Surface Preparation: Contruction

Lecturer Note 12 :
CONTRUCTION
Surface Preparation | Manufacturing | Transport | Placement | Compaction | Quality
Assurance | Specifications | Segregation & Temperature Differentials | References
Surface Preparation
Before a pavement is placed the surface to be paved must be prepared. Pavements
constructed without adequate surface preparation may not meet smoothness
specifications, may not bond to the existing pavement (in the case of overlays) or may
fail because of inadequate subgrade support.
Figure 1: Milling Machine Figure 2: Pavement Cleaning After Milling
Surface preparation generally takes one of two forms:
 Preparing the subgrade and granular base course for new pavement. This can
involve such activities as subgrade stabilization, over-excavation of poor subgrade,
applying a prime coat or compacting the subgrade.
 Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay. This can involved such
activities as replacing localized areas of extreme damage, applying a leveling
course, milling, applying a tack coat, rubblizing or cracking and seating.
Subgrade Preparation for New Pavements

Anything that can be done to increase the load-bearing capacity of the subgrade soil will
most likely improve pavement load-bearing capacity and thus, pavement strength and
performance. Additionally, greater subgrade structural capacity can result in thinner (but
f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 1

not excessively thin) and more economical pavement structures. Finally, the finished
subgrade should meet elevations, grades and slopes specified in the contract plans.
Increasing Subgrade Support
Generally, subgrade support can be increased by one or several of the following means:
 Compaction. Subgrade should be compacted to adequate density before pavement

placement. If it is not, the subgrade will continue to compress, deform or erode after
construction, causing pavement cracks and deformation. Generally, adequate
density is specified as a relative density for the top 6 inches of subgrade of not less
than 95 percent of a specified standard laboratory density. In fill areas, subgrade
below the top 6 inches is often considered adequate if it is compacted to 90 percent
relative density.
 Stabilization. Lime, portland cement or emulsified asphalt can be mixed in with the
subgrade soil to increase its strength and stiffness. Construction geotextiles can be
used to help stabilize roadways with early signs of subgrade failure.
 Over-excavation. Poor in situ subgrade can be replaced with better load-bearing fill.
Typically, 1 - 2 ft. of poor soil may be excavated and replaced with high quality fill.
 Add a subbase course over the subgrade. A subbase course offers additional load-
bearing capacity. Subbase courses are subjected to the same compaction and
elevation requirements as subgrade soils.
Subgrade Elevation
After final grading (often called fine-grading), the subgrade elevation should generally
conform closely to construction plan subgrade elevation. Large elevation discrepancies
should not be compensated for by varying pavement or base thickness because (1) HMA,
and aggregate are more expensive than subgrade and (2) HMA compacts differentially –
thicker areas compact more than thinner areas, which will result in the subgrade elevation
discrepancies affecting final pavement smoothness.
Prime coats are generally not required in a crushed aggregate/flexible pavement structure.
Prime coats may be appropriate for use as a wearing and weatherproof surface on
roadbeds that have been graded but cannot be paved right away. Generally, prime coats
represent an unneeded expense (they do not promote much bonding and do not
accomplish much that an overlying HMA layer does not do), and a potential
environmental problem (if cutbacks are used). HAPI does not recommend the use of
prime coats for these reasons.
Prime Coats
The graded subgrade or the top granular base layer can be prepared with a prime coat. A
prime coat is a sprayed application of a cutback or asphalt emulsion applied to the surface
of untreated subgrade or base layers in order to (Asphalt Institute, 2001):

 Fill the surface voids and protect the subbase from weather.
 Stabilize the fines and preserve the subbase material.
 Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.
Other Subgrade Preparation Practices
Other good subgrade practices are:
 Ensure the compacted subgrade is able to support construction traffic. If the

subgrade ruts excessively under construction traffic it should be repaired before
being paved over. Left unrepaired, subgrade ruts may reflectively cause premature
pavement rutting and will result in variable paving thicknesses as the HMA fills the
wheel ruts and is displaced by the rut ridges. The result can be a pavement with
areas that are too thin (over the rut ridges) and too thick (over the rut depressions)
instead of a uniform depth.
 Remove all debris, large rocks, vegetation and topsoil from the area to be paved.
These items either do not compact well or cause non-uniform compaction and mat
thickness.
 Treat the subgrade under the area to be paved with an approved herbicide. This
will prevent or at least retard future vegetation growth, which could affect subgrade
support or lead directly to pavement failure.
In summary, subgrade preparation should result in a material (1) capable of supporting

loads without excessive deformation and (2) graded to the specified elevations and
slopes.
Existing Surface Preparation for Overlays

Overlays make up a large portion of the roadway paving done today. The degree of
surface preparation for an overlay is dependent on the condition and type of the existing
pavement. Generally, the existing pavement should be structurally sound, level, clean and
capable of bonding to the overlay. To meet these prerequisites, the existing pavement is
usually repaired, leveled, cleaned and then coated with a binding agent.
Repair
To maximize an overlay’s useful life, failed sections of the existing pavements should be
patched or replaced and existing pavement cracks should be filled. If an existing
pavement is cracked or provides inadequate structural support these defects will often
reflect through even the best-constructed overlay and cause premature pavement failure
in the form of cracks and deformations. Small areas of localized structural failure in the
existing pavement should be repaired or replaced to provide this structural support (see
Figure 3). If the existing pavement contains areas of inadequate subgrade support, these
areas should be removed and the subgrade should be prepared as it would be for a new
pavement.

Figure 3: Replacing a Deteriorated Portion of the Existing Pavement
Existing pavement crack repair methods depend upon the type and severity of cracks.
Badly cracked pavement sections, especially those with pattern cracking (e.g., fatigue
cracking) must be patched or replaced because these distresses are often symptoms of
more extensive pavement or subgrade structural failure (TRB, 2000). Existing cracks
other than those symptomatic of structural failure should be cleaned out (blown out with
pressurized air and/or swept) and filled with a crack-sealing material when the cracks are
clean and dry (TRB, 2000). Cracks less than about 0.375 inches in width may be too
narrow for crack-sealing material to enter. These narrow cracks can be widened with a
mechanical router before sealing. If the existing pavement has an excessive amount of
fine cracks but is still structurally adequate, it may be more economical to apply a general
bituminous surface treatment (BST) or slurry seal instead of filling each individual crack.
Tack Coats
A tack coat is a thin bituminous liquid asphalt, emulsion or cutback coating applied
between HMA pavement lifts to promote bonding (see Figures 4 and 5). Adequate
bonding between construction lifts and especially between the existing road surface and
an overlay is critical in order for the completed pavement structure to behave as a single
unit and provide adequate strength. If adjacent layers do not bond to one another they
essentially behave as multiple independent thin layers - none of which are designed to
accommodate the anticipated traffic-imposed bending stresses. Inadequate bonding
between layers can result in delamination (debonding) followed by longitudinal wheel
path cracking, fatigue cracking, potholes, and other distresses such as rutting that greatly
reduce pavement life (TxDOT, 2001).

