zation Reciprocity Closure Homophily Transitivity Preferential attachment Balance

theory Network effect Social influence

Network types
Informational (computing) Telecommunication Transport Social Scientific
collaboration Biological Artificial neural Interdependent Semantic Spatial
Dependency Flow on-Chip
Graphs
Features
Clique Component Cut Cycle Data structure Edge Loop Neighborhood Path Vertex
Adjacency list / matrix Incidence list / matrix
Types
Bipartite Complete Directed Hyper Multi Random Weighted
MetricsAlgorithms
Centrality Degree Betweenness Closeness PageRank Motif Clustering Degree
distribution Assortativity Distance Modularity Efficiency
Models
Topology
Random graph Erdos�R�nyi Barab�si�Albert Fitness model Watts�Strogatz Exponential
random (ERGM) Random geometric (RGG) Hyperbolic (HGN) Hierarchical Stochastic block
Maximum entropy Soft configuration LFR Benchmark
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ListsCategories
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Category:Network theory Category:Graph theory
vte
Network theory is the study of graphs as a representation of either symmetric
relations or asymmetric relations between discrete objects. In computer science and
network science, network theory is a part of graph theory: a network can be defined
as a graph in which nodes and/or edges have attributes (e.g. names).

Network theory has applications in many disciplines including statistical physics,

particle physics, computer science, electrical engineering[1][2], biology,[3]
economics, finance, operations research, climatology, ecology and sociology.
Applications of network theory include logistical networks, the World Wide Web,
Internet, gene regulatory networks, metabolic networks, social networks,
epistemological networks, etc.; see List of network theory topics for more
examples.

Euler's solution of the Seven Bridges of K�nigsberg problem is considered to be the

first true proof in the theory of networks.[4]

Contents
1 Network optimization
2 Network analysis
2.1 Electric network analysis
2.2 Social network analysis
2.3 Biological network analysis
2.4 Narrative network analysis
2.5 Link analysis
2.5.1 Network robustness
2.5.2 Web link analysis
2.6 Centrality measures
2.7 Assortative and disassortative mixing
2.8 Recurrence networks
3 Spread
4 Interdependent networks
5 See also
6 References
7 Books
8 External links
Network optimization
Network Optimization
Break down a NP-hard network optimization task into subtasks by discarding of the
most irrelevant interactions in network.[5]
Network problems that involve finding an optimal way of doing something are studied
under the name combinatorial optimization. Examples include network flow, shortest
path problem, transport problem, transshipment problem, location problem, matching
problem, assignment problem, packing problem, routing problem, critical path
analysis and PERT (Program Evaluation & Review Technique). In order to break a NP-
hard task of network optimization down into subtasks the network is decomposed into
relatively independent subnets.[5]

Network analysis
Electric network analysis
The electric power systems analysis could be conducted using network theory from
two main points of view:

(1) an abstract perspective (i.e., as a graph consists from nodes and edges),
regardless of the electric power aspects (e.g., transmission line impedances). Most
of these studies focus only on the abstract structure of the power grid using node
degree distribution and betweenness distribution, which introduces substantial
insight regarding the vulnerability assessment of the grid. Through these types of
studies, the category of the grid structure could be identified from the complex
network perspective (e.g., single-scale, scale-free). This classification might
help the electric power system engineers in the planning stage or while upgrading
the infrastructure (e.g., add a new transmission line) to maintain a proper
redundancy level in the transmission system.[6]

(2) weighted graphs that blend an abstract understanding of complex network

theories and electric power systems properties.[7]

Social network analysis

Visualization of social network analysis[8]

Social network analysis examines the structure of relationships between social
entities.[9] These entities are often persons, but may also be groups,
organizations, nation states, web sites, or scholarly publications.

