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39ca PDF
The planar technology developed around 1960 started to use silicon as the
semiconductor material. Today bipolar junction transistor enjoys a large market
but they have been challenged by MOSFETs because of cost, yield, power,
miniaturization, and etc.
Figure 2.1: Inventors of transistor John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain
(left to right)
Figure 2.2 shows the picture of first transistor made by three mentioned
inventors.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Transistors both bipolar and field effect type, are a three terminal semiconductor
device used primarily for signal amplification and switching. It is also formed
the fundamental element for integrated circuit design such as the VLSI
microprocessor.
Bipolar junction transistor can be divided into two types namely npn and
pnp.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Field effect transistor FET may be broadly divided into JFET, MESFET,
MODFET, and MOSFET, where MOSFET can further be divided into
depletion-enhancement type and enhancement type. In today's VLSI design,
complimentary MOSFETs are used to reduce power consumption and fast
switching application.
Like pn junction, the current components of BJT come from two carrier
types, which are the hole and electron. This is also the reason why the transistor
is called bipolar junction transistor.
The current components are diffusion hole, diffusion electron, drift hole,
and drift electron, which are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
The base is also designed to be much shorter than the diffusion length Ln or
Lp of the minority carriers. This is used to minimize the chance of
recombination of minority carrier with majority carrier in the base.
Bipolar junction transistor that meets the design concept would have high
emitter efficiency and high current gain beta β value.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
The symbols of npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors are shown in Fig. 2.7.
The terminal with arrow sign signifies the emitter side. The tail of the arrow
shows the p-type, whilst the head of arrow shows the n-type.
Figure 2.9: Energy band diagram of pnp transistor under voltage bias
Figure 2.10 shows the current components of a bipolar junction transistor under
normal bias.
There are three current types flowing in bipolar junction transistor. There are
collector current IC, emitter current IE, and and base current IB.
IE = IB + IC (2.1)
There is a small portion of the injected carrier recombines with majority carrier
in the base to form part of the base current. Thus, the emitter current IE is equal
to (IC + IB).
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
α = IC/IE (2.2)
The typical value of α ranges from from 0.95 to 0.99. For a good transistor, its
α value is closed to one.
β = IC/IB (2.3)
IE = IB(β + 1) (2.4)
β = α/(1 - α)
or
α = β/(β + 1) (2.5)
Example 2.1
A transistor has IB = 0.08mA and IE = 9.60mA. Determine its collector current
IC, α, and β.
Solution
IC = IE - IB
= 9.60mA - 0.08mA
= 9.52mA
α = 9.52mA/9.60mA= 0.9917
β = 9.52mA/0.08mA = 119
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
or
The basic reason for the increase is due to increase of electron-hole pair
EHP at higher temperature as compared to lower temperature.
When the transistor is in reverse-biased mode, there are leakage currents, which
can be measured. They are minority currents, which are drift currents in the
collector-to-emitter and collector-to-base junctions. In engineering sense, they
are referred as leakage currents.
Two types of leakage current namely ICBO at open emitter mode and ICEO at
open base mode are of interest because it affects the operating Q-point of the
transistor as the operating temperature increases. In the industrial analogue
circuit design, ICEO and ICBO values are normally considered as very small in
nanoampere range, which can be ignored.
Figure 2.11 shows the set up to measure ICBO with emitter left open i.e. IC =
ICBO.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Figure 2.12 shows the set up to measure ICEO current with base open i.e. IC =
ICEO.
Taking into account ICEO and ICBO, the real α(real) and β(real) parameters shall be
re-calculated.
Figure 2.13: It illustrates the ICBO and ICEO leakage current components
β
Since α = ,
β +1
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
IE
IB = - ICBO (2.10)
β +1
I C − I CBO
β(real) = (2.11)
I B + I CBO
IC = IE + ICEO (2.13)
Note that ICEO value in equation (2.14) is indeed the cutoff base current of a
bipolar junction transistor.
Example 2.2
A silicon bipolar junction transistor has β = 100 and ICBO of 0.01µA. Calculate
the value of α, IC and IB assuming IE = 1mA.
Solution
β 100
α= = = 0.99
β + 1 101
IC = αIE + ICBO
= 0.99(1mA) + 0.01µA
= 0.99001 mA
IE
IB = - ICBO
β +1
= 1mA/101 - 0.01µA = 9.89µA
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
IB, a new collector characteristic curve can be obtained by varying the collector-
to-emitter voltage VCE and measuring the collector current IC.