Figure 4: Tack Coat Application Figure 5: Tack Coat on Left Side
Leveling
The existing pavement should be made as smooth as possible before being overlaid. It is
difficult to make up elevation differences or smooth out ruts by varying overlay
thickness. HMA tends to differentially compact; a rule of thumb is that conventional
mixes will compact approximately 0.25 inches per 1 inch of uncompacted thickness
(TRB, 2000). Thus, thicker pavements will compact more. Therefore, before applying the
final surface course the existing pavement is typically leveled by one or both of the
following methods:
 Applying a leveling course. The first lift applied to the existing pavement is used to
fill in ruts and make up elevation differences. The top of this lift, which is relatively
smooth, is used as the base for the wearing course. Leveling course lifts need to be
as thick as the deepest low spot but not so thick that they are difficult to compact.
Because it is not the final wearing course, leveling course elevation and grade are
sometimes not tightly specified or controlled. However, contractors and inspectors
alike should pay close attention to leveling course thickness because an excessively
thick leveling course can lead to large overruns in HMA and thus large overruns in
project budget.
 Milling (also called grinding or cold planing). A top layer is milled off the existing
pavement to provide a relatively smooth surface on which to pave. Milling is also
commonly used to remove a distressed surface layer from an existing pavement.
Milling machines are the primary method for removing old HMA pavement surface
material prior to overlay (see Figures 1 and 6). They can be fitted with automatic
grade control to restore both longitudinal and transverse grade and can remove most
existing pavement distortions. After milling, pavement surfaces should be cleaned
off (see Figure 2) before any overlay is placed otherwise dirt and dust may decrease
bonding between the new overlay and the existing pavement. Milling also produces
a rough, grooved surface, which will increase the existing pavement’s surface area

when compared to an ungrooved surface. The surface area increase is dependent on
the type, number, condition and spacing of cutting drum teeth but is typically in the
range of 20 to 30 percent, which requires a corresponding increase in tack coat (20
to 30 percent more) when compared to an unmilled surface (TRB, 2000). Milling is
advantageous because it:
o Provides RAP for recycling operations.
o Efficiently removes deteriorated pavement that is unsuitable for retention in
the overlaid pavement.
o Provides a highly skid resistant surface suitable for temporary use by traffic
until the final surface can be placed.
o Allows curb and gutter lines to be maintained or reestablished before HMA
overlays.
o Provides an efficient removal technique for material near overhead structures
in order to maintain clearances for bridge structures, traffic signals and
overhead utilities.
Table 1: Milling Machine Parameter Ranges (from ARRA, 2001)

Specification Typical Range Comments
1.5 inches to 8 feet Drums come in specific widths.
Cut Width (although narrower and Varying widths can be made with
wider drums are available) multiple passes.
It may be easier to make several
Cut Depth up to 10 inches per pass
shallow passes than one deep pass.
100 to 200 tons/hr Depends on machine and pavement
Production Rate
for large machines conditions.
Material Size After 95% passing the
Typical size.
Milling 2-inch sieve
Figure 6: Milling Operation

Figure 7: Milling Machine Components
HMA Overlays on Rigid Pavement

Placing a flexible overlay on a jointed rigid pavement involves some special
considerations. Rigid pavement in Hawai'i is placed in discrete slabs, which tend to crack
into discrete sections that move as individual units. Although HMA overlays can
accommodate small differential subgrade movement without cracking, the large
differential movement at slab and crack interfaces is great enough to crack an HMA
overlay (called reflection cracking, one type of which is joint reflection cracking). There
are several techniques to prevent (or at least delay the onset of) reflection cracking:
 Prevent the slabs or sections from moving by stabilizing the material beneath them.
This involves drilling holes in an unstable PCC slab or section and injecting an
asphaltic or cementitious material to fill any underlying voids. Typically, this
method is only an option for isolated instances of instability. It does not work well
as a general roadway treatment.
 Make the overlay structure strong enough to resist cracking. This usually
involves extra granular base layers between the flexible overlay and the existing
rigid pavement or extremely thick flexible layers, both of which are often not
cost effective. Even if these types of preventative measures are used, they
still cannot be guaranteed to prevent reflective cracking. Generally, a HMA
overlay of about 4 to 6 inches can significantly retard the onset of joint reflection
cracking.
 Crack/break and seat the underlying rigid pavement. This involves breaking the
underlying rigid pavement into relatively small pieces (on the order of about 1 ft 2 to
2 ft2) by repeatedly dropping a large weight. The pieces are then seated by 2 to 3
passes of a large pneumatic tire roller.
 Rubblize the underlying rigid pavement. This involves reducing the underlying rigid
pavement to rubble. This rubble is then used as a high quality base course to

support a flexible overlay. Rubblizing is typically done with one of the following
two pieces of equipment:
o Resonant pavement breaker (see Figure 10). This equipment strikes the rigid
pavement at low amplitude with a small plate at the resonant frequency of the
slab (usually about 44 Hz) causing the slab to break apart (Roberts et al.,
1996). Usually it takes about 14 to 18 passes for a resonant pavement breaker
to rubblize an entire 12 ft. lane (NCAT, 2001).
o Multi-head breaker (MHB) (see Figure 11). This equipment uses a series of
independently controlled high amplitude drop hammers to smash the slab.
Typically, there are between 12 and 16 hammers, each weighing between
450 - 680 kg (1000 - 1500 lbs.). Hammers can be dropped from variable
heights (1 - 5 ft.) and cycle at a rate of 30 - 35 impacts per minute. MHBs can
rubblize an entire lane (up to 13 ft.) in a single pass (Antigo Construction,
2001).
Figure 8: Resonant Pavement Breaker Figure 9: Multi-head Breaker (MHB)
Manufacturing
HMA is produced in a plant that proportions, blends, and heats aggregate and asphalt to
produce an HMA that conforming to job mix formula (JMF) requirements. There are two
basic types of HMA plants commonly in use today: the batch plant, and the drum plant.
Batch plants produce HMA in individual batches while drum plants produce HMA in a
continuous operation.
Figure 1: Covered Batch Plant in Hilo Figure 2: Drum Plant at Kapa'a Quarry

