The Smithsonian Institution

The Liberty Cap as a Revolutionary Symbol in America and France

Author(s): Yvonne Korshak
Source: Smithsonian Studies in American Art, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 52-69
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Smithsonian American Art Museum
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3108944 .
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Yvonne Korshak
SamuelJennings,Genius ofAmericaEn-
couragingthe Emancipationof the Blacks
(detail), 1790-92. Oil on canvas, 60 1/4 X
73 1/8in. TheLibraryCompanyofPhila-
delphia,RidgwayLibrary
53
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Capas a Revolutionary
TheLiberty
SymbolinAmericaand France
The libertycap is so takenfor
grantedas an emblemoftherepub-
lic in Franceand,in contrast, so
in
nearlyforgotten America, that
theevolutionof itsuse as a symbol
duringboththeAmericanand
Frenchrevolutionshas neverbeen
examined.The "Gallic"cap repre-
sentinglibertyappearedfirstin
America,and fromthereitspread
to France.1Understanding the
cap's early and crucial use during
therevolutionary periodhelps to
clarify thereasonsforitsdynamic
forceas a rallyingimage.Because
thecap's identification withliberty
stemmedfromitsoriginaluse as a
symboloffreedomfromslavery,
thegrowingtensionin Americabe-
tweenNorthand South,rootedin
thesensitiveissue of slaveryin the
South,accountsforthefadingof
thisonce-popularsymbolfromna-
tionalconsciousness.
Likeso muchofthesymboliza-
tionoftheeighteenth-century revo-
lutions, the roots of the libertycap
lie in antiquity.In ancientRome,
themanumissionofa slave,a not
uncommonevent,was symbolized
bytheadoptionofthepileus cap,
theheadgearoftheworkingciti-
zen, bythefreedslave.2The manu-
missionceremony,in whichslaves
beingfreedtookon thecap and
were touchedbya rod (the vindic-
ta), was called caperepileum("to
takethecap"). As a symboloffree-
dom granted,thepileus was also a
reminderoferstwhileslavery;a Ro-
man reliefillustrating thecere-
monyof manumissionevokesthe
SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
close relationship betweenfree-
dom and bondage (fig.1).3From
thisceremonialuse, thecap devel-
oped itsgeneralizedsuggestionof
liberty.Thepileus became an attri-
buteofLibertas, theGoddess ofLib-
erty,shown seated withthecap on
top of her staff, standingand
or
holding cap alongwithher
the
Romanemperorsused the
staff.
propagandapowerofcirculating
coinsand medalsto promotetheir
claimsto beinggood emperors,as
in a medalfromtherule ofGalba
(A.D.68-69), who used theliberty
of
cap to asserttheconstitutionality
his reign(fig.2).4 Amongthecap's
otherappearancesin antiquity was
itsuse duringtheSaturnalia--ali-
centious,orgiasticfestivalmarked
bytemporary, sanctionedrole
reversals--when mastersserved
theirservantsand everyonewore
thepileus.
Thatthecap had a potentially
revolutionary characteras a symbol
ofmanumissionwas realizedby
Brutus,who used iton a coin he
had struckaftertheassassinationof
JuliusCaesar.On one side is a por-
traitofBrutus,and on theother,
thecap of libertyplaced between
twodaggers,withtheabbreviated
inscription of theIdes ofMarchbe-
neath.5Bymeansofthecap,Brutus
proudlyidentified himselfwiththe
restoredrepublicanlibertiesthat
followedCaesar'sassassination.
The imageofthelibertycap was
carriedthroughthecenturiesby
thiscoin type.In 1552,HenryII of
Franceused iton a medal to pro-
 4
~y.

A F.

~ A

~>1.

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1 Roman reliefof manumissionceremony,
1stcenturyAD. 35 1/16in. high.Musde
royalde Mariemont, Moranwelz,Belgium
2 Medal ofEmperorGalba, withLibertas,
AD. 68-69. 1 3/8 in. diam. TheBritish
Museum
3 Medal ofHeny II, withlibertycap, 1552.
2B3/8in. diam. CabinetdesM~dailles,
Biblioth~queNationale,Paris
54
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mulgatetheidea of himselfas a
liberatorafterhis victory over
CharlesV of Germany;thecap ap-
pears,quaintly,as a tall-crowned,
narrow-brimmed Renaissancehat
(fig.3). From the timeof theRe-
naissance,thesymbolization of lib-
erty as a cap, along withthe expla-
nationthattheimagewas rootedin
theRomancustomof manumis-
sion,appeared regularly in dictio-
nariesofsymbolsand iconography.6
The introduction oftheliberty
cap into theAmerican rebellion
can be tracedto theworkof Paul
Fall 1987
Revere.Probablytheearliestlib-
ertycaps depictedbyan artistof
therebelliouscolonieswere those
wornbythefigureofLibertas, who
appearstwice(farleftand far
right)on theilluminated obelisk
Reveredesignedforthe 1766 Bos-
tonCommoncelebrationofthere-
peal oftheStampAct(fig.4).
Of interestforunderstanding
therevolutionary libertycap is
Revere's1768 Sons ofLiberty bowl,
oftencalledour mostimportant his-
toricpiece ofsilver(fig.5).7The
bowl bringstogethertwolibertar-
 ~A VIA've/'tAeO3EL1s1~ er~dcd un&r .LrAxlLT~- T)~XR ?~ AO~9TO~?T On t& &~/OJOtfl/f/~f IAC 2~/~ca/ o/ /A~
- (4~7flftL4Ct

Q eK ~ CJ 3-. z~-a T--4 -' a .-.~C--22

Ca~y9~dt/ah~
ua2r.'Mo~aa~id~qJA~a. c~O~I~4.wO3-e -
'y~h ~ 4nozd/,~u~~v*f 4da~tf~4~Mu~d
tI~, ~&
~ 6e
~~n~/ivrn ,/haso LThN1tT~f sM, idd
id~4dg~,tka 'snI/a,~6uw

AUIEI
~~6y ?ovt~ro/LIBEA7'Y~ thr ?2~zk &v
/Z(4~ .1~Or~J SONS.

