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Design And Development Of The Mechanism For Run Flat Tyre, Part 2

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 Design And Development Of The Mechanism For Run Flat Tyre, Part 2

A.Irlan Din Bin A.Sulaiman

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia,
2
Automotive Engineering Centre, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP),
26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia,
*
Email: irlandin@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Run flat (or self-supporting) tires are specially designed to keep working for a short while
even after they suffer a puncture. So if tire get puncture on a hot day, dark night, there's no need for an
uncomfortable roadside tire change, they can safely drive home or to nearest garage to get the tire
changed. Run flat tires also reduce the dangers of a potentially dangerous tire blow out due to their
unique construction. This also can eliminate the extra weight of the spare tire, jack and tools in the
vehicle for better balance, dynamic handling and fuel efficiency. Main objective of this project is to
design and develop the mechanism for run flat tire. We have the ones that are self-supporting in the
tire and help the driver during sudden break down of the car, it can support perfectly the weight of the
car in the event of a puncture. The special materials on the running surfaces are thicker than on
regular tires, thus allowing the tire to cope with the weight of the vehicle and provide continuous
driving to the nearest workshop or our home. As a general idea, this tire's that keeps the tire in the
original position, maintain the movement of the car even under the weight or road bumps. It would
have been amazing to drive our cars safely on a flat tire. Aside from the safety issue, getting a flat tire
somehow always happens at a time we could least afford. Run flat tires are made because of these
concerns with flat tires. These are pneumatic tires designed to withstand deflation when punctured and
will allow the vehicles to be driven for limited distances. Run flat tires have additional internal
structure that allows support in case of deflation. As consumers continue rating safety high on the list
of features they look for in a vehicle, the popularity of run flat tires is expected to grow.

Keywords: Flat Tyre, Tyre, Self-supporting Tyre.

INTRODUCTION

A flat tire is a deflated pneumatic tire, which can cause the rim of the wheel to ride on the tire
tread, damaging the rim of the car, sudden smash of the rims to the ground and potentially resulting in
loss of control of the vehicle or irreparable damage to the rim [1-11]. This accident costs the driver
big amount of money to replace the tyre and change the rim to a new ones. The most common cause
of a flat tire is puncturing of the tire by a sharp object, such as a nail thus letting air escape and the
driver lost control of the car [12-22]. Depending on the size of the puncture, the tire may deflate
slowly or rapidly [23-26]. So, we as an engineering student purpose to create a mechanism to allow
the tyre to run after it was punctured so that the driver have just enough time to go to the nearby
workshop. Our objective is to create a mechanism to run flat tyre to avoid the tyre permanently
deformed when punctured. The project scope is to create mechanism to run flat tyre by constructing a
support ring inside the tyre to supports the vehicles after the tyre run flat and also it can be fitted to all
type of tyre and wheel size.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Tyre (British English) or tire (American English) is a ring-shaped vehicle component that
covers the wheel's rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for
automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road while providing a flexible
cushion that absorbs shock.

The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along
with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They consist of a tread and a body. The tread
provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber
was developed, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted around wooden wheels
to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Today, the majority of tires is
pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords and wires encased in
rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used
on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and
aircraft. Metal tires are still used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber (or other polymer) tires
are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers, and
wheelbarrows.

The earliest tires were bands of leather then iron, (later steel), placed on wooden wheels, used
on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a forge fire, placed over the wheel and quenched,
causing the metal to contract and fit tightly on the wheel. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright,
carried out this work. The outer ring served to "tie" the wheel segments together for use, providing
also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word "tire" thus emerged as a variant
spelling to refer to the metal bands used to tie wheels.
The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 for his son Johnnie's tricycle, in May
Street, Belfast by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop, proprietor of one of Ireland's most prosperous
veterinary practices. It was an effort to prevent the headaches his 10-year-old son was given by jarring
while riding on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an
exercise for the boy and, a regular visitor, Fagan participated in the development of the first
pneumatic schemes. In Dunlop's tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888 his interest is only in
its use in cycles and light vehicles. In September 1890 he was made aware of an earlier development
but the company kept the information to itself.
In 1892 Dunlop's patent was declared invalid because of prior art by forgotten
fellow Scot Robert William Thomson of London (patents London 1845, France 1846, USA 1847),
although Dunlop is credited with "realizing rubber could withstand the wear and tear of being a tire
while retaining its resilience". J B Dunlop and Harvey du Cros together worked through the ensuing
considerable difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and also acquired other
rights and patents which allowed them to protect their business's position. The development of this
technology hinged on myriad engineering advances. In terms of materials, the vulcanization of natural
rubber which he patented in 1844 is credited to Charles Goodyear and Robert William Thomson.
Synthetic rubbers were invented in the laboratories of Bayer in the 1920s.
In 1946, Michelin developed the radial tire method of construction. Michelin had bought the
bankrupt Citroën automobile brand in 1934, so it was able to fit this new technology immediately.
Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy, use of this technology quickly spread
throughout Europe and Asia. In the U.S., the outdated bias-ply tire construction persisted, with market
share of 87% as late as 1967.Delay was caused by tire and automobile manufacturers in America
concerned about transition costs. In 1968, Consumer Reports, an influential American magazine,
acknowledged the superiority of radial construction, setting off a rapid decline in Michelin's
competitor technology. Even in the U.S., the radial tire now has a market share of 100%.
Today, over 1 billion tires are produced annually in over 400 tire factories.
 There are two aspects to how pneumatic tires support the rim of the wheel on which they are
mounted. First, tension in the cords pull on the bead uniformly around the wheel, except where it is
reduced above the contact patch. Second, the bead transfers that net force to the rim.
Air pressure, via the ply cords, exerts tensile force on the entire bead surrounding the wheel rim on
which the tire is mounted, pulling outward in a 360 degree pattern. Thus the bead must have high
tensile strength. With no force applied to the outer tread, the bead is pulled equally in all directions,
thus no additional net force is applied to the tire bead and wheel rim. However, when the tread is
pushed inward on one side, this releases some pressure on the corresponding sidewall ply pulling on
the bead. Yet the sidewall ply on the other side continues to pull the bead in the opposite direction.
Thus the still fully tensioned sidewall ply pulls the tire bead and wheel rim in the direction opposite to
the tread displacement and matching the total force applied to push the tread inward.
This sidewall ply to bead tension support is a big reason for cross-ply cord tire construction. The
cross-ply cord arrangement orients the cords to more directly support the sling. However, with
improved combinations of cord and rim material construction materials and manufacturing
techniques, combined with ongoing focus and research on tire efficiency and durability, it became
feasible to manufacture radial-ply cord tires, which for many applications aiming for high speed
without excessive loads, outperform similar cross-ply cord tire designs with reduced tire temperature,
decreased rolling resistance and greater longevity.

