MODULE 2 : ERRORS AND ACCURACY IN ASTRO NAVIGATION

1. Introduction

An error is the difference between a specific value and a correct or

standard value. Standard is something established by custom,
agreement or authority as a basis for comparison.
A mistake is a blunder such as incorrect reading of an instrument, the
taking of a wrong value of a table, etc.

In astro-navigation mistakes and errors combined will lead to incorrect

LOP’s (line of positions) and finally to an incorrect fix.

Current mistakes in astro navigation are:

• incorrect reading of the instrument
• incorrect reading of the time (chronometer)
• plotting of a reciprocal bearing
• incorrect reading of pre-computed tables and almanac
• incorrect input in computer programs
• incorrect computing (calculator)

Current errors are:

• altitude errors
• time error (non calibrated chronometer)
• ambiguity

We can also make a difference between systematic and random errors.

A systematic error is more or less eliminated by careful calibration of the

used instrument (sextant, chronometer). In most cases, a systematic
error ends up to be a constant error (e.g. index error of sextant).

A random error is a chance error, unpredictable in sign or magnitude.

They are governed by the laws of probability and therefore sometimes
called standard errors or standard deviation.

As mistakes can easily be rectified by cross checking and proper

measurement of constant errors, random errors doesn’t.

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In such we consider in depth the random errors in this chapter.

2. Altitude error

Observed altitudes always contain random errors caused by heavy seas,

abnormal atmospheric refraction, limited optical resolution of the human
eye, sharpness of the visible horizon, etc.
The standard deviation of an altitude is approx. 1’ under fair working
conditions but increase to several arc minutes as the circumstances
worsen.
Lines op position become indistinct and are better considered as bands
of position.

In the next figure EP= estimated position

Nv
LOP 1

FIX

EP

LOP 2

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Two intersecting bands of position define an area of position (ellipse of
uncertainty). This area is smallest if the angle between the bands is 90°.
The most probable position is at the centre of the area., provided the
error distribution is symmetrical.

Counter measures:

• When observing celestial bodies, the azimuths should have roughly

symmetrical distribution (bearing spread). E.g. 6 celestial
observations of 6 different celestial bodies: 360°/6 = 60° difference
in azimuth.
• The optimum range of altitudes are between 20° and 70° in order
to decrease the influence of abnormal refraction (random error)
and position circles with small diameters (geometric errors).

3. Time error

Time error has a direct effect on the intercept as inaccurate GHA and
are obtained from the Nautical Almanac. In the formulae these errors are
engraved resulting in an inaccurate intercept and thus a LOP not
corresponding with the reality.
The figure below shows the effect:

INCORRECT LOP

LOP

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The error in time has a direct impact on the obtained longitude (red line
DE in figure).

Q
Pn
A B
D

Ps
Q’

If we make an error in time, we suppose the celestial body is in C while

in reality, with the correct time, the body is in A. In such a difference in
LHA will occur and so in longitude.
ZA is the zenith distance as well as ZC. ZB = ZA.

In triangle ZCPn we have:

ZPn = co-latitude, PnC (= PnA) = polar distance, CZPn = azimuth,
ZPnC= polar angle

sin C sin Az
------- = --------
sin col sin ∆

So, sin C = cos l x sin Az x sec δ

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In triangle ABC:
Angle B = 90°
BC = ZB – ZC = ZA – ZC (ZA = ZB)
AC = DE x cos δ

Angle C = 90° - angle C (of triangle ZCPn)

We can consider triangle ABC being small so we can apply :

A B
cos C = BC/AC
cos C = cos l x sin Az x secδ
AC = DE x cosδ

From the 3 equations we find :

BC = AC x cos C = DE x cos l x sin Az

DE = BC x sec l x cosec Az C
BC = difference in zenith distance = ∆ζ
DE = difference in polar angle = difference in longitude = ∆g

In such we can calculate the error due to time error:

∆g = ∆ζ x sec l x cosec Az

4. Course and distance error

The course and distance errors are here related to drift due to current
and wind and not to a mistake. Drift, especially in oceans, is known at
random or not even incorporated in the transfer of the LOP’s. In such a
random error is introduced and can be subdivided into two parts:

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 - Transfer as per Rv and not Course made good (Cmg)
We consider the figure in which DF = the distance correct – wrong
position , α = drift angle and ξ = Rv – (90° - v1) + α (= angle
between LOP1 and RV).
Φ = angle between LOP1 and LOP2 = 90° - v1 – (90° - v2) =
= v2 – v1
∆M = difference between position at LOP1 at time t and position LOP2 at
time t’ = AB = AC
Considering the figure, we can calculate by formulae the error in position:
DF = sin 1’ x α x cos ξ x cosec Φ x ∆M

Nv

90° - v1
LOP 1 at
time t

LOP 1 traverse per Cmg

A

α
C

Cmg
LOP 2 at Φ
time t’ B

Rv
LOP 1 traverse per Rv

Correct position (D) incorrect position (F)

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 - distance or drift speed

LOP 1 at
time t

LOP 1 at time t’ traverse at speed V

A

Φ
B
F
LOP2 at D
time t’

Rv
LOP 1 at time t traverse
at speed V’ = V + drift speed

In a similar way, we can calculate the error by formulae:

DF = difference between correct and wrong position

ξ = Rv – (90° - v1)
Φ= v2 - v1
∆M = AB

The formulae is:

DF = sin ξ x cosec Φ x ∆M

The combined effect will lead to large errors in final positioning.

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Counter measures:

• never rely on two observations only

• take additional observations of celestial bodies with opposite
bearing, in such you can define the mean LOP eliminating the
effect of drift speed

5. Ambiguity

When poor geometry exists it will decrease accuracy and may even
result in an entirely wrong fix. The figure below will explain itself:

What to choose? : centre of circle off-centered to the two position

lines who intersect under almost 90° angles and are within the position
fix area ( ).

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