Each type of plant can produce the same types of HMA and neither type of plant should
impart any significant plant-specific HMA characteristics. The choice of a batch or drum
mix plant depends upon business factors such as purchase price, operating costs,
production requirements and the need for flexibility in local markets; both can produce
quality HMA.
Batch Plants
Batch plants, which produce HMA in individual batches, are the older of the two types of
HMA production facilities; it was not until the 1970s that drum plants became a popular
HMA production option. Currently about 70 percent of all operational HMA plants in the
U.S. are batch plants while only about 5 percent of all newly manufactured plants in the
U.S. are batch plants (Roberts, et al., 1996). This means that as older batch plants are
retired they are more likely to be replaced by new drum plants, which can provide greater
mobility and production capacity. Typical batch quantities range from 1.5 to 5 tons of
HMA and each batch can take 15 - 45 seconds to make.
Drum Plants
Drum plants, which produce HMA in a continuous manner, generally offer higher
production rates than batch plants for comparable cost. Typical production rates for drum
plants vary between about 100 tons/hr up to over 900 tons/hr depending upon drum
design.
Figure 3: Drum Plant
Figure 4: Biodiesel Fuel for HMA Plants

Transport
Mix transport involves everything required to convey HMA from a production facility to
a paving site including truck loading, weighing and ticketing, hauling to the paving site,
dumping of the mix into the paver or material transfer vehicle hopper, and truck return to
the HMA production facility (Roberts et al., 1996). Ideally, the goal of mix transport
should be to maintain mix characteristics between the production facility and the paving
site.
Figure 2: Large End Dump Truck

Figure 1: End Dump Truck
Truck Types
There are three basic truck types used for mix transport classified by their respective
HMA discharge methods:
 End dump. End dump trucks unload their payload by raising the front end and
letting the payload slide down the bottom of the bed and out the back through a
tailgate (see Figure 1 and Video 1). They are the most popular transport vehicle
type because they are plentiful, maneuverable and versatile.
 Bottom dump (or belly dump). Bottom dump trucks unload their payload by opening
gates on the bottom of the bed. Internal bed walls are sloped to direct the entire
payload out through the opened gates. Discharge rates can be controlled by the
degree of gate opening and the discharge is usually placed in an elongated pile,
called a windrow, in front of the paver by driving the truck forward during
discharge. Windrows require a special material transfer vehicle (MTV) to feed the
HMA into the paver.
 Live bottom (or flo-boy). Live bottom dump trucks (see Figure 3) have a conveyor
system at the bottom of their bed to unload their payload. HMA is discharged out
the back of the bed without raising the bed. Live bottom trucks are more expensive
to use and maintain because of the conveyor system but they also can reduce
segregation problems and can eliminate some detrimental types of truck bed – paver
contact (because the bed is not raised during discharge).

Figure 3: Live Bottom Truck
Transport Considerations
There are several mix transport considerations, or best practices, that are essential to
maintaining HMA characteristics between the production facility and the paving site.
These considerations can generally be placed into four categories:
 Loading at the Production Facility. Truck beds should be clean and lubricated with
non-petroleum products to prevent the HMA from sticking to the truck bed.
Petroleum based products, such as diesel fuel, should not be used because of
environmental issues and because they tend to break down the asphalt binder. HMA
should be discharged into the truck bed so as to minimize segregation. Dropping
HMA from the storage silo or batcher (for batch plants) in one large mass creates a
single pile of HMA in the truck bed. Large-sized aggregate may roll off this pile
and collect around the base. Dropping HMA in several smaller masses (three is
typical) at different points in the truck bed will help minimize the segregation risk.
 Truck transport. Truck transport affects HMA characteristics through cooling.
HMA is usually loaded into a truck at a fairly uniform temperature between 250°F
to 350°F. During transport, heat is transferred to the surrounding environment and
HMA temperature drops. However, cool HMA provides excellent insulation and
thus transported HMA tends to develop a cool thin crust on the surface that
surrounds a much hotter core. Things such as air temperature, rain, wind and length
of haul, insulated truck beds and truck tarps can affect the characteristics and
temperature of this crust.
 Unloading at the paving site. HMA should be unloaded soon after it arrives at the
paving site in order to minimize mix cooling. Also, on jobs with more than one mix
type the inspector and/or foreman should be certain the correct mix is loaded into
the paver.
 Operation synchronization. Truck transport should be planned such that the HMA
transport rate (expressed in tons/hr) closely matches plant production rate and
laydown rate. Traffic affects HMA delivery rates because it affects truck speed.
Especially in congested urban areas, heavy and/or unpredictable traffic may

substantially increase, or at least vary, truck travel time. As truck travel time
increases, more trucks are needed to provide a given HMA delivery rate. Therefore,
as traffic gets worse, trucking costs increase. Additionally, the unpredictability of
traffic may result in either long paver idle times while waiting for the next truckload
of HMA or large truck backups as several trucks all reach the paving site or
production facility at the same time.
Placement
Mix laydown involves everything used to place the delivered HMA on the desired
surface at the desired thickness. The asphalt paver is the principal machine involved in
mix laydown and is assisted by the material transfer vehicle (MTV) in some instances.
Figure 1: Asphalt Paver Figure 2: HMA Placement
Placement Considerations
There are, of course, many considerations to take into account when placing HMA. Many
are dependent upon local materials, weather, crew knowledge and training, and individual
experience. This subsection presents a few of the basic considerations that apply in
virtually all situations:
 Lift thickness. A "lift" refers to a layer of pavement as placed by the asphalt paver.
In order to avoid mat tearing (which generally shows up as a series of longitudinal
streaks) a good rule-of-thumb is that the depth of the compacted lift should be at
least twice the maximum aggregate size and three times the nominal maximum
aggregate size (TRB, 2000).
 Longitudinal joints. The interface between two adjacent and parallel HMA mats.
Improperly constructed longitudinal joints can cause premature deterioration of
multilane HMA pavements in the form of cracking and raveling.
 Handwork. HMA can be placed by hand in situations where the paver cannot place
it adequately. This can often occur around utilities, around intersection corners and
in other tight spaces. Hand-placing should be minimized because it is prone to