Components of tyre:
A tire carcass is composed of several parts: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and ply.

Tread
The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion that is in
contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact patch. The tread is a thick rubber, or
rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear
away too quickly. The tread pattern is characterized by the geometrical shape of the grooves, lugs,
voids and sipes. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire, and are needed to channel away water.
Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface. Voids are spaces between lugs
that allow the lugs to flex and evacuate water. Tread patterns feature non-symmetrical (or non-
uniform) lug sizes circumferentially to minimize noise levels at discrete frequencies. Sipes are valleys
cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the grooves, which allow the water from the grooves to
escape to the sides in an effort to prevent hydroplaning.
Treads are often designed to meet specific product marketing positions. High performance tires have
small void ratios to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction, but may be
compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow
(M&S) tires are designed with higher void ratios to channel away rain and mud, while providing
better gripping performance.

Tread lug
Tread lugs provide the contact surface necessary to provide traction. As the tread lug enters the road
contact area, or footprint, it is compressed. As it rotates through the footprint it is deformed
circumferentially. As it exits the footprint, it recovers to its original shape. During the deformation
and recovery cycle the tire exerts variable forces into the vehicle. These forces are described as Force
Variation.

Tread void
Tread voids provide space for the lug to flex and deform as it enters and exits the footprint. Voids also
provide channels for rainwater, mud, and snow to be channelled away from the footprint. The void
ratio is the void area of the tire divided by the entire tread area. Low void areas have high contact area
and therefore higher traction on clean, dry pavement.
Rain groove
The rain groove is a design element of the tread pattern specifically arranged to channel water away
from the footprint. Rain grooves are circumferential in most truck tires. Many high performance
passenger tires feature rain grooves that are angled from the centre toward the sides of the tire. Some
tire manufacturers claim that their tread pattern is designed to actively pump water out from under the
tire by the action of the tread flexing. This results in a smoother ride in different types of weather.

Sipe
Tread lugs often feature small narrow voids, or sipes, that improve the flexibility of the lug to deform
as it traverses the footprint area. This reduces shear stress in the lug and reduces heat build-up.
Testing of identical siped and unsiped tires showed measurable improvements in snow traction and
ice braking performance, however diminishing and extending braking distances on wet and dry
pavement by a few feet on siped tires. Off-road tire enthusiasts have been siping tires for years for
greater traction, as many manufacturers now offer already siped off-road-tires.

Wear bar
Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at the bottom of the tread grooves that
indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point that the wear
bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out of service. Most wear
bars indicate a remaining tread depth of 1.6 millimetres (0.063 in) and are deemed "worn out" at that
point.

Bead
The bead is the part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is typically reinforced with
steel wire and compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The bead seats tightly against the
two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage. The bead fit is tight to
ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel rotates. The width of the rim in
relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics of an automobile, because the rim
supports the tire's profile.

Sidewall
Uneven sidewall wear, down to fabric plies, due to significant under-inflation
The sidewall is that part of the tire that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is largely
rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The
sidewall contains air pressure and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create
traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the tire
when punctured. Sidewalls are moulded with manufacturer-specific detail; government mandated
warning labels, and other consumer information, and sometimes decorative ornamentation, like
whitewalls.

Shoulder
The shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes transition to the sidewall.

Ply
Plies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber to hold its shape by preventing
the rubber from stretching in response to the internal pressure. The orientations of the plies play a
large role in the performance of the tire and are one of the main ways that tires are categorized.
Rim
The beads of the tire are held on the rim, or the "outer edge" of a wheel. These outer edges are shaped
to obtain a proper shape on each side, having a radially cylindrical inclined inner wall on which the
tire can be mounted. The wheel's rim must be of the proper design and type to hold the bead of the
appropriately sized tire. Tires are mounted on the wheel by forcing its beads into the channel formed
by the wheel's inner and outer rims.

Inner tube
Most bicycle tires, many motorcycle tires, and many tires for large vehicles such as buses, heavy
trucks, and tractors are designed for use with inner tubes. Inner tubes are torus-shaped balloons made
from an impermeable material, such as soft, elastic synthetic rubber, to prevent air leakage. The inner
tubes are inserted into the tire and inflated to retain air pressure.
Large inner tubes, which are large inflatable toruses, can be re-used for other purposes, such as
swimming and rafting (see swim ring), tubing (recreation), sledding, and skitching. Purpose-built
inflatable toruses are also manufactured for these uses, offering choice of colors, fabric covering,
handles, decks, and other accessories, and eliminating the protruding valve stem.

Valve stem
The valve stem is a tube made of metal or rubber, through which the tire is inflated, with a check
valve, typically a Schrader valve on automobiles and most bicycle tires, or a Presta valve on high-
performance bicycles. Valve stems usually protrude through the wheel for easy access. They mount
directly to the rim, in the case of tubeless tires, or are an integral part of the inner tube. The rubber in
valve stems eventually degrades, and, in the case of tubeless tires, replacement of the valve stem at
regular intervals or with tire replacement reduces the chance of failure. Some may notice that their
valve stem is all metal with a nut retaining it (as opposed to the typical rubber stem with brass
threads). Most modern passenger vehicles are now required to have a tire pressure monitoring system
which usually consists of a valve stem attached to an electronic module. The module is hidden inside
and is only visible when the tire has been removed from the wheel.