Since the 1970s, the empirical study of networks has played a central role in
social science, and many of the mathematical and statistical tools used for
studying networks have been first developed in sociology.[10] Amongst many other
applications, social network analysis has been used to understand the diffusion of
innovations, news and rumors. Similarly, it has been used to examine the spread of
both diseases and health-related behaviors. It has also been applied to the study
of markets, where it has been used to examine the role of trust[citation needed] in
exchange relationships and of social mechanisms in setting prices. Similarly, it
has been used to study recruitment into political movements and social
organizations. It has also been used to conceptualize scientific disagreements as
well as academic prestige. More recently, network analysis (and its close cousin
traffic analysis) has gained a significant use in military intelligence, for
uncovering insurgent networks of both hierarchical and leaderless nature.[citation
needed]

Biological network analysis

See also: Metabolic network, proteome, metabolome, and omics
With the recent explosion of publicly available high throughput biological data,
the analysis of molecular networks has gained significant interest.[11] The type of
analysis in this context is closely related to social network analysis, but often
focusing on local patterns in the network. For example, network motifs are small
subgraphs that are over-represented in the network. Similarly, activity motifs are
patterns in the attributes of nodes and edges in the network that are over-
represented given the network structure. Using networks to analyse patterns in
biological systems, such as food-webs, allows us to visualize the nature and
strength of interactions between species. The analysis of biological networks with
respect to diseases has led to the development of the field of network medicine.
[12] Recent examples of application of network theory in biology include
applications to understanding the cell cycle.[13] The interactions between
physiological systems like brain, heart, eyes, etc. can be regarded as a
physiological network.[14]

Narrative network analysis

Narrative network of US Elections 2012[15]

The automatic parsing of textual corpora has enabled the extraction of actors and
their relational networks on a vast scale. The resulting narrative networks, which
can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from Network
theory to identify the key actors, the key communities or parties, and general
properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or
centrality of certain nodes.[16] This automates the approach introduced by
Quantitative Narrative Analysis,[17] whereby subject-verb-object triplets are
identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-
object.[15]

Link analysis
Link analysis is a subset of network analysis, exploring associations between
objects. An example may be examining the addresses of suspects and victims, the
telephone numbers they have dialed and financial transactions that they have
partaken in during a given timeframe, and the familial relationships between these
subjects as a part of police investigation. Link analysis here provides the crucial
relationships and associations between very many objects of different types that
are not apparent from isolated pieces of information. Computer-assisted or fully
automatic computer-based link analysis is increasingly employed by banks and
insurance agencies in fraud detection, by telecommunication operators in
telecommunication network analysis, by medical sector in epidemiology and
pharmacology, in law enforcement investigations, by search engines for relevance
rating (and conversely by the spammers for spamdexing and by business owners for
search engine optimization), and everywhere else where relationships between many
objects have to be analyzed. Links are also derived from similarity of time
behavior in both nodes. Examples include climate networks where the links between
two locations (nodes) are determined for example, by the similarity of the rainfall
or temperature fluctuations in both sites.[18][19][20]

Network robustness
The structural robustness of networks is studied using percolation theory.[21] When
a critical fraction of nodes (or links) is removed the network becomes fragmented
into small disconnected clusters. This phenomenon is called percolation,[22] and it
represents an order-disorder type of phase transition with critical exponents.
Percolation theory can predict the size of the largest component (called giant
component), the critical percolation threshold and the critical exponents. One such
example was in the use of percolation theory to predict the fragmentation of
biological virus shells (capsids), with the percolation threshold of Hepatitis B
Virus capsid predicted and detected experimentally: a molecular, randomly played
game of Jenga on a rhombically tiled sphere. [23] [24]
Web link analysis
Several Web search ranking algorithms use link-based centrality metrics, including
Google's PageRank, Kleinberg's HITS algorithm, the CheiRank and TrustRank
algorithms. Link analysis is also conducted in information science and
communication science in order to understand and extract information from the
structure of collections of web pages. For example, the analysis might be of the
interlinking between politicians' web sites or blogs. Another use is for
classifying pages according to their mention in other pages.[25]