~$~4,,~vnyi4da4dAy?
791jnazr ~44/orwtAe a ~rA~7w~v.r G~or.~ i*i~7

4 Paul Revere,designfor theobeliskcelebrat- ian causes thatreachedtheircli- ertycap,encircledin a wreath.The

ing therepealoftheStampAct,1766 Etch- max in 1765-66: resistanceto the inspirational referenceon theop-
ing,9 3/8 x 13 1/8in. Libraryof Congress of thebowl is to Wilkes,
StampActand supportfortheout- posite side
spokenEnglishjournalist John withwhomtheSons ofLiberty had
Wilkeswho,prosecutedand even- corresponded, his
encouraging sup-
tuallyoutlawedbecause ofhis revo- portfortheAmericancause.8En-
lutionary views,had become a closed withina circlein thecenter
hero in libertariancircles.The are thewords"Wilkes& Liberty,"
Sons ofLiberty were deeplyin- whichbecame a rallying cryon
volvedwithboththesecauses.As bothsides oftheAtlantic; thein-
Revere's
seen in theillustration, scription "No. 45," also in thecir-
punch bowl celebratesthe rebel- cle, refersto issue forty-fiveof
lious refusaloftheMassachusetts Wilkes'snewspaper,theNorth
legislatureto rescinda lettercriti- Briton,in whichhe made thefiery
cal ofEnglishpolicyon theStamp attackson royalpolicythatled to
5 Paul Revere,Sons ofLibertyBowl,1768. Actand commemoratestheninety- his incarceration.Two flagsjutout
5 1/2in. high(uneven);base, twolegislatorswho votedagainst leftand right, one inscribed
Silver,
5 13/16in. diam.MuseumofFineArts,
Boston,GiftbySubscriptionand Francis rescinding. The namesofthefif- "MagnaCharta,"theother"Billof
BartlettFund teen Sons ofLiberty who commis- Rights."The libertycap is,again,
sioned thebowl are engraved above thiscircle.
aroundit.The pictorialsymbolof A fewyearsearlier,in 1763,the
thisresistanceto tyranny is thelib- libertycap figuredprominently in

55 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt

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6 WilliamHogarth,JohnWilkesEsq., 1763.
Engraving,12 1/2 x 8 3/4in. PrintCollec-
tion,Miriam& Ira D. WallachDivisionof
Art,Prints& PhotographsDivision,The
New YorkPublic Astor, Lenoxand
Library,
TildenFoundations

.Q ~7~Q~j7~
c~gi;z ~
- ~7aa76,?d ?~/b~/ic4~fari/{

thenegative,satiricalportraitof on manychinapunchbowls that

WilkesbytheEnglishartistWilliam
Hogarth(fig.6). Here, in an ironic
reversal,therakishWilkes,withlib-
ertycap and staff,is transformed
intoa Liberty Goddess.9As faras
can be determined, thisportrait
is theearliestuse of theliberty
cap withinthecontextofthe
eighteenth-century revolutions.
Thispopularengravingappeared
carriedWilkes'sportrait
alongwith
otheremblemsand slogansof lib-
erty,spreadinghis fameand trans-
forming satireintosymbol(fig.7).
These bowls,whichenjoyedbroad
circulation
amongthoseengaged
in thestruggleforindependence
on bothsides oftheAtlantic,
were
an importantvehicleforthedis-
seminationofthelibertycap image

56 Fall 1987

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7 Punch bowl depictingJohnWilkes, after
Hogarthengraving,ca. 1765. Porcelain,
6 7/8in. high;16 1/4in. diam. Henry
FrancisDu Pont Winterthur Museum

8 Paul Revere,mastheadoftheBostonGa-
zette,26 March1770. RareBooks and
78t.
ManuscriptsDivision,TheNew YorkPublic TBH>
E
Library, Lenoxand Tilden
Astor, ,.No.
Foundations
AGaze tzte,
A
ND "

CO0U NTR Y . " NA L. '

,JOUR
Containng the freJbeft
Advices, Foreign and Domeflic.
M 0 ND March 26,
A4, 1770.
A LIST of the Names of thofe Whereas
thegC armnerfhip
ofthelate ?.italdu Aterniontoo
who^nA~OUS~colim'tocuntra~lheurr"Comanyof PoolanICarAe is diffolved by the ,I SpeechattheOpeningo" the prefcntSellion.
Enl S'rTiMesTSofrhelovofrchatsho'u DeathiofMr. ClarAe:This is todefire alDPerfona Honori.pleafed
to iay "'tht yourlt-tu
BritilhGoods chatareindebted Y.our
NORTH-AMEgRCAI byimporting to, or thathaveanytDemandsa- was tohavemettheCourtat Boftonon therathof
(In, in-huArn, cn.gainft thelateCompany,, o
eitherby Bond,Note, ijudging,we
January, h
humblypefube,aitntt ws uot
yohn Berar'd, BookDebt,thatthey wouI~rnitdt~d~tlyppiyotheforthepublicBenefit, as we~l!athepa,'tkicul
Con-
(nKia-Sire Veo'}d . ' Subrcriber,
furvvtion Partner, at theS~or keptby venieace ofth. Mebes thatthe Alremtbly houldI
.Imlo,...,, "
- __ .- ., ... . .. .. .... -..,t.., .t..... at thatTime,modthattheBu iodef
cconvene ofthe

alongwithothersymbolsoffree- head oftheBostonGazette,first

dom. In theshape of Paul Revere's used inJanuary 1770 (fig.8),
Sons ofLiberty bowl,as well as in Reveredesigneda Britanniaseated
the"Wilkes& Liberty" sentiments upon theUnionJackand crowned
proclaimedon it,Revereis quoting witha laurelwreath.She holds the
theWilkespunchbowl.10The libertycap on a staffwithone hand
linksofpoliticalsympathy between and opens a birdcage withthe
theSons ofLibertyand Wilkes,and other.Thus did Reverecreateout
betweenthechinaand silver ofBritanniaa Goddess ofLiberty, a
bowls,make itclearthatRevere symbolofthelibertarian yearnings
knewHogarth'sportrait ofWilkes ofthehard-pressed coloniesseek-
withlibertycap, ifnotfromtheen- ingrelieffromBritishtaxesand
gravingitself,thensurelyfromthe traderulesduringthelate 1760s.
engravings copied on thechina In theyearsbeforeand during
bowls. theAmericanRevolution, thelib-
Withhis portrait ofWilkes,the ertycap was seen everywhere as a
classicallytrainedand mordantly symbolofthestruggleforfreedom,
wittyHogarthbecame thefirstart- althoughnotnecessarily, at first,
istin moderntimesto use thelib- forindependence.Itwas placed at
ertycap to symbolizepoliticalre- thetop ofliberty treesand liberty
bellion.ThroughRevere,well poles and appearedon seals and
knownforspreadingnews,thecap flags.On theimportant flagofthe
enteredtheiconography ofthe PhiladelphiaLight Horse Regiment
AmericanRevolution.For themast- (1775), thecap is held bytheIn-

57 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt

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 0
~5~oR ~

HEATREDELA GUEAlE PARS NT

N AMEIIIQUE

diapr~s1esNou~I{es Car(es An~1ailes

/CO vyfc et (Xidetir~ Con~zec/eu'

?~az~'aid
Z~1~E e~ PMS~NTBE
A MONSXEUR LB NOIR

AASSZT
9 StandardofthePhiladelphiaLightHorse
Regiment, publishedin
1775. Frontispiece
Book oftheFirstTroopPhiladelphiaCav-
alry1774-1914(Philadelphia:Universityof
PennsylvaniaPressand thePennsylvania
SocietyofSons oftheRevolutionand Its
Color Guards,1915). TheNew YorkPublic
Library

dian princess,thesymbolofAmer- French(fig.12). Here,personifica-

ica (fig.9). On the "WhitePlains" tionsofthecontinents are grouped
flag,inscribed"Liberty or Death," in a darkroom,watchingand dis-
thelibertycap on itsstaff crosses cussingan illuminated magic-
witha sword.11 The cap became lanternpictureoftherevolution.