Vehicle Application:

Tires are classified into several standard types, based on the type of vehicle they serve. Since
the manufacturing process, raw materials, and equipment vary according to the tire type, it is common
for tire factories to specialize in one or more tire types. In most markets, factories that manufacture
passenger and light truck radial tires are separate and distinct from those that make aircraft or off-the-
road (OTR) tires.

Passenger vehicles and light truck:

High performance
High performance tires are designed for use at higher speeds, and more often, a more "sporty" driving
style. They feature a softer rubber compound for improved traction, especially on high speed
cornering. The tradeoff of this softer rubber is shorter tread life.

High performance street tires sometimes sacrifice wet weather handling by having shallower water
channels to provide more actual rubber tread surface area for dry weather performance. The ability to
provide a high level of performance on both wet and dry pavement varies widely among
manufacturers, and even among tire models of the same manufacturer. This is an area of active
research and development, as well as marketing.
Mud and snow
Mud and Snow, (or M+S, or M&S), is a designation applied rather arbitrarily by manufacturers for
all-season and winter tires designed to provide improved performance under low temperature
conditions, compared to summer tires. The tread compound is usually softer than that used in tires for
summer conditions, thus providing better grip on ice and snow, but wears more quickly at higher
temperatures. Tires may have well above average numbers of sipes in the tread pattern to grip the ice.
There are no traction performance requirements which such a tire has to meet; M&S relates to the
percentage of tread void area.

Dedicated winter tires will bear the "Mountain/Snowflake Pictograph" if designated as a winter/snow
tire by the American Society for Testing & Materials. Winter tires will typically also carry the
designation MS, M&S, or the words MUD AND SNOW (but see All-season tires, below).

Some winter tires are fabricated to allow the optional insertion of metal studs (consisting of a tungsten
carbide or other hard material pin embedded in a base of a softer metal) for additional traction on icy
roads.

The use of studs is restricted in some countries due to the increased road wear that they cause, with
the notable exception of most Nordic and North American jurisdictions, where they are commonly
used in colder areas during the winter season. Norway has implemented fees for using studded tires in
some urban areas, and there are a few streets in some of the major cities in Sweden where studs are
not allowed. In America, studs are typically never used on heavier vehicles (except for some
emergency vehicles like ambulances and fire trucks.), but stud tires for heavy vehicles are
commonplace in Scandinavia. Ice resurfacers also use studded tires. The upper tier classes of ice
racing and rallying mandates the vehicles are equipped with studded tires.

Other winter tires rely on factors other than studding for traction on ice, e.g. highly porous or
hydrophilic rubber that adheres to the wet film on the ice surface. The best stud-less winter tires offer
grip close to that of studded tires during most winter conditions, with the notable exception of blank
or polished ice, where they cannot match the performance of studded tires. The reason for this is that
stud-less winter tires rely on unevenness in the ice surface for their sipes to grab, while studs cut into
even the most polished ice surface (and in the process also make it uneven).

Studded tires are also used on bicycles, and the grip advantage on ice is similar to that from using
traction sand, with the difference that there is no risk of blank spots when using studded tires. Quality
tire manufacturers use studs with hard center pins also for bicycle tires, and just like their automobile
counterparts, those studs will continue to protrude from the tire even after many years of usage on
bare pavement. There are also low-quality studded bicycle tires being sold that have studs that lack
the hard-metal center pin (there is still a center pin, but it is not made of hard metal). Such studs can
wear out within a few weeks of cycling on dry pavement.

Some jurisdictions may require snow tires or tire chains on vehicles driven in certain areas during
extreme weather conditions.

Mud tires are specialty tires with large, chunky tread patterns designed to bite into muddy surfaces.
The large, open design also allows mud to clear quickly from between the lugs. Mud terrain tires also
tend to be wider than other tires, to spread the weight of the vehicle over a greater area to prevent the
vehicle from sinking too deeply into the mud. However, in reasonable amounts of mud and snow, tires
should be thinner. Being thinner, the tire will have more pressure on the road surface, thus allowing
the tires to penetrate the snow layer and grip harder snow or road surface beneath. This does not
compensate when the snow is too deep for such penetration, where the vehicle will sink into the snow
and plough the snow in front and eventually pack it beneath it until the wheels no longer have
traction. In this case, wider tires are preferred, as they have a larger contact patch and are better able
to 'float' on top of the mud or snow.
All season
The All Season tire classification is a compromise between one developed for use on dry and wet
roads during summer and one developed for use under winter conditions. The type of rubber and the
tread pattern best suited for use under summer conditions cannot, for technical reasons, give good
performance on snow and ice. The all-season tire is a compromise, and is neither an excellent summer
tire nor an excellent winter tire. They have, however, become ubiquitous as original and replacement
equipment on automobiles marketed in the United States, due to their convenience and their adequate
performance in most situations. Even so, in other parts of the world, like Germany, it is common to
have a designated tire set for winter and summer. All-Season tires are also marked for mud and snow
the same as winter tires but rarely with a snowflake. Owing to the compromise with performance
during summer, winter performance is usually poorer than a winter tire.

All-terrain
All-terrain tires are typically used on SUVs and light trucks. These tires often have stiffer sidewalls
for greater resistance against puncture when traveling off-road; the tread pattern offers wider spacing
than all-season tires to remove mud from the tread. Many tires in the all-terrain category are designed
primarily for on-road use, particularly all-terrain tires that are originally sold with the vehicle.

Spare
Some vehicles carry a spare tire, already mounted on a wheel, to be used in the event of flat tire or
blowout. Minispare, or "space-saver spare" tires are smaller than normal tires to save on trunk/boot
space, gas mileage, weight, and cost. Minispares have a short life expectancy and a low speed rating,
often below 60 miles per hour (97 km/h).