Centrality measures
Information about the relative importance of nodes and edges in a graph can be
obtained through centrality measures, widely used in disciplines like sociology.
For example, eigenvector centrality uses the eigenvectors of the adjacency matrix
corresponding to a network, to determine nodes that tend to be frequently visited.
Formally established measures of centrality are degree centrality, closeness
centrality, betweenness centrality, eigenvector centrality, subgraph centrality and
Katz centrality. The purpose or objective of analysis generally determines the type
of centrality measure to be used. For example, if one is interested in dynamics on
networks or the robustness of a network to node/link removal, often the dynamical
importance[26] of a node is the most relevant centrality measure. For a centrality
measure based on k-core analysis see ref.[27]

Assortative and disassortative mixing

Further information: Assortative mixing
These concepts are used to characterize the linking preferences of hubs in a
network. Hubs are nodes which have a large number of links. Some hubs tend to link
to other hubs while others avoid connecting to hubs and prefer to connect to nodes
with low connectivity. We say a hub is assortative when it tends to connect to
other hubs. A disassortative hub avoids connecting to other hubs. If hubs have
connections with the expected random probabilities, they are said to be neutral.
There are three methods to quantify degree correlations.

Recurrence networks
The recurrence matrix of a recurrence plot can be considered as the adjacency
matrix of an undirected and unweighted network. This allows for the analysis of
time series by network measures. Applications range from detection of regime
changes over characterizing dynamics to synchronization analysis.[28][29][30]

Spread
Content in a complex network can spread via two major methods: conserved spread and
non-conserved spread.[31] In conserved spread, the total amount of content that
enters a complex network remains constant as it passes through. The model of
conserved spread can best be represented by a pitcher containing a fixed amount of
water being poured into a series of funnels connected by tubes . Here, the pitcher
represents the original source and the water is the content being spread. The
funnels and connecting tubing represent the nodes and the connections between
nodes, respectively. As the water passes from one funnel into another, the water
disappears instantly from the funnel that was previously exposed to the water. In
non-conserved spread, the amount of content changes as it enters and passes through
a complex network. The model of non-conserved spread can best be represented by a
continuously running faucet running through a series of funnels connected by tubes.
Here, the amount of water from the original source is infinite. Also, any funnels
that have been exposed to the water continue to experience the water even as it
passes into successive funnels. The non-conserved model is the most suitable for
explaining the transmission of most infectious diseases, neural excitation,
information and rumors, etc.

Interdependent networks
An interdependent network is a system of coupled networks where nodes of one or
more networks depend on nodes in other networks. Such dependencies are enhanced by
the developments in modern technology. Dependencies may lead to cascading failures
between the networks and a relatively small failure can lead to a catastrophic
breakdown of the system. Blackouts are a fascinating demonstration of the important
role played by the dependencies between networks. A recent study developed a
framework to study the cascading failures in an interdependent networks system.[32]
[33]