aggregate segregation and results in a slightly rough surface texture. If hand
placement is necessary the following precautions should be taken (Asphalt Institute,
2001):
o Place the HMA in a pile far enough away from the placement area that the
whole pile must be moved. If the pile is located in the placement area its
appearance, density or aggregate distribution may be slightly different than
the surrounding handworked mat.
o Carefully deposit the material with shovels and then spread with lutes. Do not
broadcast (scoop and pitch) the HMA with shovels - this is likely to cause
aggregate segregation.
o All material should be thoroughly loosened and evenly distributed. Chunks of
HMA that do not easily break apart should be removed and discarded.
o Check the handworked surface with a straightedge or template before rolling
to ensure uniformity.
Asphalt Paver
The asphalt paver is a self-propelled formless (does not require side forms) laydown
machine with a floating screed (see Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4). HMA is loaded in the front,
carried to the rear by a set of flight feeders (conveyor belts), spread out by a set of augers,
then leveled and compacted by a screed. This set of functions can be divided into two
main systems:
 Tractor. The tractor contains the material feed system, which accepts the HMA at
the front of the paver, moves it to the rear and spreads it out to the desired width in
preparation for screed leveling and compaction. The tractor moves using rubber
tires (see Figures 1 and 2) or tracks (see Figure 3).
 Screed. The most critical feature of the paver is the self-leveling screed unit, which
determines the profile of the HMA being placed (Roberts et al., 1996). The screed
takes the head of HMA from the material delivery system, strikes it off at the
correct thickness and provides initial mat compaction. Figure 5 shows screed
components and the six basic forces that act upon the screed to determine its height
and, thus, pavement thickness.
Figure 3: Tracked Paver

Figure 4: Paver Schematic Animation

Figure 5: Screed Components and Forces
Factors Affecting Mat Thickness and Smoothness

Since the screed is free floating it will slide across the HMA at an angle and height that
will place the six forces shown in Figure 5 in equilibrium. When any one of these forces
is changed, the screed angle and elevation will change (which will change the mat
thickness) to bring these forces back into equilibrium. Therefore, changing the following
paver characteristics will affect these forces, and thus mat thickness, in the described
manner:
 Paver speed. If a paver speeds up and all other forces on the screed remain constant,
the screed angle decreases to restore equilibrium, which decreases mat thickness
(think of what happens to the ski angle of a water skier as boat speed increases).
 Material head. If the material head (the amount of material in front of the screed)
increases (either due to an increase in material feed rate or a reduction in paver
speed), screed angle will increase to restore equilibrium, which increases mat
thickness.
 Tow point elevation. As the tow point rises in elevation, the screed angle increases,
resulting in a thicker mat. As a rule-of-thumb, a 1-inch movement in tow point
elevation translates to about a 0.125 inch movement in the screed's leading edge.
Without automatic screed control, tow point elevation will change as tractor

elevation changes due to roughness in the surface over which it drives. Locating the
screed tow point near the middle of the tractor significantly reduces the
transmission of small elevation changes in the front and rear of the tractor to the
screed. Because the screed elevation responds slowly to changes in screed angle,
the paver naturally places a thinner mat over high points in the existing surface and
a thicker mat over low points in the existing surface (TRB, 2000).
 Screed angle can also be adjusted manually by using a thickness control screw or
depth crank. Screed angle adjustments do not immediately change mat thickness
but rather require a finite amount of time and tow distance to take effect. Figure 6
shows that it typically takes five tow lengths (the length between the tow point and
the screed) after a desired level is input for a screed to arrive at the new level.
Because of this screed reaction time, a screed operator who constantly adjusts
screed level to produce a desired mat thickness will actually produce an excessively
wavy, unsmooth pavement.
Figure 6: Screed Reaction to a Manual Decrease in Screed Angle (after TRB, 2000)
Automatic Screed Control

Since it is not practical to manually control tow point elevation, pavers usually operate
using an automatic screed control, which controls tow point elevation using a reference
other than the tractor body. Since these references assist in controlling HMA pavement
grade, they are called “grade reference systems” and are listed below (Roberts et al.,
1996):

 Erected stringline. This consists of stringline erected to specified elevations that are
independent of existing ground elevation (see Figure 7). Most often this is done
using a survey crew and a detailed elevation/grade plan. Although the stringline
method provides the correct elevation (to within surveying and erecting tolerances),
stringlines are fragile and easily broken, knocked over or inadvertently misaligned.
Lasers can be used to overcome the difficulties associated with stringlines because
they do not require any fragile material near the pavement construction area. Lasers
can establish multiple elevation or grade planes even in dusty or high-electronic and
light-noise areas and are therefore sometimes used to construct near-constant
elevation airport runways. Even the laser method becomes quite complicated,
however, when frequent pavement grade changes are required.
 Mobile reference. This consists of a reference system that travels with the paver
such as a long beam or tube attached to the paver (called a "contact" device since it
actually touches the road) or an ultrasonic device (called a "non-contact" device
since it relies on ultrasonic pulses and not physical contact to determine road
elevation - see Figure 8). The mobile reference system averages the effect of
deviations in the existing pavement surface over a distance greater that the
wheelbase of the tractor unit. Minimum ski length for a contact device is normally
about 25 ft. with typical ski lengths being on the order of 40 to 60 ft. (Asphalt
Institute, 2001).
 Joint matching shoe. This usually consists of a small shoe or ski attached to the
paver that slides on an existing surface (such as a curb) near the paver. Ultra sonic
sensors accomplish the same task without touching the existing surface by using
sound pulses to determine elevation. This type of grade control results in the paver
duplicating the reference surface on which the shoe or ski is placed or ultra sonic
sensor is aimed.
Figure 7: Stringline
Figure 8: Mobile Reference System (Circled)

Material Transfer Vehicles (MTVs)
Material transfer vehicles (MTVs) are used to assist the paver in accepting HMA. Most
pavers are equipped to receive HMA directly from end dump or live bottom trucks,
however in certain situations it can be necessary or advantageous to use an MTV. Paving
using bottom dump trucks and windrows requires a windrow elevator MTV, while other
MTVs are used to provide additional surge volume, which is advantageous because it
allows the paver to operate continuously without stopping, minimizes truck waiting time
at the paving site and may minimize aggregate segregation and temperature differentials
(see Figures 9 and 10).
Figures 9 and 10: Roadtec Shuttlebuggy™ MTV
Compaction
Compaction is the process by which the volume of air in an HMA mixture is reduced by
using external forces to reorient the constituent aggregate particles into a more closely
spaced arrangement. This reduction of air volume produces a corresponding increase in
HMA density (Roberts et al., 1996).
Figure 1: A Steel Wheel and a Pneumatic Tire Roller Working Side-by-Side.