Note also that at cutoff, VCE is almost equal to VCC and likewise at
saturation, collector-to-emitter voltage is almost zero. i.e.VCE ≅ 0V.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
The current gain of this configuration is β, which is the ratio of collector current
IC and base current IB. β is also called as static forward transfer current ratio
hfe. The input is at base terminal, whilst the output is at collector terminal.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.2.2.1 dc Analysis
VR B = VBB-VBE (2.15)
VBB − VBE
IB = (2.16)
RB
Knowing the beta value, using equation (2.2) and (2.3), collector current IC and
emitter current IE can be determined.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
VR C = I C R C (2.17)
The voltage drop across collector and emitter VCE shall then equal to
The voltage drops across collector and base shall follow equation (2.19), which
is
Example 2.3
Determine if the transistor shown in circuit is in saturation. Assume that VCE(Sat)
is small enough to be neglected.
Solution
VCC − VCE (sat ) 10V
The collector saturation current is I C (sat ) = = = 10mA . If IB is large
RC 1kΩ
enough to produce IC(sat) then the base current IB is
V − 0.7 V 2.3V
I B = BB = = 0.23mA .
RB 10kΩ
The collector current is IC = βIB = (50)(0.23mA) = 11.5mA. This shows that
with the specified β, this base current is capable of producing the collector
current IC greater than IC(sat). Since the transistor is saturated, the collector
current value of 11.5mA is never attained.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
The current gain is β+1 since I E = I C + I B . This shall mean that emitter current is
IE = IB(β + 1). The input is at base terminal, whilst the output is at emitter
terminal.
2.2.3.1 dc Analysis
The current and voltage shown in Fig. 2.19 depend on the transistor
characteristics and external circuit values.
The voltage at base is VBB. The voltage at emitter VE is (VBB-VBE), where VBE =
0.7V for silicon at room temperature. Thus, the emitter current IE is
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
VE
IE = (2.20)
RE
VBB − VBE
IE = (2.21)
RE
IE
IB = (2.22)
β +1
VCE = VCC - VE
VCE = VCC - IERE (2.23)
Example 2.4
Determine current IB, IC, IE and voltage at each transistor terminal with respect
to ground and VCE voltage in the figure. β = 200.
Solution
VBB − VBE 10V − 0.7 V
Emitter current is I E = = = 0.93mA
RE 10kΩ
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
β
IC = IE = 0.925mA
β +1
IE 0.93mA
IB = = = 4.43µA
β +1 201
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
below the Q-point. The collector current IC will vary between 20.0mA to
40.0mA, which is ±10.0mA above and below Q-point of 30.0mA. The
collector-to-emitter voltage VCE will vary from 2.0V to 6.0V as shown in Fig.
2.22, which is 2.0V above and below Q-point of 4.0V.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Example 2.5
Determine the Q-point for circuit shown in the figure and the peak value of base
current for linear operation. Given that the beta value β of the npn transistor is
200.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Solution
Q-point is defined by collector current IC and collector-to-emitter voltage VCE
on the output characteristic curve. The base current is
Now a dc load line can be drawn as shown in the figure. From the graph, VCE at
cutoff is found to be 20.0V.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
From the graph, the operating IC range is 37.2mA ± 29.5mA. Thus, the
peak base current IB value is Ib(peak) = 29.5mA/200 = 147.5µA.
dc analysis and the effect of temperature for each biasing type shall be
discussed detail. The advantage and disadvantage of each bised type shall also
be discussed.
Circuit in Fig. 2.24 illustrates the base biasing of a bipolar junction transistor.
The base of the bipolar junction transistor is biased using VCC voltage instead of
a separated voltage.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.4.1.1 dc Analysis
Based on the analysis, the bipolar junction transistor baised with base bias
technique is not a good biasing technique unless the operating temperature can
be kept constant.
Emitter bias of bipolar junction transistor is shown in Fig. 2.25. The emitter is
normally biased.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.4.2.1 dcAnalysis
At base-emitter loop,
β +1
(IC/β)RB+ VBE + ICRE = VEE
β
VEE − VBE
IC = (2.28)
R E (β + 1) / β + R B / β
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Example 2.6
Determine how much the Q-point of the circuit shown in the figure will change
over temperature where β increases from 50 to 100 and VBE decreases from
0.7V to 0.6V.