.EhII..
... .. .... .. ... .-..<
A

-._
so mucha symboloftherevolu-
tiontakingplace in Americathatin
France,when artistsengravedpor-
traitsofAmericanRevolutionary
In theprojectedimage,theIndian
princesson therightleads the
Americanattackon General
he-
Burgoyne'stroops,shownretreat-
roes such as GeorgeWashington, ingon theleft;she reachesupward
theyregularlyincludeda liberty to graspthelibertycap and rod
cap atop theframeas a symbolic thatare thrustfroman explosion
attribute (fig.10). On a 1779 in theteapotheatedbythefireof
Frenchmap showingtheterritory burningstampeddocuments.13
in whichtheAmericanRevolution As a symbol,thetypeofcap
was thentakingplace,an Indian used variedovertime.Sometimes
maidenholds thelibertycap (fig. itwas theroundtype,sometimes
11), and,in fact,thecap became a peaked;sometimesthemodel was
10 N Pruneau, GeorgeWashington,
standardgeographicaldesignation the"Phrygian cap" withitscharac-
late
1770s. Etching,6 1/8 x 4 3/8in. Library forAmericaon Frenchmaps.In teristic flipped-over tip.The
of Congress a Beauvaistapestry commissioned Phrygian cap can be tracedback to
by Louis XVI in 1783 as a giftto Greekart,in whichitwas used to
11 Th6tre de la GuerrePr~senteen GeorgeWashington, American
the representthepeople ofPhrygia, an
Amdrique,1779. LibraryofCongress flagpoleis toppedbytheliberty ancientcountryin AsiaMinor.By
cap.12 extension,itcame to standforany-
One of themostexcitingrepre- one fromexoticregionsnortheast
sentationsis an engravingbyCarl oftheAegeanSea, such as theTro-
Guttenberg of The Tea-Tax-Tempest, jan Parisl4-hence itspresencein
or theAnglo-American Revolution, thepaintingParisand Helen by
published in Parisin 1778,withti- JacquesLouisDavid (fig.13). In the
tlesin English,German,and ancientworld,theRomanpileus,

58 Fall 1987

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12 Carl Guttenberg,The Tea-Tax-Tempest,
1778. Etching,14 13/16 x 17 in. Emmet
Collection,Miriam& Ira D. WallachDivi-
sion ofArt,Prints& PhotographsDivision,
TheNew YorkPublicLibrary, Astor,Lenox
and TildenFoundations

J ~7'
72 \~ tle~ ~ tV2y

13 JacquesLouisDavid, Parisand Helen,

Salon of 1789. Oil on canvas,57 1/2 >
71 1/4in.Musdedu Louvre

roundor peaked,was theproper bles thePhrygian, itdoes notdupli-

cap to referto Romanmanumis-
sion. Over thecenturies,however,
theRomanshad representeda
rangeofpileus types,and although
thepeaked cap sometimesresem-
cate it,nor is one intendedto rep-
resenttheother.Furthermore, as
thecap ofEasternexotics,and thus
of"foreigners," thePhrygian cap of-
tenappearson foreigncaptives,

59 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt

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14 Seatedbarbariancaptive,Roman,antique
head withRenaissancebody.Breccia,
64 3/16in. high.Musdedu Louvre
23~ ~-
and as a resultcame to be a visual
symbolof theprisoner(fig.14). It
appearsthatin theeighteenth cen-
turythedistinction betweenthe
cap oftheseforeigncaptivesand
thepileus cap ofthefreedslave
was blurredthroughtheassocia-
tionofbothtypesofheadgearwith
enslavement, a confusionabetted
a
by plethoraof antiquecap types
on illustrated monuments.15 Thus,
thePhrygian cap,whilenotorigi-
nallya symbolof manumission, be-
came,through confusion with the
pileus,a symbolof liberty.
In spiteof itsvisibilityand sig-
nificance in the revolutionary era,
todaythelibertycap symbolhas al-
mosttotallypassed out ofthena-
tionalconsciousness,"buriednow
in theseals of theSenateand War
Office,"and in theseals ofsix
states,essentiallya residueofthe
colonialperiod.16MichaelKam-
men notesthattheAmerican"ob-
session"withlibertyremained
symbolsin thisperiod.) Severalde-
signswere prepared,including
one byan artist-consultant to the
committee, PierreEugeneDu
Simitiare.In Du Simitibre's design,
theGoddess ofLiberty, holding
her Phrygian libertycap on her
staff,joins a rifleman in buckskinin
supporting a central shield on
whichall thecoloniesas well as
thenationsoforiginoftheAmeri-
can populationare represented-a
magnificent concept(fig.15).
Jefferson,Adams,and Franklindif-
feredin theirideas fornarrative
content(FranklinsuggestedtheIs-
raelitessaved in crossingtheRed
Sea, AdamsproposedHercules
betweenVice and Virtue,and
Jefferson suggestedtheIsraelitesin
thewilderness),buttheLiberty
Goddesswiththecap was on all
theirdesigns.It is notsurprising
thatshe appearson thecomposite
drawingsubmittedin theCommit-
tee Reportof 10 Augustprepared

stronguntiltheearly1820s,when
/(?3> ~ itbegan to pass fromthecenterof
awareness,to be graduallysup-
plantedbyideals of "Peace and
Plenty."17AlthoughKammen's
view of thehistoryoftheliberty
V ideal is substantiallycorrect,fluc-
E~ .PL~JR1?,VS -~
tuationsand irregularities in repre-
sentationsofthesymbolicliberty
cap can be tracedto theperioddi-
15 PierreEughneDu Simitikre, designpro- rectlyfollowingtheclose ofthe
posal for theUnitedStatesseal, AmericanRevolution.For example,
1776.
LibraryofCongress ifone followsthedevelopmentof
thelibertycap on one ofthemost
important nationaldesigns,thatof
theGreatSeal of theUnited
States,
one can watchitvanish.
On 4 July1776 theContinental
Congressassigneda committee
composed of none otherthan
BenjaminFranklin, JohnAdams,
and ThomasJefferson, all ofwhom
had been on thedrafting commit-
tee of theDeclarationof Indepen-
dence,to develop a seal forthe
newlyunitedstates.(The date on
whichthismatterwas takenup un-
derlinestheimportanceofvisual
byJefferson.18
The committee's proposedseal,
however,was notadopted.The
matterwas takenup againbyCon-
gressin March1779 and assigned
to a new committee. The designsof
thiscommittee, presentedin 1779
and againwithmodifications in
1780,also gave prominenceto Lib-
erty,majestically seated,her cap
now surroundedbyrays(fig.16);
thesedesigns,too,were rejected.
Passingoversome additional,un-
successfulprojects-Congresswas
veryhardto please-we come to
theseriesofdesignsbyWilliam
Barton.BartonreplacedtheLiberty
Goddesswiththe"GeniusofAmer-
ica,"representedas a maidenwith
a radiantcrown,buthe retained
theliberty cap,held byan eagle;
on anotherofhis designsthecap
appearsatop thecrest.'9Finally,
on 20 June1782,Congressadopted
a designthatin all essentialele-
mentsis thesame as our Great
Seal today.It incorporates some of
Barton'sideas,butincludesmodifi-