See also
Complex network
Congestion game
Quantum complex network
Dual-phase evolution
Percolation
Network partition
Network science
Network theory in risk assessment
Network topology
Network analyzer
Seven Bridges of K�nigsberg
Small-world networks
Social network
Scale-free networks
Network dynamics
Sequential dynamical systems
Pathfinder networks
Human disease network
Biological network
Network medicine
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Network Analysis in Electric Power Systems". Energies. 11 (6): 1381.
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Saleh, Mahmoud; Esa, Yusef; Onuorah, Nwabueze; Mohamed, Ahmed A. (2017). "Optimal
microgrids placement in electric distribution systems using complex network
framework". Optimal microgrids placement in electric distribution systems using
complex network framework - IEEE Conference Publication. ieeexplore.ieee.org. pp.
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06-07.
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intracellular communication and signaling errors in signaling networks". BMC
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Newman, M. E. J. "The structure and function of complex networks" (PDF).
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Ignatov, D.Yu.; Filippov, A.N.; Ignatov, A.D.; Zhang, X. (2016). "Automatic
Analysis, Decomposition and Parallel Optimization of Large Homogeneous Networks".
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Network Analysis in Electric Power Systems". Energies. 11 (6): 1381.
doi:10.3390/en11061381.
Saleh, Mahmoud; Esa, Yusef; Onuorah, Nwabueze; Mohamed, Ahmed A. (2017). "Optimal
microgrids placement in electric distribution systems using complex network
framework". Optimal microgrids placement in electric distribution systems using
complex network framework - IEEE Conference Publication. ieeexplore.ieee.org. pp.
1036�1040. doi:10.1109/ICRERA.2017.8191215. ISBN 978-1-5386-2095-3. Retrieved 2018-
06-07.
Grandjean, Martin (2014). "La connaissance est un r�seau". Les Cahiers du
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Wasserman, Stanley and Katherine Faust. 1994. Social Network Analysis: Methods and
Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rainie, Lee and Barry Wellman,
Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.
Newman, M.E.J. Networks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2010
Habibi, Iman; Emamian, Effat S.; Abdi, Ali (2014-10-07). "Advanced Fault Diagnosis
Methods in Molecular Networks". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e108830.
Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j8830H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108830. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC
4188586. PMID 25290670.
Barab�si, A. L.; Gulbahce, N.; Loscalzo, J. (2011). "Network medicine: a network-
based approach to human disease". Nature Reviews Genetics. 12 (1): 56�68.
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Jailkhani, N.; Ravichandran, N.; Hegde, S. R.; Siddiqui, Z.; Mande, S. C.; Rao, K.
V. (2011). "Delineation of key regulatory elements identifies points of
vulnerability in the mitogen-activated signaling network". Genome Research. 21
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Bashan, Amir; Bartsch, Ronny P.; Kantelhardt, Jan. W.; Havlin, Shlomo; Ivanov,
Plamen Ch. (2012). "Network physiology reveals relations between network topology
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Boers, N.; Bookhagen, B.; Barbosa, H.M.J.; Marwan, N.; Kurths, J. (2014).
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"The Geometry of Chthe signal is meaningful, and each level of the signal
represents a different level of the phenomenon that it represents. sinusoidal
voltage waveform by the source information, frequency modulation (FM) changes the
frequency. Other techniques, such as phase modulation or changing the phase of the
carrier signal, are also used.[4]

In an analogue sound recording, the variation in pressure of a sound striking a

microphone creates a corresponding variation in the current passing through it or
voltage across it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of
the current or voltage to increase proportionally while keeping the same waveform
or shape.

Mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also use analogue signals.

Inherent noise
Analogue systems invariably include noise that is random disturbances or
variations, some caused by the random thermal vibrations of atomic particles. Since
all variations of an analogue signal are significant, any disturbance is equivalent
to a change in the original signal and so appears as noise.[5] As the signal is
copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these random variations
become more significant and lead to signal degradation. Other sources of noise may
include crosstalk from other signals or poorly designed components. These
disturbances are reduced by shielding and by using low-noise amplifiers (LNA).[6]

Analogue vs digital electronics

Since the information is encoded differently in analogue and digital electronics,
the way they process a signal is consequently different. All operations that can be
performed on an analogue signal such as amplification, filtering, limiting, and
others, can also be duplicated in the digital domain. Every digital circuit is also
an analogue circuit, in that the behaviour of any digital circuit can be explained
using the rules of analogue circuits.

The use of microelectronics has made digital devices cheap and widely available.

Noise
The effect of noise on an analogue circuit is a function of the level of noise. The
greater the noise level, the more the analogue signal is disturbed, slowly becoming
less usable. Because of this, analogue signals are said to "fail gracefully".
Analogue signals can still contain intelligible information with very high levels
of noise. Digital circuits, on the other hand, are not affected at all by the
presence of noise until a certain threshold is reached, at which point they fail
catastrophically. For digital telecommunications, it is possible to increase the
noise threshold with the use of error detection and correction coding schemes and
algorithms. Nevertheless, there is still a point at which catastrophic failure of
the link occurs.[7][8]