Light trailer
Domestic Trailers (including camping trailers) for use on public highways often have different tires
than those seen on cars. Often they are bias ply rather than radial tires, and they often don't have as
aggressive a tread pattern as standard road tires. They are not built for high traction in most cases,
because in most cases it is not vital that trailer tires have as good traction as that of the vehicle towing
the trailer.

Run-flat
Several innovative designs have been introduced that permit tires to run safely with no air for a
limited range at a limited speed. These tires typically feature strong, load-supporting sidewalls. An
infamous example of an alternate run-flat technology has plastic load-bearing inserts attached to the
rim instead of the reinforced sidewalls.
A disadvantage is that many run-flat tires cannot be repaired if a puncture occurs. This is due to
manufacturer's informing the automotive industry that the state in which the sidewall is in cannot be
determined due to the compacted sidewall of rubber. Some brands may permit one repair to a run flat
tire, while others do not allow any.

Heavy duty truck

Heavy duty tires are also referred to as Truck/Bus tires. These are the tire sizes used on vehicles such
as commercial freight trucks, dump trucks, and passenger buses. Truck tires are sub-categorized into
specialties according to vehicle position such as steering, drive axle, and trailer. Each type is designed
with the reinforcements, material compounds, and treads patterns that best optimize the tire
performance. A relatively new concept is the use of "Super Singles" or Wide Singles. Generally in a
dual configuration, there are 2 tires per position, each between 275 mm-295 mm wide. The Super
Single replaces these with a single tire, usually 455 mm wide. This allows for less tread to be
contacting the ground and also eliminates 2 sidewalls per position. Along with the weight savings of
about 91 kilograms (200 lb) per axle, this enables vehicles using these to improve fuel economy.
Off-the-road
Off-the-road (OTR) tires include tires for construction vehicles such as wheel loaders, backhoes,
graders, trenchers, and the like; as well as large mining trucks. OTR tires can be of either bias or
radial construction although the industry is trending toward increasing use of radial. Bias OTR tires
are built with a large number of reinforcing plies to withstand severe service conditions and high
loads.
Dramatically increasing commodity prices has led to shortages of new tires. As a consequence,
multimillion-dollar trucks can be idled for lack of tires, costing mines millions of dollars in lost
productivity. This has led to a stronger effort to recycle old OTR tires. As of 2008, a new OTR tire
can cost up to $50,000; retread tires are sold at half the price of new tires, and last 80% as long.
Retreading an OTR tire is labor-intensive. First, the retreading technician must place the old tire in a
buffing machine to remove what remains of the old tread; "skiving" follows this, which is the
removal, by hand, of material the buffing misses. Next, the technician must inspect the tire, repairing
defects. Lastly, the technician fills holes in the tire with rubber, applies a cement gum adhesive, and
places the tire on a machine that will apply a new tread.

Agricultural and off-road flotation tires

The agricultural tire classification includes tires used on farm vehicles, typically tractors and specialty
vehicles like harvesters. Driven wheels have very deep, widely spaced lugs to allow the tire to grip
soil easily.
For off-road driving in a passenger vehicle, such as in mud, sand, or deep snow, high flotation tires
are typically used. Flotation tires are not the same as M+S tires, as they are designed for low speeds
and full-time off road use rather than muddy and snow-covered roads. Flotation tires also help traction
in swampy environments and where soil compaction is a concern, featuring large footprints at low
inflation pressures to spread out the area where the rubber meets the ground. Knobby tires are
particularly useful where the ground consists of loose particles that can be displaced by the knobs.
Although the low pressure improves traction in many types of terrain, adjustments may need to be
made for hard surfaces like paved and unpaved roads. Vehicles that use flotation tires for rock
climbing are susceptible to flat tires in which the tire pops off the rim, breaking the "bead."

Racing
Racing tires are highly specialized according to vehicle and race track conditions. This classification
includes tires for drag racing, Auto-x, drifting, Time Attack, Road Racing – as well as the large-
market race tires for Formula One, IndyCar, NASCAR, V8 Supercars, WRC, MotoGP and the like.
Tires are specially engineered for specific race tracks according to surface conditions, cornering loads,
and track temperature. Racing tires often are engineered to minimum weight targets, so tires for a
500-mile (800 km) race may run only 100 miles (160 km) before a tire change. Some tire makers
invest heavily in race tire development as part of the company's marketing strategy and a means of
advertising to attract customers. Racing tires used on tarmac stages are called slick. When the road is
wet a driver will use intermediary slicks and when the road is dry the soft slicks are used. Racing tires
often are not legal for normal highway use.

Industrial
The Industrial tire classification is a bit of a catch-all category and includes pneumatic and non-
pneumatic tires for specialty industrial and construction equipment such as skid loaders and fork lift
trucks.

Bicycle
This classification includes all forms of bicycle tires, including road racing tires, mountain bike tires,
snow tires, and tubular tires, used also with other human-powered vehicles.
Aircraft
Aircraft tires are designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short durations. The number of tires
required for aircraft increases with the weight of the plane (because the weight of the airplane has to
be distributed better). Aircraft tire tread patterns are designed to facilitate stability in high crosswind
conditions, to channel water away to prevent hydroplaning, and for braking effect.

Aircraft tires are usually inflated with nitrogen to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme
changes in ambient temperature and pressure experienced during flight. Dry nitrogen expands at the
same rate as other dry atmospheric gases (normal air is about 80% nitrogen), but common compressed
air sources may contain moisture, which increases the expansion rate with temperature. Aircraft tires
generally operate at high pressures, up to 200 pounds per square inch (14 bar; 1,400 kPa) for airliners,
and even higher for business jets. Tests of airline aircraft tires have shown that they are able to sustain
pressures of maximum 800 pounds per square inch (55 bars; 5,500 kPa) before bursting. During the
test the tires have to be filled with water, instead of helium or nitrogen, which is the common content
of aircraft tires, to prevent the test room being blown apart by the energy when the tire bursts.

