt thanks to my batchmates Pravin Dahele, M. P. Singh,

I express my deepest sense of gratitude to my sisters Neelam,

Financial support received in the form of Junior Research

Date: July 1.., 2007 ( Bhopal Singh )

Chapter Title Page

Sr. No. TITLE Page No.

Sr. No. TITLE PAGE NO.

< Less than

> More than

(p<0.05) Significant at 5% level

C.D.0.05 Critical difference at 5% level of significance

ACE Angiotensin Converting Enzyme

ADI Acceptance Daily Intake

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

ASMD Artificially Sweetened Misti Dahi

BCAA Branched Chain Amino Acids

BIS British Institute Standards

bw/day Body weight per day

CA Colour and Appearance

CHD Coronary Heart Disease

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

CVD Cardiovascular Disease

DATEM Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides

et al. And co workers

etc. And the others

FSA Food Safety Authority

FDA Food And Drug Administration

FSSAI Food Safety And Standards Authority of India

GMS Glycerol Monostearate

H2O Hydrogen dioxide

kcal Kilo Calorie

mg/kg Milligram per kilogram

NaHCO 3 Sodium bicarbonate

Na+ Sodium ion

NPU Net Protein Utilization

PDCAAS Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

PER Protein Efficiency Ratio

PET Polyethylene terephthalate

PFA Prevention of Food Adulteration Act

PGME Propylene glycol mono fatty acid esters

rpm Rotation per minute

SFI Solid Fat Index

SMP Skim Milk Powder

TPA Texture Profile Analysis

USA United States of America

WPC Whey Protein Concentrate

WPI Whey Protein Isolates

WPNI Whey Protein Nitrogen Index

Attempts to provide sweetness for the diet have included modification of

Sucralose (1, 6-dichloro-1, 6-dideoxy-beta-D-dructofuranosyl-4-chloro-deoxy-

1. To standardize the level of ingredients and processing variables for

 Muffins: Ingredients and their role

2.2.2 Muffins or cake batters contain a significant proportion of highly reactive

2.2.2.5 Leavening Agents

2.1.5.1 Baking Powder

An emulsifier functions in two ways. It aids in the incorporation of air and

Several emulsifiers, such as Atlas A (a water dispersion of 32% sorbitan