Compaction is the greatest determining factor in dense graded pavement performance
(Scherocman and Martenson, 1984; Scherocman, 1984; Geller, 1984; Brown, 1984; Bell
et. al., 1984; Hughes, 1984; Hughes, 1989). Inadequate compaction results in a pavement
with decreased stiffness, reduced fatigue life, accelerated aging/decreased durability,
rutting, raveling, and moisture damage (Hughes, 1984; Hughes, 1989).
Compaction Measurement and Reporting

Compaction reduces the volume of air in HMA. Therefore, the characteristic of concern
is the volume of air within the compacted pavement, which is typically quantified as a
percentage of air voids in relation to total volume and expressed as “percent air voids”.
Percent air voids is calculated by comparing a test specimen’s density with the density it
would theoretically have if all the air voids were removed, known as "theoretical
maximum density" (TMD) or "Rice density" after the test procedure inventor.
Although percent air voids is the HMA characteristic of interest, measurements are
usually reported as a measured density in relation to a reference density. This is done by
reporting density as:
 Percentage of TMD (or "percent Rice"). This expression of density is easy to

convert to air voids because any volume that is not asphalt binder or aggregate is
assumed to be air. For example, a density reported as 93 percent Rice means that
there are 7 percent air voids (100% - 93% = 7%).
 Percentage of a laboratory-determined density. The laboratory density is usually a
density obtained during mix design.
 Percentage of a control strip density. A control strip is a short pavement section
that is compacted to the desired value under close scrutiny then used as the
compaction standard for a particular job.
Pavement air voids are measured in the field by one of two principal methods:
 Cores (Figures 2 and 3). A small pavement core is extracted from the compacted
HMA and sent to a laboratory to determine its density. Usually, core density results
are available the next day at the earliest. This type of air voids testing is generally
considered the most accurate but is also the most time consuming and expensive.
 Nuclear gauges (Figures 4 and 5). A nuclear density gauge measures in-place
HMA density using gamma radiation. Gauges usually contain a small gamma
source (about 10 mCi) such as Cesium-137 located in the tip of a small probe,
which is either placed on the surface of the pavement or inserted into the pavement.
Readings are obtained in about 2 - 3 minutes. Nuclear gauges require calibration to
the specific mixture being tested. Usually nuclear gauges are calibrated to core
densities at the beginning of a project and at regular intervals during the project to
ensure accuracy.
Each contracting agency or owner usually specifies the compaction measurement

methods and equipment to be used on contracts under their jurisdiction.

Figure 2: Core Extraction
Figure 3: Pavement Core
Figure 5: Taking a Nuclear Density Reading

Figure 4: Thin Lift Nuclear Density Gauge
Factors Affecting Compaction

HMA compaction is influenced by a myriad of factors; some related to the environment,
some determined by mix and structural design and some under contractor and agency
control during construction (see Table 1).
Table 1: Factors Affecting Compaction
Environmental Factors Mix Property Factors Construction Factors

Temperature Aggregate Rollers
Ground temperature Gradation Type
Air temperature Size Number
Wind speed Shape Speed and timing
Solar flux Fractured faces Number of passes
Volume Lift thickness
Asphalt Binder Other
Chemical properties HMA production
Physical properties temperature
Amount Haul distance
Haul time
Foundation support

A Note on the Time Available for Compaction
HMA temperature directly affects asphalt binder viscosity and thus compaction. As HMA
temperature decreases, the constituent asphalt binder becomes more viscous and resistant
to deformation resulting in a smaller reduction in air voids for a given compactive effort.
As the mix cools, the asphalt binder eventually becomes stiff enough to effectively
prevent any further reduction in air voids regardless of the applied compactive effort. The
temperature at which this occurs, commonly referred to as cessation temperature, is often
reported to be about 175°F for dense-graded HMA (Scherocman, 1984b; Hughes, 1989).
Below cessation temperature rollers can still be operated on the mat to improve
smoothness and surface texture but further compaction will generally not occur.
Mat temperature is crucial to both the actual amount of air void reduction for a given
compactive effort, and the overall time available for compaction. If a mat's initial
temperature and cool-down rate are known, the temperature of the mat at any time after
laydown can be calculated. Based on this calculation rolling equipment and patterns can
be employed to:
 Take maximum advantage of available roller compactive effort. Rollers can be used
where the mat is most receptive to compaction and avoided where the mat is
susceptible to excessive shoving.
 Ensure the mat is compacted to the desired air void content before cessation
temperature is reached. This can be done by calculating the time it takes the mat to
cool from initial temperature to cessation temperature. All compaction must be
accomplished within this “time available for compaction”.
MultiCool, developed by Professor Vaughn Voeller and Dr. David Timm, is a Windows
based program that predicts HMA mat cooling. MultiCool can be used to predict the time
available for compaction and is available on the National Asphalt Pavement Association's
A Guide for Hot Mix Asphalt Pavement CD-ROM or for download at several locations:
 University of California at Berkeley Pavement Research Center (http://www.

its.berkeley.edu/pavementresearch/Software.htm)
 Minnesota Department of Transportation Office of Materials and Road Research
(http://mnroad.dot.state.mn.us/research/MnROAD_Project/restools/restools90.asp)
 National Asphalt Pavement Association (http://www.hotmix.org/view_ar icle.php?
ID=61).
Compaction Equipment
There are three basic pieces of equipment available for HMA compaction: (1) the paver
screed, (2) the steel wheeled roller and (3) the pneumatic tire roller. Each piece of
equipment compacts the HMA by two principal means:
1. By applying its weight to the HMA surface and compressing the material
underneath the ground contact area. Since this compression will be greater for

longer periods of contact, lower equipment speeds will produce more compression.
Obviously, higher equipment weight will also increase compression.
2. By creating a shear stress between the compressed material underneath the ground
contact area and the adjacent uncompressed material. When combined with
equipment speed, this produces a shear rate. Lowering equipment speed can
decrease the shear rate, which increases the shearing stress. Higher shearing stresses
are more capable of rearranging aggregate into more dense configurations.
These two means are of compacting HMA are often referred to collectively as
“compactive effort”.
Steel Wheel Rollers
Steel wheel rollers (see Figures 6 and 7) are self-propelled compaction devices that use
steel drums to compress the underlying HMA. They can have one, two or even three
drums, although tandem (2 drum) rollers are most often used. The drums can be either
static or vibratory and usually range from 35 to 85 inches in width and 20 to 60 inches in
diameter. Roller weight is typically between 1 and 20 tons (see Figures 5 and 6).
Some steel wheel rollers are equipped with vibratory drums. Drum vibration adds a
dynamic load to the static roller weight to create a greater total compactive effort. Drum
vibration also reduces friction and aggregate interlock during compaction, which allows
aggregate particles to move into final positions that produce greater friction and interlock
than could be achieved without vibration. As a general rule-of-thumb, a combination of
speed and frequency that results in 10 - 12 impacts per foot is good. At 3000
vibrations/minute this results in a speed of 2.8 - 3.4 mph.
Figure 6 and 7: Steel Wheel Rollers
Pneumatic Tire Rollers
Pneumatic tire rollers are self-propelled compaction devices that uses pneumatic tires to
compact the underlying HMA. Pneumatic tire rollers employ a set of smooth tires (no
tread) on each axle; typically four or five on one axle and five or six on the other. The