Aircraft tires also include fusible plugs (which are assembled on the inside of the wheels), designed to
melt at a certain temperature. Tires often overheat if maximum braking is applied during an aborted
takeoff or an emergency landing. The fuses provide a safer failure mode that prevents tire explosions
by deflating in a controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft and objects in the surrounding
environment.

The requirement that an inert gas, such as nitrogen, be used instead of air for inflation of tires on
certain transport category airplanes was prompted by at least three cases in which the oxygen in air-
filled tires combined with volatile gases given off by a severely overheated tire and exploded upon
reaching auto ignition temperature. The use of an inert gas for tire inflation will eliminate the
possibility of a tire explosion.

Motorcycle
There are many different types of motorcycle tires: Sport Touring – these tires are generally not used
for high cornering loads, but for long straights, good for riding across the country.

Sport Street – these tires are for aggressive street riders that spend most of their time carving corners
on public roadways. These tires do not have a long life, but in turn have better traction in high speed
cornering. Street and sport street tires have good traction even when cold, but when warmed too
much, can actually lose traction as their internal temperature increases.

Track or Slick – these tires are for track days or races. They have more of a triangular form, which in
turn gives a larger contact patch while leaned over. These tires are not recommended for the street by
manufacturers, and are known to have a shorter life on the street. Due to the triangulation of the tire,
there will be less contact patch in the center, causing the tire to develop a flat spot quicker when used
to ride on straightaways for long periods of time and have no tread so they lose almost all grip in wet
conditions. Racing slicks are also made of a harder rubber compound and do not provide as much
traction as street tires until warmed to a higher internal temperature as street tires normally operate at.
Most street riding will not put a sufficient amount of friction on the tire to maintain the optimal tire
temperature, especially in colder climates and in spring and fall.
Safety:

Proper vehicle safety requires specific attention to inflation pressure, tread depth, and general
condition of the tires. Over-inflated tires run the risk of explosive decompression (they may pop). On
the other hand, under-inflated tires have a higher rolling resistance and suffer from overheating and
rapid tread wear particularly on the edges of the tread. As tyre treads decreases, there is more traction
between the tire and the road resulting in better grip. However, there is an increased risk of
hydroplaning, so as the tire wears the performance in the dry generally improves, but gets worse in the
wet. Tires worn down past their safety margins and into the casing run the very real risk of rupturing.
Also, certain combinations of cross ply and radial tires on different wheels of the same vehicle can
lead to vehicle instability, and may also be illegal. Vehicle and tire manufacturers provide owners'
manuals with instructions on how to check and maintain tires.

A controversy began in 2000 regarding unusually high tire failures on some Ford vehicles. This
resulted in the recall of the tires in question.

Flat tyre
A flat tyre occurs when a tire deflates. This can occur as a result of normal wear-and-tear, a leak, or
more serious damage. A tire that has lost sufficient pressure will impair the stability of the vehicle and
may damage the tire further if it is driven in this condition. The tire should be changed and/or repaired
before it becomes completely flat. Continuing to drive a vehicle with a flat tire will damage the tire
beyond repair, possibly damage the rim and vehicle, and put the occupants and other vehicles in
danger. A flat tire or low-pressure tire should be considered an emergency situation, requiring
immediate attention. Some tires, known as "run-flat tires", have either extremely stiff sidewalls or a
resilient filler to allow driving a limited distance while flat, usually at reduced speed, without
permanent damage or hazard.

A modern radial tire may not be visibly distorted even with dangerously low inflation pressure. (This
is especially true of tires with a low aspect ratio, sometimes known as "low profile" tires.) Thus
maintenance of adequate tire pressure can have important safety implications despite the fact that
most car owners neglect it. Tire designers have tried to make new tires fail-safe so that the failure of
the operator to maintain the tire pressure won't cause a major safety concern, but there are limitations
on this.

Bubble
Tyre bubbles, also referred to as bulges / bumps / protrusions / carbuncles, occur when the sidewall of
the tire has failed, resulting in a protrusion. Causes of bubbles include having an impact at high speed,
over inflation, or poor tire construction/manufacturing. It is generally recommended to replace the tire
since the probability of tire failure has increased. They can occur on the inner or outer sidewall.

Hydroplaning (or aquaplaning)

Hydroplaning, also known as aquaplaning is the condition where a layer of water builds up between
the tire and road surface. Hydroplaning occurs when the tread pattern cannot channel away enough
water at an adequate rate to ensure a semi-dry footprint area. When hydroplaning occurs, the tire
effectively "floats" above the road surface on a cushion of water – and loses traction, braking and
steering, creating a very unsafe driving condition. When hydroplaning occurs, there is considerably
less responsiveness of the steering wheel. The correction of this unsafe condition is to gradually
reduce speed, by merely lifting off the accelerator/gas pedal.

Hydroplaning becomes more prevalent with wider tires (because of the lower weight per contact area)
and especially at higher speeds; it is of virtually no concern to bicycle tires under normal riding
conditions largely because of the lower speeds. The chance of car hydroplaning is also minimal at
bicycle speeds as the weight per contact area of car tires is not much lower if any than bicycle tires.
Dangers of aged tires
Research and tests show that as tires age, they begin to dry out and become potentially dangerous,
even if unused. Aged tires may appear to have similar properties to newly manufactured tires, but
rubber degrades over time, and once the vehicle is traveling at high speeds (i.e. on a freeway) the
tread could peel off, leading to severe loss of control. In tropical climates, tires degrade sooner than in
temperate climates, and more care should be taken in these climates to ensure that tires do not fail.
Also, tires on seldom-used trailers are at the greatest risk of age-failure, but some tires are built to
withstand idleness, usually with nylon reinforcement.
Many automakers recommend replacing tires after six years, and several tire manufacturers
(Bridgestone, Michelin) have called for tires to be removed from service 10 years after the date of
manufacture. However, an investigative report by Brian Ross on ABC's 20/20 news magazine found
that many major retailers such as Goodyear, Wal-Mart, and Sears were selling tires that had been
produced six or more years ago. Currently, no law for aged tires exists in the United States.