60 Fall 1987

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16 WilliamBarton,designproposalfor the
UnitedStatesseal, 1782. Libraryof
Congress
~: ~
-4,
K ~--~J~
;fJ~
-4
~
Q~~DVAXY ~
)?;}~~9
V i~ee~B
cationsbyCharlesThomson,the
secretaryof Congress.On thisfinal,
approveddesign,however,thelib-
ertycap has disappeared(fig.17).
17 UnitedStatesseal designadoptedbyCon- Thisearlydisappearanceofthe
gressin 1782. LibraryofCongress
libertycap and goddess on theseal
oftheUnitedStateswas paralleled
18 Augustin LibertasAmericana,1783. in otherinstances.Whiletheliberty
Dupr~,
1 7/8in. diam. BostonPublicLibrary
cap held byan Indianmaidenwas
a significantfeatureofthePhiladel-
phia Light Horse Regimentflagof
1775, when the regimentadopteda
new flagin 1797,thenewericonog-
raphyofpower,witheagle and
rays,replacedthecap.20
A studyofthelibertycap on
Americancoinageoffersa some-
whatdifferent picture.In 1783,the
FrenchartistAugustinDupr&,at
thebehestofBenjaminFranklin,
struckthecommemorative medal
Libertas Americana (fig.18), on
whichthedate oftheDeclaration
of Independenceappears.Itwas
feltat thetimethatthetechniques
and artistryforcreatinga fine
61 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
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medalwere notpresentin Amer-
ica,
hence theselectionof a French
medalist.Althoughhe did notspell
"July" in English(one wonders
why,whenhe had Franklinrightat
hand),Dupr6,withhisyoung,far-
seeinggoddess,her hairflowing
back unconventionally,
certainly
capturedthespiritofAmericanlib-
erty.LibertasAmericana,as dis-
cussed below,was thesource of
theconceptionofLiberty on Ameri-
can coins.21A trueneoclassicist,
Dupr6 representsthelibertycap of
theroundedpileustypeatop the
staff.
Dupr6,"le plus parfaitinter-
pratedes idees ambiantes,"22dem-
onstratedin thismedal his talent
forgivingvisualexpressionto the
contemporary idea offreedom.
The goddess'shair,unboundand
flowingin thewind-in contrastto
theelaboratestiltedand powdered
of "real"hairstylesin
artificiality
thislate-eighteenth-centurype-

19 TetradrachmshowingMithradates VI
EupatorDionysos(120-63 B.c.) TheBrit-
ishMuseum
20 ThefirstAmericanpatterndime,1792.
SmithsonianInstitution
riod-is a visualmetaphorforlib- theinfluenceofDupr6'smedal is
erty.Dupr6's inventionwas based unmistakable, butsomethinghad
upon thereinterpretation ofa mo- been lost:Liberty's hair,seen flow-
tiffromclassicalartin whichun- ingin thewindon themedal,here
loosed hairwas used to express looks moreas ifitwere standing
Dionysiacliberation.Thismotifcan on end.As one complainingreader
be seen on twoantiquecoins from wroteto a newspaper,"Liberty...
whichDupr6 probablyderivedin- appearsto be in a fright."28
spiration: a Hellenistic tetradrachm It is puzzlingto notethat,in
ofMithradates VI,whose given spiteofthedebtto Dupr6,thelib-
name,Dionysos,probablyinspired ertycap and staff thathe had in-
theexceptionally freetreatment of cluded are omittedon the 1792
his hair(fig.19), and a fourth- dime (see fig.20), as well as on the
B.C.
century gold stater of the cityof cent and halfdime.The reasonfor
Lampsacus witha flowing-haired the cap's disappearanceseems to
a female of lie in thesensitivity
maenad, follower duringthispe-
Dionysos.23 Specific details of the riod to the major issue threatening
Mithradatic coiffure,includingthe union:slaveryand theemancipa-
bunchingsof hairalong theside of tionoftheslaves.Since theend of
thefaceand theshort,wayward theRevolutionary Warin 1783,the
lock at thetop,seem to havebeen mostpressingissue was thatof
incorporatedintoLibertasAmeri- union,and unionmeantaccommo-
cana. The strandsof hairon thefar dationwiththeslave-holding
side oftheneckcurlingforward South.Althoughthenationhad re-
acrossthethroatowe moreto the centlyemerged-miraculously,
coin ofLampsacus.Thus,two manyfelt-fromtheconstitutional
strainsof liberationiconography battlesand compromisesof 1787,it
fromantiquity-that ofthespiritu- had become quiteclearduring
allyliberating god Dionysosand thesestrugglesthatthemajor
thatof Romanmanumissionwith threatto unionwas theconflict be-
itscap and staff-arebroughtto- tweenNorthand Southoverthe
getherbyDupr6 inLibertasAmeri- slaveryissue.As Madisonsuccinctly
cana to expresseighteenth-centuryobservedduringthe 1787 Constitu-
aspirationsofpoliticalliberation. tionalConvention, "The real differ-
Duprd'sversionofLibertas ence ofinterests lay,notbetween
Americanaservedas a model for large& small,butbetweenThe N.
thefirstdimes(fig.20) and cents and Southn.States.The institution
struckbytheUnitedStates Mint of slavery& itsconsequences
upon its establishment in 1792.24 formedtheline ofdiscrimina-
The presenceofLiberty on the tion."29 VirginianPatrickHenry,
coins owes muchto George speaking from the southernpoint
who
Washington, resisted, as too of view, shared this awarenessof
the
monarchical, placement of his the issue's central importance.30
portrait on thecoins and urgedin- Againstthisbackground, itis not
steadan emblemofLiberty.25 surprising thatthe new federal
SinceWashington owned Duprd's mintmayhavepreferred forits
LibertasAmericanamedal-Martha first coinage generalizedand in-
a
Washington showed it to a visitorat spirational goddesswithflowing
MountVernon26-hemayalso hairoveranydepictionsofthecap
havesuggesteditas a model,al- and staff, withtheirconcreteand
though the medal was well known specific references to thefreeingof
at thetime(Franklindistributed ex- slaves,even ancientRomanslaves.
amplesof itliberallyamongimpor- The ideationallinkbetweenthe
tantAmericans).27 On thedime, Liberty Goddess,withhersymbols