tires on the front axle are aligned with the gaps between tires on the rear axle to give
complete and uniform compaction coverage over the width of the roller. Compactive
effort is controlled by varying tire pressure, which is typically set between 60 and 120 psi
(TRB, 2000). In addition to a static compressive force, pneumatic tire rollers also develop
a kneading action between the tires that tends to realign aggregate within the HMA.
Because asphalt binder tends to stick more to cold tires than hot tires, the tire area is
sometimes insulated with rubber matting or plywood to maintain the tires near mat
temperature while rolling (see Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8: Pneumatic Tire Roller Figure 9: Pneumatic Tires
Compaction Sequence
HMA compaction is typically accomplished by a sequence of compaction equipment.
This allows each piece of equipment to be used only in its most advantageous situation
resulting in a higher quality mat (both in density and in smoothness) than could be
produced with just a single method of compaction. A typical compaction sequence
consists of some or all of the following (in order of use):
 Screed. The screed is the first device used to compact the mat and may be operated
in the vibratory mode. Approximately 75 to 85 percent of TMD will be obtained
when the mix passes out from under the screed (TRB, 2000).
 Rollers. Generally a series of two or three rollers is used. Contractors can control
roller compaction by varying things such as the types of rollers used, the number of
roller used, roller speed, the number of roller passes over a given area of the mat,
the location at which each roller works, and the pattern that each roller uses to
compact the mat. Approximately 92 to 95 percent TMD will be obtained when all
rollers are finished compacting the mat. Typical roller position used in compaction
are:
o Breakdown Roller. The first roller behind the screed (see Figure 10). It
generally effects the most density gain of any roller in the sequence.
Breakdown rollers can be of any type but are most often vibratory steel wheel
and sometimes pneumatic tire.

o Intermediate Roller. Used behind the breakdown roller if additional
compaction is needed (see Figure 10). Pneumatic tire rollers are
sometimes used as intermediate rollers because they provide a different type
of compaction (kneading action) than a breakdown steel wheel
vibratory roller, which can help further compact the mat or at the very least,
rearrange the aggregate within the mat to make it receptive to further
compaction.
o Finish Roller. The last roller in the sequence (see Figure 11). It is used to
provide a smooth mat surface. Although the finish roller does apply
compactive effort, by the time it comes in contact with the mat, the mat may
have cooled below cessation temperature. Static steel wheel rollers are almost
always used as finishing rollers because they can produce the smoothest
surface of any roller type.
Figure 10: Paving Operation Showing a Steel Wheel Breakdown Roller

and a Pneumatic Tire Intermediate Roller
Figure 11: Finish Roller

 Traffic. After the rollers have compacted the mat to the desired density and
produced the desired smoothness, the new pavement is opened to traffic. Traffic
loading will provide further compaction in the wheel paths of a finished mat.
Traffic may compact the mat an additional 2 to 4 percent over the life of the
pavement.
Quality Assurance
Quality has become one of the most important consumer decision factors in the selecting
among competing products and services. This is true not only for individual consumers
but also for large corporations, government organizations and the taxpaying public as a
group. In its broadest sense, quality is a degree of excellence: the extent to which
something is fit for its purpose. In the narrow sense, product or service quality is defined
as conformance with requirement, freedom from defects or contamination, or simply a
degree of customer satisfaction.
Figures 1 and 2: Taking a Pavement Core for Density Quality Control
Figure 3: Using the NCAT Oven to Determine Asphalt Content

AASHTO and the FHWA subscribe to definitions that designate “quality assurance” as
an all-encompassing term, to include “quality control”, “independent assurance” and
“acceptance” as its three key components (TRB, 1999):
 Quality assurance. All those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide
confidence that a product or facility will perform satisfactorily in service. Quality
assurance addresses the overall problem of obtaining the quality of a service,
product, or facility in the most efficient, economical, and satisfactory manner
possible. Within this broad context, quality assurance involves continued evaluation
of the activities of planning, design, development of plans and specifications,
advertising and awarding of contracts, construction, and maintenance, and the
interactions of these activities.
 Quality control. Those quality assurance actions and considerations necessary to
assess production and construction processes so as to control the level of quality
being produced in the end product. This concept of quality control typically
includes sampling and testing by the contractor to monitor the process but usually
does not include acceptance sampling and testing by the agency/owner. Also called
process control.
 Acceptance. Sampling, testing, and the assessment of test results to determine
whether or not the quality of produced material or construction is acceptable in
terms of the specifications.
 Independent assurance. A management tool that requires a third party, not directly
responsible for process control or acceptance, to provide an independent assessment
of the product and/or the reliability of test results obtained from process control and
acceptance testing. The results of independent assurance tests should not be used as
a basis of product acceptance.
Quality control, acceptance and independent assurance are wholly separate components
of quality assurance. It is difficult, if not impossible, to influence one component, solely
through actions within another component. For instance, acceptance procedures are
essentially monitoring methods used to determine whether or not a particular process is
meeting quality standards. As such, they can be used to accept or reject material based on
its quality but they should never be used as a method to control or improve quality;
quality will not necessarily improve based on increased or stricter monitoring alone. In
short, no amount of inspection changes the quality of a product or service (IQA, 2001).
Quality control (process control) is used to control and systematically improve quality.
Furthermore, independent assurance test results should not be used for acceptance or
quality control. If they are, the tests are no longer independent and should not be used as
if they were.
Specifications
Specifications are used (1) to convey information concerning desired products from a
buyer to a seller or potential seller, (2) as a basis for competitive bidding for the delivery
of products, and (3) to measure compliance to contracts. Typically, four types of

specifications; proprietary product, method, end-result and performance specifications;
are generally recognized in the construction industry.
Proprietary Product Specifications