Scrap tires and environmental issues

Once tires are discarded, they are considered scrap tires. Scrap tires are often re-used for things from
bumper car barriers to weights to hold down tarps. Some facilities are permitted to recycle scrap tires
through chipping, and processing into new products, or selling the material to licensed power plants
for fuel. Some tires may also be retreaded for re-use. One group did "a study to evaluate the
possibility of using scrap tires as a crash cushion system. The objective of this study was to evaluate
the material properties of used tires and recycled tire-derived materials for use in low-cost, reusable
crash cushions". [45]

An interesting use, developed over 30 years back but not yet universally used, is to process scrap tires
as raw material for roads. The process is removing the metal, granulating the rubber and then a
chemical process where it is mixed with other usual materials for macadamized roads. The resulting
roads have proved to have better waterproofing, more resilient resulting in a smoother ride and also
longer tire life. Several countries (for example, South Korea) have regulations requiring its use, but
most do not.

Americans generate about 285 million scrap tires per year. Many states have regulations as to the
number of scrap tires that can be held on site, due to concerns with dumping, fire hazards, and
mosquitoes. In the past, millions of tires have been discarded into open fields. This creates a breeding
ground for mosquitoes, since the tires often hold water inside and remain warm enough for mosquito
breeding. Mosquitoes create a nuisance and may increase the likelihood of spreading disease. It also
creates a fire danger, since such a large tire pile is a lot of fuel. Some tire fires have burned for
months, since water does not adequately penetrate or cool the burning tires. Tires have been known to
liquefy, releasing hydrocarbons and other contaminants to the ground and even ground water, under
extreme heat and temperatures from a fire. The black smoke from a tire fire causes air pollution and is
a hazard to downwind properties.

The use of scrap tire chips for landscaping has become controversial, due to the leaching of metals
and other contaminants from the tire pieces. Zinc is concentrated (up to 2% by weight) to levels high
enough to be highly toxic to aquatic life and plants. Of particular concern is evidence that some of the
compounds that leach from tires into water, contain hormone disruptors and cause liver lesions.
 EXPERIMENT SETUP

Well-inflated tires improve gas mileage,handling and passenger comfort. More importantly, we
really can’t leave home without them. The only way to get on the road again if a normal tire becomes
flat is to change it. However,this run flat tires can run without air,for at least 80 km (50 miles). This
performance is derived from a thick, reinforced sidewall with specially engineered rubber compounds
capable of withstanding the heat and stress of low-pressure operation while maintaining handling and
comfort [27]. The measurement of tyre–road contact forces is the first step towards the development
of new run flat tyre for improving vehicle safety and performances. Tyre–road contact forces
measurement systems are very expensive and significantly modify the unsprung masses of the vehicle
as well as the rotational inertia of the tyres. Thus, vehicle dynamics results are significantly affected.
As a consequence, the measured contact forces do not correspond to the contact forces under real
working conditions. A new low cost run flat tyre road contact forces measurement system is proposed
in this paper that can be applied to passenger cars [28].Several factors have been hypothesized to
influence tyre/road noise, including tyre properties and roadway material’s acoustic absorption
capacities.During the last few decades, substantial effort has been put to develop and establish
standards and/or protocols to measure tyre/road noise in the field. The methods employ microphones
at a defined distance from the vehicle path at the side of the roadway, and measure the noise of the
flowing vehicles, also documented in (AASHTO TP 98-12; AASHTO TP 99-12) standards where
tyre/road noise contribution using wayside measurements have been documented[29]. By applied this
rubber sheet to the rim and to the tyre will reduce the tyre noise while running. Approximately 30
percent of the combat damage to wheeled vehicles on the battlefield involves punctured tires.
Research is being done on battlefield damage assessment and repair (BDAR) of flat tires and quick
wheel replacement, but the best solution at the present time appears to be a run-flat tire which allows
the vehicle to continue to operate, even though the tire has been heavily punctured. Two such systems,
the Vorwerk NLR and the Michelin ACM insert rings, have been tested by the German Army at the
Meppen Live Firing Trial -4-. The process of wheel failure has been investigated for three cases. The
first case involves tyre puncture as a result of bullet penetration, driving over a sharp object, etc. In
such a case, leak of air may be usually compensated by the vehicles central tire inflation system. The
wheel interfaces the ground under standard or somewhat reduced inflation pressure. Unfortunately, if
the pressure is gravely reduced, prolonged driving will most probably lead to prompt spread of the
failure due to heat and excessive tyre sidewalls deformations and the second case will develop. In the
second case the wheel rolls without inflation pressure. In this case most of the forces imposed on the
tyre are transferred by the Run Flat system insert, which contacts the inner surface of the tyre in the
tread area. The tyre carcass is exposed to considerable deformations up to the point of breaking that is
boosted by heat generation in deflected area. The third case is when the tyre is destroyed (by
explosion or heat) to such an extent that the insert directly rolls on the ground. Having no protection,
the insert will be exposed to severe abrasive wear and repeatedly lose large pieces of its structural
material. Finally, the insert will be entirely destroyed. This study includes identification of tyre
performance for the first two cases described above. Unavoidable growth in tyre carcass deformations
leads to roduction of large amounts of heat and increases tyre rolling resistance. The process has an
adverse effect on tyre characteristics (increases rolling resistance and lowers traction), increases tyre
temperature, degrades materials used for tyre construction and wears the tyre very fast. On top of this
the tyre is not able to properly interact with the ground, especially if the surface is very uneven. To
investigate this problem, measurements of rolling resistance, tyre temperature, tyre radial stiffness and
hysteresis were performed at standard, low and zero inflation.-3-. With innovative run flattyres .
Unlike conventional tyres, self-supporting run flat tyres have a inner rubber ring that can support the
car even when all pressure is lost, preventing the tyre walls from becoming squashed between the
wheel and the road. In the event of a puncture, run flat tyres allow drivers to continue their journey,
providing the vehicle is driven appropriately and at a reduced speed. Conventional tyres when all
pressure is lost tyre is destroyed within a short distance. But run flat tyres are continued mobility for
up to 80 km at a maximum speed of 80 km/h [30]. The design of optimal automotive vehicle tyres and
road surfaces demands a thorough understanding of the physical processes in the tyre or road contact.
The optimization must consider the effects on, e.g., traction forces, rolling resistance (energy
consumption), wear,ride comfort, tyre vibrations, and noise generation [31].
1) Remove the tyre from the rim