62 Fall 1987

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
21 SamuelJennings, GeniusofAmericaEn-
couragingtheEmancipation oftheBlacks,
1790-92. Oilon canvas,60 1/4 x 73 1/8in.
TheLibraryCompanyofPhiladelphia,Ridg-
wayLibrary
63
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
of Romanmanumission, and the
cause ofemancipationoftheAmeri-
can slaveswas well establishedby
thetimeof the 1792 dime.The first
abolitionistpaintingmade byan
Americanis theGeniusofAmerica
EncouragingtheEmancipationof
theBlacks (1790-92; fig.21) by
SamuelJennings, a Philadelphia
abolitionist.Here,theAmerican
"genius" is theLibertyGoddess
withher staff and cap, leaningto-
wardtheslaveswho payhomage
beforeher.In thisallegory,Liberty
restswithher elbow on learning,
representedbythebook cata-
logues ofthePhiladelphiaFree Li-
braryCompany,whichcommis-
sioned thepainting.3'The library,
whichhad been foundedby
BenjaminFranklin, was largelysup-
portedbyQuakersduringthis
period.The imageoftheLiberty
Goddess learningforwardwas an
innovativedeparturefromtradi-
tion.Insteadofshowinga majestic
or beleagueredfigure, Jennings,in-
spiredbythestrength ofhis convic-
tions,endowed theancientgoddess
witha new quality-compassion.
SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
His inventivedepictiondrewupon
thevisualvocabularyof Roman
manumissionas well as a tradition
of representationsoftheVirgin
Mary thatoriginatedin theworkof
Caravaggio, whose Virgin,ap-
proachedbyworshippersofthe
mosthumbleclassesofsociety,re-
spondsbymovingtowardthem
and byrecognizingthemwithher
gaze.32
Whilewarinesswithregardto
thespecificmeaningoftheliberty
cap mayhavebeen a factorin its
omissionfromthefirst federal
coins,subsequentcoins reinstated
thecap alongthelinesofDuprd's
medal,showingthestaff toppedby
thecap slantedbehindtheshoulder
ofthegoddess.3 In 1796,Liberty
is seen wearingthecap,and this
imageremaineda majormotifon
Americancoinsthroughout the
nineteenth century,competition
fromdiademedLibertiesand other
coin typesnotwithstanding.34In
1836,a seatedLiberty withshield
and pole toppedbycap was intro-
duced as a patterncoin,afterwhich
othercoinswould be modeled.35

22 AugustinDuprd,medal commemorating
theestablishment oftheMayoralityofParis,
1789. 2 1/16 in. diam. Cabinetdes
Nationale,Paris
Midailles,Bibliothbque
64
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The cap was explicitly rejected,
however,in thedevelopmentofa
majorsculpturalmonument, thefig-
ure ofLibertyatop thedome ofthe
UnitedStatesCapitol.ThomasCraw-
ford,theneoclassicalsculptorof
theproject,plannedin 1854 to in-
clude theclassicalsymbolofthe
cap, althoughhe anticipatedcor-
rectlythatanti-abolitionistJefferson
Davis,servingas secretary ofwar
underPresidentFranklin
Pierce,
mightobjectto it.In his completed
sculpture,Crawfordreplacedthe
cap witha helmet,followingthe
tactfulbutfirmsuggestionofDavis,
on whomhe was ultimately depen-
dentforhis Capitolcommis-
sions.36Similarly,forhis bronze
doors oftheCapitol,Crawfordre-
visedhis plans to place a cap on
thehead of theallegoricalfigureof
History, havingbeen toldthatthe
secretary ofwar "does notlikethe
cap of libertyintroducedintothe
composition;thatAmericanliberty
is original,and notthelibertyof
thefreedslave."37
Althoughappreciationofthe
cap's truemeaningwaned as itssig-
nificanceforAmericawas rejected,
thecap imagepersistedon coins
duringthenineteenthcentury. Its
stayingpowerprobablywas due
to theinherentconventionalism of
coin images,whichowe theirac-
ceptabilitylargelyto theirtradition-
alism.In 1879,"inreplyto thequery
whatis this'stickwitha nightcap
on it'whichtheFrenchladyholds
on our tradedollar,"RobertMorris
citedRomansourcesas an explana-
tion.38In 1905,TheodoreRoose-
veltwroteto AugustusSaint-
Gaudensduringtheperiodthey
were developingideas fora new
coinage:"Ifwe get down to bed-
rockfacts,would the[Indian]
featherhead-dressbe anymoreout
ofkeepingwiththerestofLiberty
thanthecanonicalcap whichnever
is wornand neverhad been worn
byanyfreepeople in theworld?"
The unmistakable irritationRoose-
Fall 1987
veltand Saint-Gaudens feltfor
theworn-outsymbolof thecap,
alongwiththeirsentiments for
"our Liberty-notwhattheancient
Greeksand Romansmiscalledby
signaledtheend of
thattitle,"39
theliberty cap as a meaningful
Americanimage.Liberty lastwears
thecap on thedouble-eaglepat-
ternof 1906,supplantedin 1907 by
thedesignof Saint-Gaudens.40His
new full-length Liberty, seen fron-
taland on high,likethefigureof
Victory,does notevenweartheIn-
dian headdressas originally con-
ceived:herhairflowsfreelyin the
wind.41Thus,Saint-Gaudens ar-
rivedat a new transmutation of
Duprd'sinspiredmetaphor of
liberty.
As we haveseen,thecap held
bythe"Frenchlady"was actually
Americanbeforeitwas French,al-
thoughitsloss ofimportancein
theAmericansymbolicrepertoire
and itspersistenceabroadhave
made itappearto be specifically
French.Frenchartists, accustomed
to usingtheliberty cap to referto
theAmericanRevolution, found
thesymbolconveniently on hand
to servetheFrenchcause,starting
withtheearliestrevolutionary
eventsof 1789.In thesummerof
thatyear,Dupr6 commemorated
theestablishment oftheMayoralty
ofPariswithan imageofLibertas
leaningon a column,herstaff
toppedbya libertycap (fig.22).42
WhereasDupr6 had used the
roundpileus forthe 1783 cap of
LibertasAmericana,in 1789 he
gaveLiberty a floppy-tipped
Phyrgian cap. It is thePhrygian cap
thatbecame thequintessential
Frenchlibertycap.
Thatsame summer,therewere
severaldifferent typesof caps in
use forthesymbolin France,just
as therewere in thecourseofthe
AmericanRevolution. Amongthe
sixtybattalion of
flags Lafayette's Pa-
risianNationalGuardinJune1789,
differentstylesofcaps are ren-
23 HubertRobert,The VaultoftheQuai de
Gesvres,1773. India inkheightened
with
watercolor,18 1/8 x 22 1/16in.Musde
Carnavalet,Paris
65
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
dered withthesame symbolic
meaning.43 Whydid Dupr6 switch
fromthepileus he had used for
LibertasAmericanato thesoft-
tippedPhrygian cap forthenewly
emergingFrenchLiberty? In ren-
deringthefloppy-tipped cap, the
artistwas alludingto thestocking
cap commonlywornat thattimeby
Frenchworkingmen (fig.23). Al-
thoughthelatterclingscloserto
thehead at thetop and breaksin a
straighterline thanthesewn and
tailoredPhrygian cap, thecommon
people of France readilyidentified
thePhrygian cap with theliberty
cap. Then,too,Dupr6 had direct
knowledgeof antiquecoins and
reliefsdepictingcaptiveswiththe
Phrygian cap, and he would have
knownfirsthand theLouvre's
monumentalRomanhead of a cap-
tive,whose Phrygian cap maywell
havebeen a visualarchetypefor
thelibertycap (see fig.14).
Dupr6 was probablyalso influ-
enced bya paintingcompletedthat
verysummerof 1789 byhis friend
JacquesLouisDavid. In Parisand
Helen (see fig.13), David ex-
pressedthroughhis mythological
SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
subjectmatterthenarcissismand
evasionof dutybytheFrenchmon-
archyon theeve oftherevolution.
In thispainting, whichwas placed
on exhibitinAugust,Pariswears
thePhrygian cap. Whenone consid-
ers thepaintingas a politicalalle-
gory,however,thecap becomes a
symbolofburgeoningliberty.44
Justas thecap ofParismaywell
havebeen an influenceon Duprd,
Duprd'sworkwiththelibertycap
mayhavehelped David develophis
symbolictreatment of libertyin
Parisand Helen. In additionto the
use ofPhrygian caps,othersimilari-
tiesbetweenthepose and drapery
ofHelen and thatofDupr6's 1789
Libertysupporta viewofclose com-
municationbetweenthesetwo
friendsand artists.
Thus,thePhrygian cap as a sym-
bol ofFrenchliberationcan be
seen as a synthesis oftradition and
ofa willto makecontemporary
ideas offreedomvisuallyvivid.The
Phrygian libertycap was particu-
larlymeaningful in Francebecause
of itsresemblanceto thecap worn
byFrenchworkingmen. Revolution-
ariesofthetimewell appreciated
 :~-"'c`
24 Tablewithrevolutionary
motifs (detail),
ca. 1793. MusdeCarnavalet,Paris