A proprietary product specification is used when a generic description of a desired
product or process cannot be easily formulated. It usually contains an "or equivalent"
clause to allow for some measure of competition in providing the product. It is generally
acknowledged that such a specification severely limits competition, increases cost,
provides little latitude for innovation, and puts substantial risk on the owner for product
performance. Most agencies avoid this type of specification whenever possible, however
private owners often use them.
Method Specifications
A method specification outlines a specific materials selection and construction operation
process to be followed in providing a product. In the past, many construction
specifications were written in this manner. A contractor would be told what type of
material to produce, what equipment to use and in what manner it was to be used in
construction. This type of specification allows for a greater degree of competition than
the proprietary product specification, but as long as the structure is built according to the
materials and methods stipulated, the owner bears the responsibility for the performance.
Although widely used, method specifications have several key disadvantages. First, they
tend to stifle contractor innovation because there is virtually no incentive to develop
better, more efficient construction methods. Second, since they are not statistically based
and 100 percent compliance is usually not possible, method specifications usually
required “substantial compliance,” a purposely vague and undefined term that can lead to
disputes. For instance, if a method specification requires that four roller passes be made
over the entire pavement, what happens if 98% of the pavement received four roller
passes and the other 2% received only three roller passes? Does this meet the
specification? Finally, spot checks of material quality, which are often used in method
specifications, do not reflect overall material quality because they are taken from
subjectively determined non-random locations. Since they are not random, these spot
checks have no statistical validity and therefore do not reflect overall material quality.
Despite their flaws, method specifications are still widely used on the local agency level
(e.g., counties, small cities, towns, etc.). In general, this is because they are familiar,
straightforward to write and can be implemented with minimal agency involvement.
Local agencies often lack the expertise and resources required to use statistical
specifications or warranties.
End-Result Specifications
An end-result specification is one in which the final characteristics of the product are
stipulated, and the contractor is given considerable freedom in achieving those
characteristics. In their roughest form, they specify minimum, maximum or a range of

values for any given characteristic and base acceptance on conformance to these
specifications. For instance, they may state a minimum layer thickness or a range of in-
place air voids. Since it is impractical to measure every square foot of constructed
pavement, end-result specifications use statistical methods to estimate overall material
quality based on a limited number of random samples. Therefore, end result
specifications improve on methods specifications in two key areas: (1) they shift the
focus away from methods and on to final product quality and (2) they do not rely on the
nebulous "substantial compliance" because they clearly define acceptable quality.
Today, most large State and Federal pavement contracts use statistically based end-result
specifications that incorporate some elements of method specifications (usually used to
guard against early failure of the product). These end-result specifications are often
referred to as a "quality assurance specifications", "QA/QC specifications" or "QC/QA
specifications". Essentially, these specifications specify the end results and also specify
certain minimum construction method requirements (e.g., temperatures below which
paving is not allowed, descriptions of initial test sections, minimum number of rollers,
conditions under which the agency may halt paving operations, etc.).
End result specifications assign pavement construction quality to the contractor, they
define the desired final product, and they allow the contractor significant latitude in
achieving that final product. This leads to innovation, efficiency, and lower costs.
However, these specifications and their statistical sampling requirements are often too
complex and resource intensive to be used at the local agency level.
Performance Specifications
Performance specifications are those in which the product payment is directly dependent
upon its actual performance. Typical of these specifications are warranty, limited
warranty and design-build-operate contracts. Contractors are held responsible for the
product performance within the context of what they have control over. The contractor is
given a great deal of leeway in providing the product, as long as it performs according to
established guidelines. In this case, the contractor assumes considerable risk for the level
of service the product provides by paying for or providing any necessary maintenance or
repair within the warranty period.
Segregation and Temperature Differentials

Segregation and temperature differentials are construction-related HMA pavement
problems that can lead to early pavement failure.
Figure 1: Aggregate Segregation in a Stockpile

Figure 2: Temperature Differentials
Aggregate Segregation
Aggregate segregation is the non-uniform distribution of coarse and fine aggregate
components within the HMA mixture. There are two basic types of aggregate
segregation:
1. Coarse segregation. Occurs when gradation is shifted to include too much coarse
aggregate and not enough fine aggregate. Coarse segregation is characterized by
low asphalt content, low density, high air voids, rough surface texture, and
accelerated rutting and fatigue failure (Williams, Duncan and White, 1996).
Typically, coarse segregation is considered the most prevalent and damaging type
of segregation, thus segregation research has typically focused on coarse
segregation. The term “segregation” by itself is usually taken to mean “coarse
segregation.”
2. Fine segregation. Occurs when gradation is shifted to include too much fine
aggregate and not enough course aggregate. High asphalt content, low density,
smooth surface texture, accelerated rutting, and better fatigue performance
characterize fine segregation (Williams, Duncan and White, 1996).
A quantitative aggregate segregation definition is difficult. Since coarse segregation is

generally accepted as most destructive, a general quantitative definition is a sample at
least 10% coarser than the JMF on the No. 4 or No. 8 sieve (Brown and Brownfield,
1988; Cross and Brown, 1993; Williams, Duncan and White, 1996).
The chief detrimental effects of segregation on HMA performance are: reduced fatigue
life, rutting, raveling, and moisture damage. These effects can cause a severe reduction in
pavement life. More information on segregation causes and cures can be found in
Segregation Causes and Cures for Hot Mix Asphalt (QIP-110) by AASHTO and NAPA.

Construction-Related Temperature Differentials
Construction-related temperature differentials are large mat temperature differences
resulting from placement of a significantly cooler portion of HMA mass into the mat.
This cooler mass comes from the surface layer (or crust) typically developed during
HMA transport from the mixing plant to the job site. These cooler areas will cool down
to cessation temperature (the temperature at which no further compaction can take place
due to increased HMA viscosity - commonly taken as 175°F) more quickly than the
surrounding mat. Roller patterns developed based on general mat temperatures may not
be adequate to compact these cooler areas before they cool to cessation temperature
resulting in isolated spots of inadequate compaction. Thus, temperature differentials can
cause isolated areas of inadequate compaction resulting in decreased strength, reduced
fatigue life, accelerated aging/decreased durability, rutting, raveling, and moisture
damage (Hughes, 1984; Hughes, 1989). Generally, temperature differentials greater than
about 25°F can potentially cause compaction problems (Willoughby et al., 2001).
Aggregate segregation and construction-related temperature differentials display the same

symptoms and result in the same types of damage, which can cause them to be confused
with one another. However, the ultimate damage mechanism, excessive air voids (often
expressed as "inadequate density"), is the same in both cases.
References
Suggested Reading
Asphalt Institute. (2001). HMA Construction. Manual Series No. 22. Asphalt Institute.
Lexington, KY.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). (2000). Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook 2000.
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