In digital electronics, because the information is quantized, as long as the signal

stays inside a range of values, it represents the same information. In digital
circuits the signal is regenerated at each logic gate, lessening or removing noise.
[9][failed verification] In analogue circuits, signal loss can be regenerated with
amplifiers. However, noise is cumulative throughout the system and the amplifier
itself will add to the noise according to its noise figure.[10][11]
Precision
A number of factors affect how precise a signal is, mainly the noise present in the
original signal and the noise added by processing (see signal-to-noise ratio).
Fundamental physical limits such as the shot noise in components limits the
resolution of analogue signals. In digital electronics additional precision is
obtained by using additional digits to represent the signal. The practical limit in
the number of digits is determined by the performance of the analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC), since digital operations can usually be performed without loss of
precision. The ADC takes an analogue signal and changes it into a series of binary
numbers. The ADC may be used in simple digital display devices, e. g., thermometers
or light meters but it may also be used in digital sound recording and in data
acquisition. However, a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) is used to change a
digital signal to an analogue signal. A DAC takes a series of binary numbers and
converts it to an analogue signal. It is common to find a DAC in the gain-control
system of an op-amp which in turn may be used to control digital amplifiers and
filters.[12]

Design difficulty
Analogue circuits are typically harder to design, requiring more skill than
comparable digital systems.[citation needed] This is one of the main reasons that
digital systems have become more common than analogue devices. An analogue circuit
is usually designed by hand, and the process is much less automated than for
digital systems. Since the early 2000s, there were some platforms that were
developed which enabled Analog design to be defined using software - which allows
faster prototyping. However, if a digital electronic device is to interact with the
real world, it will always need an analogue interface.[13] For example, every
digital radio receiver has an analogue preamplifier as the first stage in the
receive chain.

Circuit classification
Analogue circuits can be entirely passive, consisting of resistors, capacitors and
inductors. Active circuits also contain active elements like transistors. Many
passive analogue circuits are built from lumped elements. That is, discrete
components. However, an alternative is distributed element circuits built from
pieces of transmission line.

See also
Analogue computer
Analogue signal
Digital � for a comparison with analogue
Digital electronics
Analogue recording vs. digital recording
Analogue chip
Analogue verification
Electronic circuit
References
Concise Oxford dictionary (10 ed.). Oxford University Press Inc. 1999. ISBN 0-19-
860287-1.
Plympton, George Washington (1884). The aneroid barometer: its construction and
use. D. Van Nostran Co.
Singmin, Andrew (2001). Beginning Digital Electronics Through Projects. Newnes. p.
9. ISBN 0-7506-7269-2. Signals come from transducers...
Miller, Mark R. (2002). Electronics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp.
232�239. ISBN 0-7641-1981-8. Until the radio came along...
Hsu, Hwei Piao (2003). Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Analogue and
Digital Communications. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 202. ISBN 0-07-140228-4. The
presence of noise degrades the performance of communication systems.
Carr, Joseph J. (2000). Secrets of RF circuit design. McGraw-Hill Professional. p.
423. ISBN 0-07-137067-6. It is common in microwave systems...
Richard Langton Gregory, Even Odder Perceptions, p. 161, Psychology Press, 1994
ISBN 0415061067.
Robin Blair, Digital Techniques in Broadcasting Transmission, p. 34, Focal Press,
2002, ISBN 0240805089.
Chen, Wai-Kai (2005). The electrical engineering handbook. Academic Press. p. 101.
ISBN 0-12-170960-4. Noise from an analog (or small-signal) perspective...
Jon B. Hagen, Radio-Frequency Electronics: Circuits and Applications, p. 203,
Cambridge University Press, 1996 ISBN 0521553563.
Jonathan Davidson, James Peters, Brian Gracely, Voice Over IP Fundamentals, Cisco
Press, 2000 ISBN 1578701686.
Scherz, Paul (2006). Practical electronics for inventors. McGraw-Hill
Professional. p. 730. ISBN 0-07-145281-8. In order for analog devices... to
communicate with digital circuits...
Williams, Jim (1991). Analog circuit design. Newnes. p. 238. ISBN 0-7506-9640-0.
Even within companies producing both analog and digital products...
Categories: Analog circuitsElectronic engineering
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