25 DeclarationoftheRightsofManand the
Citizen,decreedin August1789 bythe
Assemblde Nationale,1793. Gouache on
paper.FromtheHall oftheConvention,
whereitwasplaced behindthe
Tuilleries,
chairofthePresidentoftheConvention.
MusdeCarnavalet,Paris

26 Libert6Frangoise,1792. Publishedin
A.L.
Millin,Histoirem~talliquede la R~volu-
tionfrangaise(Paris:Imprimdrie Royale,
1806),plate 17, no. 66

theimportanceofeffective images whilethefirst Americancoinselimi-

forconveyingrevolutionary ideas
to thosewho could notread.45 From
thisamalgamoftherespectedpast
and thepressingpresenta symbol
developed thatspoke powerfully in
itstimeand thathas persistedto
L (sWQ3:1i( our own time.
Duringthecourse oftheFrench
Revolution, thecap withitsflop-
pingtip was seen everywhere-on
on furniture(fig.24), on
ri. plaques,
<
. !:.. .: , .
DE.LAE tea sets,as partoftheofficial
Jacobincostume,surmounting the
treeofliberty, and atop theDecla-
rationoftheRightsofMan (fig.25).
on the
Itwas also seen, satirically,
heads ofLouisXVIand Marie
27 rue de
"Caveau de la Rdpublique"poster,
Richelieu,Paris,1985
Antoinette shortlybeforetheymet
theirend at thehandsoftherevolu-
tion.46The French,too,adapted
Duprd'sLibertasAmericanafora
revolutionary medal in 1792,but
natedthecap,theFrenchversion
maintainedit(fig.26). Nordid the
Frencheverabandonit.The later
storyofthelibertycap in France
has been well toldbyMaurice
Agulhon.47 As he has shown,its
radicalmeaningwas tamed,notas
in America,bybeingforgotten, but
bybeing transformed: by 1800, the
goddess and thecap had shed their
connotations oflibertyand became
insteadsymbolicoftherepublic.It
is as an attributeofthepersonified
republicthatthePhrygian cap has
survivedand proliferated in France.
We findthecap todayidentifying
thestateon nationalcoinsand post-
age stamps.Callingto mindthean-
cientSaturnalia, iteven advertisesa
contemporary Parisiannightclub
(fig.27).

Notes
1 MauriceAgulhon, Marianne intoBat-
tle:RepublicanImageryand Symbol-
ismin France,1789-1880, trans.Janet
Lloyd(Cambridge,England:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1981),providesan ex-
cellentoverviewofthedevelopmentof
thesymbolismin France,butdoes not
traceitsoriginsor thewayin whichit
was introduced. 1789:
JeanStarobinski,
TheEmblemsofReason,trans.Barbara
Bray(Charlottesville:UniversityPress
ofVirginia, 1982),focusingon images
involving light,does nottreatthelib-
ertycap. The symbolicenvironment of
colonialAmericais describedby
JoshuaTaylor, Americaas Art(Washing-