(1997). Segregation: Causes and Cures for Hot Mix Asphalt. QIP-110. Publication by the
Joint Task Force on Segregation of AASHTO Subcommittee on Construction; AASHTO
Subcommittee on Materials; and National Asphalt Pavement Association. AASHTO.
Washington, D.C.
Publications Cited in this Section
Antigo Construction (2001). MHB Badger Breaker ®. Web page on the Antigo
Construction Web site. (http://www.antigoconstruction.com/specs-mhb.html)
Asphalt Recycling & Reclaiming Association (ARRA). (2001). Web page cold planning
FAQ section. (http://www.arra.org/CPFAQ.htm)

Bell, C.A.; Hicks, R.G. and Wilson, J.E. (1984). Effect of Percent Compaction on
Asphalt Mixture Life. Placement and Compaction of Asphalt Mixtures, F.T. Wagner, Ed.
ASTM Special Technical Publication 829. American Society for Testing and Materials.
Philadelphia, PA. pp. 107-130.
Brock, J.D. (1986). Segregation of Asphaltic Mixtures. Proceedings of the Association of

Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 55. pp. 269-277.
Brown, E.R. (1984). Experiences of Corps of Engineers in Compaction of Hot Asphalt

Mixtures. Placement and Compaction of Asphalt Mixtures, F.T. Wagner, Ed. ASTM
Special Technical Publication 829. American Society for Testing and Materials.
Philadelphia, PA. pp. 67-79.
Brown, E.R. and Brownfield, J.R. (1988). Investigation of Rutting and Segregation of
Asphalt Mixtures in the State of Georgia. Georgia Department of Transportation.
Cross, S.A. and Brown, E.R. (1993). Effect of Segregation on Performance of Hot-Mix
Asphalt. In Transportation Research Record 1417. Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council. Washington, D.C. pp. 117-126.
Geller, M. (1984). Compaction Equipment for Asphalt Mixtures. Placement and

Compaction of Asphalt Mixtures, F.T. Wagner, Ed. ASTM Special Technical Publication
829. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA. pp. 28-47.
Hughes, C.S. (1989). National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis of

Highway Practice 152: Compaction of Asphalt Pavement. Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.
Hughes, C.S. (October 1984). Importance of Asphalt Compaction. Better Roads, Vol. 54,
No. 10. pp. 22-24.
The Institute of Quality Assurance (IQA). (2001). Web site FAQ section.
(http://www.iqa.org)
Kennedy, T.W.; McGennis, R.B. and Holmgreen, R.J. (1987). Asphalt Mixture
Segregation; Diagnostics and Remedies. Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt
Paving Technologists, Vol. 56. pp. 304-329.
National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT). (2001). Asphalt Paving Level II:
Module 4, Surface Preparation. PowerPoint side show prepared for the Florida
Department of Transportation. Construction Training Qualification Program, National
Center for Asphalt Technology.
Roberts, F.L.; Kandhal, P.S.; Brown, E.R.; Lee, D.Y. and Kennedy, T.W. (1996). Hot
Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design, and Construction. National Asphalt Paving
Association Education Foundation. Lanham, MD.

Scherocman, J.A. (1984, March). Guidelines for Compacting Asphalt Concrete
Pavement. Better Roads, Vol. 54, No. 3. pp. 12-17.
Scherocman, J.A. and Martenson, E.D. (1984). Placement of Asphalt Concrete Mixtures.
Placement and Compaction of Asphalt Mixtures, F.T. Wagner, Ed. ASTM Special
Technical Publication 829. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia,
PA. pp. 3-27.
Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT). (2001). Technical Advisory: Proper Use

of Tack Coat. Technical Advisory 2001-1. Texas Department of Transportation. Austin,
TX.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). (1999). Glossary of Highway Quality Assurance

Terms. Transportation Research Circular, No. E-C010. Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council. Washington, D.C.
Williams, R.C.; Duncan, G. and White, T.D. (1996). Hot-Mix Asphalt Segregation:
Measurement and Effects. In Transportation Research Record 1543. Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, D.C. pp. 97-105.
Willoughby, K.A.; Mahoney, J.P.; Pierce, L.M.; Uhlmeyer, J.S.; Anderson, K.W.; Read,
S.A.; Muench, S.T.; Thompson, T.R. and Moore, R. (2001). Construction-Related
Asphalt Concrete Pavement Temperature Differentials and the Corresponding Density
Differentials. Washington State Department of Transportation. Olympia, WA.
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/ppsc/research/CompleteReports/WARD476_1FinalCyclicSeg.
pdf.

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Lecturer Note 12 :

Figure 1: Milling Machine Figure 2: Pavement Cleaning After Milling

Surface preparation generally takes one of two forms:

Subgrade Preparation for New Pavements

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 1

Increasing Subgrade Support

 Compaction. Subgrade should be compacted to adequate density before pavement

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 2

Other Subgrade Preparation Practices

Other good subgrade practices are:

 Ensure the compacted subgrade is able to support construction traffic. If the

In summary, subgrade preparation should result in a material (1) capable of supporting

Existing Surface Preparation for Overlays

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 3

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 4

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 5

Table 1: Milling Machine Parameter Ranges (from ARRA, 2001)

Figure 6: Milling Operation

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 6

HMA Overlays on Rigid Pavement

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 8

Figure 8: Resonant Pavement Breaker Figure 9: Multi-head Breaker (MHB)

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 9

Figure 3: Drum Plant

Figure 4: Biodiesel Fuel for HMA Plants

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 10

Figure 2: Large End Dump Truck

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 11

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 12

Figure 1: Asphalt Paver Figure 2: HMA Placement

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 13

Figure 3: Tracked Paver

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 14

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 15

Factors Affecting Mat Thickness and Smoothness

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 16

Automatic Screed Control

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 17

Figure 8: Mobile Reference System (Circled)

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 18

Figures 9 and 10: Roadtec Shuttlebuggy™ MTV

Figure 1: A Steel Wheel and a Pneumatic Tire Roller Working Side-by-Side.

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 19

Compaction Measurement and Reporting

 Percentage of TMD (or "percent Rice"). This expression of density is easy to

Each contracting agency or owner usually specifies the compaction measurement

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 20

Figure 5: Taking a Nuclear Density Reading

Factors Affecting Compaction

Table 1: Factors Affecting Compaction

Environmental Factors Mix Property Factors Construction Factors

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 21

 University of California at Berkeley Pavement Research Center (http://www.

f:e(yasruddin)/bahan kuliah/HAPI pavement 2007 22

Steel Wheel Rollers

Figure 6 and 7: Steel Wheel Rollers

Pneumatic Tire Rollers