The tire sidewall becomes flat when a normal pneumatic tire is punctured because the internal air
filled with the preset pressure level quickly gets out. As a result, the tire axis becomes lower and the
sidewall is forced to be squeezed between the aluminum wheel and the ground. The underlying
idea of run-flat tires is to protect the sidewall from being flat even when the internal pressure level
becomes zero. Since the concept of run-flat was introduced in the late 1950s, the worldwide intensive
research efforts have focused on the development of high-performance run-flat tire. In general, the
major items for evaluating the run-flat tire performance are the maximum driving speed and distance,
the riding comfort and the durability [32]. For our project, we had to design and built a run flat tyre,
the experimental setup design for our project is need to be start with remove the tyre from the rim by
using semi-automatic tyre change machine which available in FKM laboratory.

2) Stick the hard rubber to the rim

The step after remove the tyre from the rim, we stick the hard rubber to the rim by using Dunlop
glue.as shown in above figure. We using a saw to cut the surface of the rim to make it rough and we
use a brush to paint the Dunlop glue to the rim surface and the hard rubber surface. After 5 minute,
stick the hard rubber to the rim and cut the extra hard rubber to make the end point flat and tidy.

3) Use pin to lock the end of the rubber.

We decide to use a pin to lock the both end of the rubber to avoid to rubber are uprooted At the
end point of the rubber, we use steeper to punch pin to make sure the end point can be joint together
and to make the rubber attached a bit stronger. After punch the pin, we need to use hammer to knock
the pin, to make sure the pin is perfectly install.

4) Install rubber to the inner tyre.

Firstly is calculate the dimension for the rubber and cut the rubber to desired dimention and then
paint the Dunlop glue to the inner tyre and the hard rubber surface. After 5 minutes, stick the rubber to
the inner tyre. And use pin to lock the end point of the rubber

5) Install the flat tyre.

After we install the rubber sheet to both side of the rim and tyre, the tyre is installed to the rim
using machine. The tyre should be balanced before test with the car. To balancing the wheel, we can
use the tyre balancing machine which available at FKM laboratory. We should check the balancing of
the tyre using this maching before fix to the car. The final step is to fix the tyre to the car and test
drive the car and get the final result. The test drive is done in 3 conditions. Which is in good
condition, when running using flat tyre and how long the flat tyre can support? After the test is done,
the data need to be collected and obtain the final result.
 PROCEDURE

Calculate the size of the hard rubber (wide and length), the formula to calculate is 2πr or π [33-36].
The size of the rim is 12 inch (multiple 25.4 to convert to mm).

(12*25.4)*π = 957.55mm = 0.957m

The wide of the hard rubber, we decide to choose 65mm, so the final length is 65mm x 957.55mm for
the first layer, for the second layer, we measure the thickness of the hard rubber and roughly calculate
it. For safety, we need to extra 50mm for the length of the rubber. After that, stick the hard rubber to
the rim by using Dunlop glue. Using a saw, cut the surface of the rim to make it rough. Use a brush to
paint the Dunlop glue to the rim surface and the hard rubber surface. After 5 minute, stick the hard
rubber to the rim. Cut the extra hard rubber to make the end point flat. After the stick the hard rubber,
use pin to lock the end of the rubber, at the end point of the rubber, we use steeper to punch pin to
make sure the end point can be joint together. After punch the pin, use hammer to knock the pin, to
make sure the pin is perfectly install.
Next step is install rubber to the inner tyre, firstly is calculate the dimension for the rubber,
using the same formula as above to the dimension. Then paint the Dunlop glue to the inner tyre and
the hard rubber surface. After 5 minutes, stick the rubber to the inner tyre. Use pin to lock the end
point of the rubber (same as above).
After finish the step above, now start to install the tyre to the rim by using machine. When the
installation done, do balancing on the tyre to minimize the vibration that occur in the tyre.
At the end of the project, a simple test run is require to get the result. The test result will
include the max speed for the flat tyre, how long the flat tyre can be use.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Tearing in rubber is known to initiate from an inherent flaw present in the rubber [37]. When the
rubber is stretched, the local stress in the vicinity of a flaw is amplified. Once the local stress reaches
a critical level, the rubber tears by extension of the crack (flaw). It has been widely reported that the
rate of crack growth in a rubber is determined by a characteristic energy per unit area of the fracture
surface created. This is defined as equation

[37, 38]
where W is the total elastic strain energy stored in a specimen of thickness h measured in the
unstrained state and c is the length of a crack. The suffix l denotes that no external work is done at the
system boundaries to create new fracture surfaces. In the case of a trouser tear specimen shown , the
tearing energy is given by equation

where F is the applied tearing force, h is the specimen thickness, λ is the extension ratio in the
legs, b is the total width of the specimen and W is the elastic stored energy in the legs of the specimen
far removed from the tear, which is determined from integration of a tensile stress-strain curve at a
strain that corresponds to the extension ratio in the legs of the specimen at the point of tearing [39-41].