Solution
For β = 50 and VBE = 0.7V
VEE − VBE
IC =
R E (β + 1) / β + R B / β
20V − 0.7 V
=
10kΩ(51 / 50) + 10kΩ / 50
= 1.86mA
VC = VCC - ICRC
= 20V - (1.86mA)(5kΩ)
= 10.72V
VCE = VC -VE
= 10.72V - (-1.072V)
= 11.79V
VEE − VBE
IC =
R E (β + 1) / β + R B / β
20V − 0.6V
=
10kΩ(101 / 100) + 10kΩ / 100
= 1.90mA
VC = VCC - ICRC
= 20V - (1.90mA)(5kΩ)
= 10.49V
1.90mA − 1.86mA
∆IC = x100% = 2.15%
1.86mA
11.79V − 11.28V
∆VCE = x100% = 4.32%
11.79V
From the results, one can conclude that the emitter bias circuit is a good way to
stabilize Q-point due to change of β caused by temperature.
Voltage-divider bias is the most widely used technique for linear circuit design.
The base voltage VB is biased based on device circuit shown in Fig. 2.26.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
If the base current IB is very small as compared to current I2 flows in R2, then
the divider circuit can be simplied and depends on R1 and R2. Otherwise, the
input resistance RIN(base) at the base needs to take into consideration.
Figure 2.27: (a) Divider circuit without input resistance and (b) with input resistance
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.4.3.1 dc Analysis
Consider circuit shown in Fig. 2.30, the base voltage VB at point A is equal to
R 2 || (β + 1)R E
VB = VCC (2.31)
R 1 + {R 2 || (β + 1)R E }
R2
VB ≅ VCC (2.32)
R1 + R 2
VB − VBE
IE = (2.33)
RE
Usually the value of input base resistance RIN(base) = (β + 1)RE is much larger as
compared to R2. Therefore, Q-point is only slightly effected by β, which is
temperature dependent.
Example 2.7
Using the circuit shown in the figure, determine the values of base voltage VB
and emitter current IE.
If the transistor is replaced with one that has β = 250, what is the change of
base voltage VB?
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Solution
In this example, RIN(base) cannot be ignored since it involves β parameter.
R 2 || R IN ( base )
VB = VCC
R 1 + R 2 || R IN ( base )
50kΩ || 51kΩ
= 10V
100kΩ + 50kΩ || 51kΩ
= 2.01V
IE = (VB-VBE)/RE
= (2.01V- 0.7V)/1kΩ
= 1.31mA
If beta β increases to 250, input base reistance RIN(base) is 251kΩ and base
votlage VB is
50kΩ || 251kΩ
VB = 10V
100kΩ + 50kΩ || 251kΩ
= 2.94V
2.4.4.1 dc Analysis
VC − VBE
IB = (2.35)
RB
VCC − I C R C − VBE
IB =
RB
But IB = IC/β, thus,
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
I C VCC − I C R C − VBE
=
β RB
V − VBE
I C = CC (2.37)
RC + RB /β
Normally the value of RB/β is small as compared to RC. Thus, collector current
IC is fairly independent of β.
IREF is also equal to the sum of collector current IC flows in transistor Q1 and the
base current flows in both transistors. Thus,
IREF = IC + 2IB
also
IREF = IC +2IC/β
β
and IC = I, therefore, current I = x IREF for transistor Q1 and Q2 that have
β+2
same β value.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
At saturation and upon further increase VCE voltage, the depletion thickness
at collector-to-base region increases in such that the effective width W of the
base is reduced. This causes an increase of minority carrier, which is the source
of reversed saturation current IS. Knowing that IS is inversely proportional to W
and IC = IS e V / V , thus there is an increase of IC current.
BE T
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Figure 2.32: The figure shows that the output resistance rO has finite value
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
Tutorials
2.1. The majority carrier in base region of an npn transistor is
_________________.
2.2. Explain the purpose of a thin, lightly doped base and a heavily doped
emitter.
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.6. Find VCE, VBE, and VCB of the transistor shown in figure below. Deduce
whether or not the transistor is saturated.
2.7. Calculate the VCE(max) and IC(sat) for the amplifier shown in figure below
and draw its dc load line. What is the ac range can be applied at the base
without distortion given that β = 100?
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2 Bipolar Junction Transistor
2.8. Refers to circuit of Q2.7, if you need IB to be 10.0µA, what will be the
values of VBB and the Q-point of this amplifier? You may take and β =
100.
2.9. Among the dc biasing circuits for transistor that you have learnt, name
the one that its Q-point will be greatly affected by temp.variation. State
the reason.
References
1. Theodore F. Bogart Jr., Jeffrey S. Beasley, and Guillermo Rico, “Electronic
Devices and Circuit”, sixth edition, Prentice Hall, 2004.
2. Thomas L. Floyd, "Electronic Devices", Prentice Hall International,
Inc.,1999.
3. Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith, "Microelectronic Circuits", fourth
edition, Oxford University Press, 1998.
4. Robert L. Boylestad, and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit
Theory”, eighth edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.
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