66 Fall 1987

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ton,D.C.: NationalCollectionof Fine
Arts[now NMAA], Smithsonian Institu-
tionPress,1976),pp. 3-35.
2 SalvatoreTondo,Aspetti
symbolicie
giuridicadella
magicinella struttura
manumissiovindicata(Milan:A.
Giuffrk,1967),withbibliography;
ThomasWiedemann,Greekand Ro-
man Slavery(Baltimoreand London:
JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press,1981),
p. 50 andpassim.
3 For therelief,see B. Vande Walleet al.,
Lesantiquitis6gyptiennes, gr&cques,
4truscques,romainsetgallo-romaines
du Musdedu Mariemont(Brussels:Edi-
tionsde la LibrairieEncyclop~dique,
1952),p. 138;Tondo,Aspetti
symbolici,
pp. 6, 14,47 n. 19, 145 n. 8, 171;and
reviewbyJ.-H.Michel,Latomus27
(1968): 471-73. For an opposinginter-
pretation,see G. Villein Latomus22
(1963): 14-30.
4 M. Myers,
Jr.,"Libertasin theRoman
ImperialCoinage,"NumismaticReview
(1977): 2-6.
5 AndrewAlfoldi,"TheMainAspectsof
PoliticalPropagandaon theCoinageof
theRomanRepublic,"inRoman Coin-
age: EssaysPresentedto Harold Mat-
tingly(Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,1956),pp. 63-95, 91f.;Harry
Stein,"Brutusand theBackgroundof
His Coinage,"Numismatist 52 (1940):
157-64.
6 Althoughdefinitions are usuallyaccu-
ofthecap in some
rate,illustrations
earlydictionariesdeviatesignificantly
fromtheancientcharacterofthe
pileus--a 1766 editionofRipa's
iconology[Iconologia del Cavaliere
CesareRipa,ed. C. Orlandi,vol. 4
(Perugia:Piergiovanni Constantini,
1766),pp. 30f.],forexample,showsthe
cap as a low-crownedhatwithbroad
brimslightly upturnedat therim,an
eighteenth-century style.More usually,
bytheeighteenthcentury, Libertaswith
illustrated
her cap is appropriately by
an engravingofa Romanmedal or
coin,as inJosephSpence's influential
book on antiquities,Polymetis (London:
R. Dodsley,1747),pl. 22 (no. 3).
7 EdwinJ.Hipkiss,"The Paul RevereLib-
ertyBowl,"Bulletinofthe[Boston]Mu-
seum ofFineArts47 (June1949): 19ff.;
ElbridgeHenryGoss, TheLifeofColo-
nel Paul Revere,vol. 1 (Boston:J.A.
Gripples,1891),p. 63.
8 ForWilkes'sinfluencein Americaand
his correspondencewiththeSons of
Liberty, C. Ford,ed.,
see Worthington
67 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
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"JohnWilkesand Boston,"Massachu-
settsHistoricalSocietyProceedings47
(January1914): 120-215; G. M. Elsey,
ed., "JohnWilkesand WilliamPalfrey,"
Colonial SocietyofMassachusetts Trans-
actions34 (1941): 411-28. Enthusiastic
radicalsnamedchildrenand geographi-
cal sitesafterWilkes.
9 For therelationshipbetweenHogarth
and Wilkes,see RonaldPaulson,
Hogarth:His Life,Artand Times,vol. 2
(New Yorkand London:PhaidonPress,
1971),pp. 367-99.
10 ArleneM. Palmer,A Winterthur Guide
to ChineseExportPorcelain(New York:
Crown,1976),pp. 84f.;David Howard
andJohnAyers,Chinafor theWest, vol.
1 (Londonand NewYork:Sotheby
ParkeBernet,1978),p. 244; FrancisHill
Bigelow,HistoricSilveroftheColonies
and ItsMakers(New York:Macmillan,
in
1931),p. 423,notesthesimilarity
shape ofthebowls.
11 See WilliamRea Furlong,So Proudly
WeHail: TheHistoryoftheUnited
StatesFlag (Washington, D.C.: Smithso-
nianInstitution Press,1981); George
HenryPrebble,HistoryoftheFlag of
theUnitedStatesofAmerica,4thed.
(Boston:HoughtonMifflin, 1894);
EdwardW. Richardson, Standardsand
ColorsoftheAmericanRevolution
of Pennsylva-
(Philadelphia:University
nia Pressand thePennsylvania Society
ofSons oftheRevolutionand itsColor
Guard,1982); F. E. Schermerhorn,
Americanand FrenchFlags oftheRevo-
lution,2 vols.(Philadelphia:Pennsylva-
nia SocietyofSons oftheRevolution,
1948); RichardS. Patterson and Richard-
son Dougall,TheEagle and theShield:
A HistoryoftheGreatSeal oftheUnited
States(Washington, D.C.: HistoricalOf-
fice,BureauofPublicAffairs, Dept. of
State,1976);FirstTroopPhiladelphia
CityCavalry,1774-1914 (Philadel-
phia:Hallowell,1915); and Arthur M.
Schlesinger,"Liberty Tree:A Geneal-
ogy,"NewEngland Quarterly25 (De-
cember1952): 435-38.
12 Furlong,So ProudlyWeHail, p. 151,
fig.117.
13 E. McClungFleming,"TheAmericanIm-
age as IndianPrincess," Port-
Winterthur
folio 2 (1965): 65-81.
14 GerardSeiterle,"Die Urform der
phrygischen Miitze,"AntikeWelt16,no.
3 (1985): 2-13.
15 A rareacknowledgment ofthisconfu-
sion is offeredbyFrangoiseVerne,
"Representation et Symbolismede la
 R~publique sur les monnaies et
m~dailles," Monnaies et midailles
racontant l'histoirede France (Paris:
Hotel de la Monnaie, 1972), p. 309. I
to G. B. Clarkeand
am grateful
R.
Wrigleyforcomments,in personalcom-
munications,on this lack of clarity.
16 Ernest Lehner, American Symbols (New
York: W. Penn, 1957), p. 7.
17 Michael Kammen, A Season of Youth:
The American Revolution and theHis-
torical Imagination (New York: Knopf,
1978), pp. 96f. I am gratefulto Martin
Haas for this reference. For analysis of
differentconceptions of libertyin Amer-
ica, and the tension between civil and
political liberty,see Kammen, Spheres
of Liberty:Changing Perceptions of Lib-
ertyin American Culture (Madison:
Universityof Wisconsin Press, 1986).
18 Patterson and Dougall, The Eagle and
the Shield, pp. 25-27; no reason for the
rejection was reported.
19 Ibid., pp. 56-64, illus. 7, 8. The iconog-
raphy of the radiant crown of Libertyw,
tentativelyexpressed in the seal de-
signs, received its best-known fulfill-
ment in Auguste Bartholdi's 1886
Statue of Liberty(La libert66clairant le
monde). For the sources and develop-
ment of Bartholdi's imagery,see
Marvin Trachtenberg, The Statue of Lib-
erty(New York: Viking, 1986).
20 First Troop Philadelphia CityCavahy,
pp. 247f.
21 The medal commemorates Washing-
ton's victories at Saratoga and York-
town; J. F. Loubat, The Medallic History'
of the United States of America, 1776-
1876, vol. 1 (New York:J. F. Loubat,
1878), pp. 86-94, pl. 14;James Ross
Snowden, The Medallic Memorials of
Washington in theMint of the United
States (Philadelphia: Lippincott,1861),
p. 105; and W. T. Marvin,"Engravers of
RevolutionaryMedals," American Jour-
nal of Numismatics 28 (July 1893): 1-
5. See these sources for other medals
Dupr6 did at Franklin's request during
this period; Franklin,living at Passy,
knew Dupr6 personally.
22 Charles Saunier, Augustin Duprd (Paris:
Soci~tdde Propagation des livres d'arts,
1894), p. 18.
23 Agnes Baldwin, "The Gold Staters of
Lampsacus," American Journal of Nu-
mismatics 52 (1924): 17, 23f.,pl. 1, nos.
32-35 and pl. 2, nos. 1-4. J. P. Six, in
Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of
theNumismatic Society 8 (1888): 11,