Capillary rheology allows determination of the material apparent viscosity (η a ) defined as

equation
where τ a is the apparent wall shear stress and the apparent wall shear rate. These parameters can
be calculated accordingly to the Poiseuille Law, based on the barrel diameter, plunger speed and
length and diameter of the capillary.
The apparent wall shear rate is given by equation

where Q is the volumetric flow rate of the polymer melt and R the capillary die radius.
The volumetric flow rate can be calculated as equation

where Rb (mm) is the radius of the barrel and Sp (mm.s−1) is the plunger speed. The pressure drop, ΔP
), measured across the capillary length, L (mm) is used to determine the apparent shear stress as
equation

This model assumes fully developed flow along the entire capillary length, disregarding the extra
pressure drop at the entrance of the capillary die. The entrance and exit effects on the rheological data
can be corrected using Bagley's correction which allows the determination of the true wall shear stress
(τ w ) equation

[42]
Δ P e – pressure drop at zero distance from the entrance.
The shear rate expression assumes a Newtonian parabolic velocity profile. Due to the polymer non-
Newtonian behaviour, the real profile is non-parabolic, similar to a plug-like flow. Assuming no slip
conditions, the velocity is higher at the centerline and zero at the wall, which implies the highest shear
rate at the wall. The profile shape is defined by a power law index (n) which characterizes the
pseudoplastic behaviour of the material. nvalues below 1 represent the transition from Newtonian
flow to shear thinning behaviour. Smaller values imply higher shear thinning behaviour, thus a greater
deviation from the (Newtonian) parabolic profile. The Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch correction can be
used to determine the true shear rate at the wall as equation

b is obtained by derivation of the apparent shear rate vs the wall shear stress on a double logarithmic
plot, and represents the slope of the curve on such plot.
equation

The melt viscosity (η ) is then calculated through the relation between both corrected shear stress and
shear rate as equation

Lab Kars software from Alpha Technologies can be used to determine the true shear stress, the true
shear rate and the melt viscosity, using capillary rheological data acquired over a 10 to 6000 (s −1)
apparent shear rate range. The melt viscosity values for each experiment correspond to the average of
at least 3 trials [43, 44].
 Normal Tyre Flat Tyre
V=50km/h V=50km/h
Velocity =50km/h × (1000m/1km) × ( 1h/3600s) =50km/h × (1000m/1km) × ( 1h/3600s)
(m/s2) =13.89/35s = 13.89/40s
= 0.3969m/s2 =0.3473m/s2
F=m × a F=m × a
=670kg × 0.3969m/s^2 =678kg × 0.3473
Force (N) = 265.92N =235.4N
=265.92/4 =235.47N/4
=66.48 N =58.87 N
T= rF T= rF
Torque (N.m) = (0.24m)(66.48N) = (0.20m)(58.87N)
=15.96N.m =11.77N.m
HP= (T × RPM)/7120.89 HP= T × RPM/ 7120.89
Hourse Power =(15.96)(2000)/7120.89 =(11.77)(2000)/ 7120.89
=4.48HP =3.31HP
Power weight Power to weight ratio = 4.48HP/670kg Power to weight ratio =3.31HP/678kg
ratio =0.006687 =0.004882

Power to weight ratio is the ratio between the power that your vehicle has and its weight. The higher
the number, the better. For this example the car has 3.31HP and weights 678 kg, the power to weight
ratio is 0.004882 HP/kg, which means that the car outputs 0.004882 HP for every kg it weighs.
However, if another car has 4.48HP but only weighs 670 kg, the power to weight ratio would be
0.006687 HP/kg (higher than the 1st car), which would mean that this car outputs 0.006687 HP for
every kg it weighs. The reason why a higher number is better is because, for a given value of
horsepower, the less the car weighs the more/better that power is used - a car that weighs less has less
inertia, it's easier to accelerate, and to change its direction. On the other side, it has less traction, as
traction depends on friction, which in turns depends on weight

DISCUSSION

Run Flat Tyres – what are they?

Run flat (or self supporting) tyres are specially designed to keep working for a short while even after
they suffer a puncture. So if you get a puncture on a cold, dark night, there's no need for an
uncomfortable roadside tyre change – you should be able to safely drive home* or to your nearest
garage to get your tyre changed. Run flat tyres also reduce the dangers of a potentially dangerous tyre
blow out due to their unique construction.

How do they work?

Run flat tyres are built with reinforced sidewalls. Normally, a car is supported by the air in your tyres,
and once you have a puncture, they collapse. However, run flat tyres have tough rubber inserts which
temporarily hold up the weight of your vehicle even after a puncture.

How long can you drive on a punctured run flat tyre?

Once a run flat tyre suffers a puncture, you can’t keep driving on it forever – usually you will be able
to drive at 50KM/H for another 50 KM– plenty of time to get to your nearest garage. The exact range
depends on variables like your driving speed, load of your vehicle and driving conditions
Life span of Run Flat Tyres

The materials used to manufacture run flat tyres are similar or identical to conventional tyres, so their
wear rates should be comparable. Keeping the correct air pressure in your tyres (no matter what type)
is the best way to ensure a longer life from your tyres.

CONCLUSION

The study has revealed is to design and develop the mechanism for run flat tire. Safe tyres are very
important safety components on each and every vehicle. Not only are they important for steering and
proper vehicle control, but also for speedy and effective response in the event of emergency and
accident avoidance. The results indicate that the designs of normal tyre are featuring better properties
than design of flat tyre. The higher number of power to weight ratio for a given value of horsepower,
the less the car weighs the more/better that power is used - a car that weighs less has less inertia, it's
easier to accelerate, and to change its direction. On the other side, it has less traction, as traction
depends on friction, which in turns depends on weight. Besides that, the use of this tyre seems to have
a negative impact on dynamical interactions between the road and the vehicle bodywork.
Furthermore, the obtained results show the necessity for more research on the matter, especially on
distribution of contact pressure between tyres and road surface when tyres use rubber.

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