68 Fall 1987
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
suggests the maenad may represent
Olympias, mother of Alexander the
Great, said to have been a follower of
an orgiastic Dionysos cult (Plutarch
Alexander 2-3). For coins of
MithradatesVI, see Colin M. Kraay and
Max Hirmer, Greek Coins (New York:
Abrams, 1966), pp. 376f. The inspired
mien of MithradatesVI is derived from
coins of Alexander the Great who, how-
ever, is always shown helmeted; thus,
the loosed hair is specificallyassociated
with representations of MithradatesVI
Eupator Dionysos: the ivyvine on the
reverse is a reference to Dionysos.
24 Cornelius Vermeule, Numismatic Artin
America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
UniversityPress, 1971), pp. 9f. For the
development of the mintand early coin-
age see Don Taxay, The US. Mint and
Coinage (New York: Arco, 1966), pp.
65-78; also, J. HewittJudd and A.
Kosoff,United States Pattern,Experi-
mental and Trial Pieces, 7th ed. (Ra-
cine, Wisc.: Western,1982).
25 Snowden, Medallic Memorials of Wash-
ington, pp. 13f.The Senate proposed
to place the president on the coins,
while the House of Representatives,
probably responding to pressure from
Washington,decided on "an impres-
sion emblematic of Liberty,"and the
Senate then concurred.
26 For the visit made in 1797, see Julian
UrsynNiemcewicz, "A Visit to Mount
Vernon," trans.Metchie J. E. Budka,
American Heritage 16 (1965): 68f.
27 See Franklin's correspondence regard-
ing the medal in Loubat, Medallic His-
pp. 87-92. In addition to sending
tor,,
the medal to American politicians,
Franklin,in France, gave gold
exemplaires to Louis XVI and to Marie
Antoinette,and to the Grand Master of
Malta.
28 Boston Argus, 27 March 1793, p. 2.
29 Madison speech, 14 July1787, in The
Records of the Federal Convention of
1787, ed. Max Farrand, vol. 2 (New
Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1966),
p. 10.
30 PatrickHenry to the Virginia Constitu-
tional Convention, 24 June 1787: "I
deny thatthe general government
ought to set them [the slaves] free, be-
cause a decided majorityof the states
have not the ties of sympathyand fel-
low feeling for those whose interests
would be affectedby their emancipa-
tion. The majorityof Congress is to the
north,and the slaves are to the south";
 Jonathan Elliot, ed., The Debates in the
several State Conventions on the adop-
tion of the Federal Constitution as rec-
ommended by the General Convention
in Philadelphia in 1787, vol. 2 (Wash-
ington, D.C.: Jonathan Elliot, 1836),
p. 590.
31 See Library Company Minutes, vol. 3,
pp. 195ff.,206f.,225, 293, 299, 310,
313f.; From Colony to Nation (Chicago:
The ArtInstitute,1949), pp. 51 and 58,
no. 71; Robert C. Smith, "LibertyDis-
playing the Artsand Sciences-A Phila-
delphia Allegory by Samuel Jennings,"
WinterthurPortfolio 2 (1965): 84-104;
and Edwin Wolf and Marie Kerey, eds.,
Quarter of a Millennium (Philadelphia:
LibraryCompany of Philadelphia,
1981), no. 64.
32 For the Madonna of Loreto by
Caravaggio, in the Cavaletti Chapel,
Church of Sant'Agostino, Rome, see Al-
fred Moir, Caravaggio (New York:
Abrams, 1982), p. 120. colorplate 29.
33 Illustrations in Taxay, The US. Mint, pp.
112f.;Vermeule, Numismatic Art,p. 28;
and Judd and Kosoff,United States Pat-
tern, pp. 14f.
34 Illustrations in Taxay, pp. 110f.,175;
Vermeule, p. 32, 42; and Judd and
Kosoff,pp. 16ff.,30f.
Discussed and illustrated in Taxay, pp.
35
170-76; Vermeule, pp. 40f.,44-49; and
Judd and Kosoff,pp. 20-24.
36 Robert L. Gale, Thomas Crawford:
American Sculptor (Pittsburgh:Univer-
sityof PittsburghPress, 1964), pp. 150,
155 and passim; see Artin the United
States Capitol (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government PrintingOffice, 1976),
frontispiece and pp. 354, 408.
37 Montgomery C. Meigs writingto Craw-
ford,4 April1854,quoted in Gale,
Thomas Crawford, p. 124.
38 "The LibertyCap on American Coins,"
American Journal of Numismatics 12
(1879): 52ff.
For the correspondence between Roo-
39
sevelt and Saint-Gaudens, see Taxay,
The US. Mint, pp. 308-29 (quotations
are from letters from Roosevelt, 14 No-
vember 1905 [Taxay, p. 309] and 14
March 1906 [Taxay, p. 313]). See also
the discussion and bibliography in
John H. Dryfhout,The Work of Augus-
tus Saint-Gaudens (Hanover, N.H.: Uni-
69 SmithsonianStudiesin AmericanArt
This content downloaded from 91.229.229.162 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 13:09:10 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
versityPress of New England, 1982),
pp. 280-87.
40 Illus. Judd and Kosoff,United States Pat-
tern,p. 210.
41 For the evolution of the twenty-dollar
gold piece from plaster model to regu-
lar issue, see Dryfhout,The Work of Au-
gustus Saint-Gaudens, pp. 283-85;
Vermeule, pp. 111-19; Judd and Kosoff,
pp. 210-14; see also illustrationsin
Taxay, pp. 320 and 324.
42 Jean Babelon and Josephe Jacquiot,
Histoire de Paris d'aprEs les midailles
de la Renaissance au XXKL si?cle (Paris:
Imprimerie national de France, 1952),
illus. 189, p. 96; Aubin Louis Millin de
Grandmaison Histoire mitallique de la
Rdvolutionfrangaise (Paris: L'impri-
merie imp~riale, 1806), illus. 23,
pp. 13f.
43 For all of the flags,see Raymond Augus-
tinVielh de Varennes, Collection des
drapeaux faits dans les soixantes dis-
trictsde Paris enJuillet 1789 (Paris,
1789-1790), and idem, Collection
entikredes drapeaux de l'armie
nationale parisienne (Paris, 1790).
44 Yvonne Korshak, "Paris and Helen by
Jacques Louis David: Choice and Judg-
ment on the Eve of the French Revolu-
tion," The ArtBulletin 69 (March 1987):
102-16.
45 PhreDuchesne makes this point em-
phatically in theJournal de Paris, Sup-
plement au no 312, 8 November 1789,
p. 1451.
46 Journde des Sans-Culottes, anonymous
engraving, 10 June 1792, illustrated in
Encyclopddie par l'image, La Rdvolu-
tionfrangaise (Paris: Librairie
Hachette, 1924), p. 31. The beginning
of the wearing of the cap and its sym-
bolic meaning in 1792 is described in
Rdvolutions de Paris 141 (17-24 March
1792): 534-37; cf. E. H. Gombrich,
"The Dream of Reason: Symbolism of
the French Revolution,"BritishJournal
for Eighteenth-CenturyStudies 2
(1979): 196-99. John Goldworth Alger,
"English Actors in the French Revolu-
tion,"Edinburgh Review 166, pp. 448-
51, presents the view, not otherwise
taken up, that ideas of Robert Pigott
were responsible for the adoption of
the cap as an article of dress; I am grate-
ful to David Erdman for this reference.
47 Cited in note 1.