Ma Thesis PDF

USING SELECTED VISUAL ART ACTIVITIES AS A STRATEGY TO
BOOST GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION AT TRABUOM IN THE ATWIMA
KWANWONMA DISTRICT OF ASHANTI REGION
By
LINDA ARMAH
(Bed. Art Education)
A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi,
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
(Art Education)
Faculty of Art
College of Art and Social Sciences
July, 2012
© 2012, Department of General Art Studies
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the Master of
Arts in Art Education and that to the best of my knowledge, it contains no material
previously published by another person nor material which has been accepted for the
award of any other degree of the University, except where due acknowledgement has
been made in the text.
Linda Armah (20121859) ..........................................

..................................
(Student’s Name &ID No.) Signature Date
Certified by:
Dr. Mavis Osei (Mrs) ......................................

.................................
(Supervisor) Signature Date
Certified by:
Nana Afia Opoku-Asare (Mrs) .......................................

................................
(Head of Department) Signature Date
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ABSTRACT
Education is a human right and not a privilege. Though the United Nations
Conventions on the right of the child makes education a right to all children
irrespective of age and gender, some children at Trabuom in Ashanti Region of Ghana
are denied this right. Though the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees Free
Compulsory Universal Basic Education to every child of school going age
irrespective of gender, religion, ethnicity or cultural background, some girls are being
denied Basic Education. To explore this phenomenon, the study adopted the action
research method to find out why some of the girls in Trabuom in Atwima
Kwanwonma District of Ashanti Region do not go to school and then adopted some
practical art activities that could encourage and sustain more girls’ interest in school.
The study found the factors that negatively affect the girl-child education in
the area as poverty, pregnancy, lack of female models, low level of parents’
education, negative parental attitude towards education, low value attached to
education and sexual harassment by male teachers. The study recommends that the
district assembly should give the farmers and the traders in the community some soft
loans to expand their farms and businesses to enable them earn enough income so that
they can cater for their children. The district girl-child education officer should
organise seminars on sex education for the girls to understand their bodies and the
effects of teenage pregnancy which is rampant in the town to reduce and thereby
encourage more girls to go to school and complete at the highest level. Furthermore,
more female teachers must be posted to the town to serve as role models to the girls in
the town. In addition, parents and guardians must be educated to know the importance
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of girl-child education so that they will not be discriminated against. The district
assembly should also assist girls who are needy but brainy to get access to school.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am most grateful to the Almighty God who by his grace and mercies granted
me the wisdom, knowledge and strength to go about this work successfully. I also
owe a special debt of gratitude to the head of department Nana Afia Opoku-Asare and
my supervisor Dr. Mrs. Mavis Osei who for their patience and support helped to
shape this thesis with the necessary suggestions and encouragement.
My heartfelt thanks go to my husband Mr. Felix Armah who by love, care and
sacrifice gave me the needed attention and financial assistance to make my dream
become a reality. Kay, may God richly bless you and increase your lifespan. I am
exceedingly indebted to my parents, sisters and my brother for their encouragement
and support. My deepest appreciation and gratitude also go to my children Lois,
Obed, Gideon and Aaron for their co-operation and understanding throughout my
study.
Special thanks go to all those who in diverse ways helped me to come out with
this thesis successfully, not forgetting Daniel Akuoko, Ampadu Asiedu, Salomey
Darkoa Appiah and Lovelance Evelyn Arhin for their suggestions and moral support
during my research. Colleagues, I say a big thank you for without you, I would not
have come to this far. I am also grateful to the government for giving me some money
as a research grant to enable me complete my project successfully. May God bless
you all. Amen.
July, 2012 L.
A
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE........................................................................................................
DECLARATION PAGE...................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... vi
LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES….......................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ ix
ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study............................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem............................................................................ 1
1.3 Objectives................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Research Questions..................................................................................... 2
1.5 Delimitation................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Limitations................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Definition of Terms...................................................................................... 4
1.8 Abbreviations…………………………………………………………….. 4
1.9 Importance of the study................................................................................ 5
1.10 Organization of the rest of the text............................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Overview………………………………………………………………. 7
6
2.2 Meaning of Education................................................................................. 7
2.3 Types of Education...................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Formal Education....................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Informal Education.................................................................................... 9
2.3.3 Non-formal Education.............................................................................. 10
2.4 Educational Reform in Ghana…………………………………………. 10
2.4.1 What is Gender………………………………………………………… 12
2.5 Gender Equity…………………………………………………………. 13
2. 6 Girl-Child Education………………………………………….............. 13
2.7 Factors that influence Girl-Child Education............................................... 13
2.8 Strategies to improve Girl-Child Education................................................ 20
2. 9 Alternative Education for the girl child....................................................... 24
2.10 Vocational Education.................................................................................. 26
2.11 Entrepreneurial skills.................................................................................... 27
2.12 Visual Arts Education………………………………………………… 28
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………. 30
3.2 Research Design.............................................................................................. 30
3.3 Population........................................................................................................ 32
3.4 Sample and Technique……………………………………………………….. 33
3.5 Data Collecting Instruments............................................................................. 34
3.6 Data Collection Procedures.............................................................................. 36
3.7 Data Analysis Plan............................................................................................ 50
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Overview
4.2 Data collected through interview………………………………………….. 51
4.2.1 Interview with the headmistress of Trabuom R/C JHS…………………… 51
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4.2.2 Interview with the teachers at Trabuom R/C JHS………………………… 52
4.2.3 Interview with parents and elders of Trabuom……………………………. 52
4.2.4 Interview with the students……………………………………………….. 54
4.3 Outcome of Observation………………………………………………….. 55
4.4 The Girls and their Practical Activities…………………………………… 56
4.5. Discussion of Main Findings……………………………………………..... 70
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary......................................................................................................... 75
5.2 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 77
5.3 Recommendations.......................................................................................... 78
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………. 80
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………….. 88
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.1: Factors that influence girls’ education………………………………. 18
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Sample size………………………………………………………. 33
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ABBREVIATIONS
BECE: Basic Education Certificate Examination………………………. 12
ICT : Information Communication Technology………………………... 12
EFA : Education For All………………………………………………… 25
JHS : Junior High School……………………………………………… 28
BDT : Basic Design Technology………………………………………. 28
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1: Teaching placement of cards……………………………………
39
Plate 3.2: Cutting ribbons for the wreath………………………………….
40
Plate 3.3: Teaching wreath making……………………………………….
40
Plate 3.4: Demonstrating pleating of ribbon and tacking on the frame…..
41
Plate 3.5: Students making a wreath……………………………………..
41
Plate 3.6: Assessing the made by girls……………………………………
42
Plate 3.7 Introducing pearls to the girls…………………………………
43
Plate 3.8 Demonstrating threading of pearls using elastic string………...
43
Plate 3.9 Teaching the girls how to fix locket on necklace…………….
44
Plate 3.10 Demonstrating how to handle the crocheting pin……………..
45
Plate 3.11 Observing the use of crocheting pin to make a loop…………...
45
Plate 3.12 Demonstrating how to lay a warp………………………………
47
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Plate 3.13 The girls were laying a warp for chair back…………………...
47
Plate 3.14 Demonstrating basic macramé knot…………………………..
49
Plate 3.15 Teaching alternative macramé knot………………………….
49
Plate 4.1 A wreath that the girls were doing……………………………
57
Plate 4.2 A wreath made by the JHS 3 girls…………………………….
57
Plate 4.3 This work was also done by the JHS 2………………………. 58
Plate 4.4 Discussing with girls about the method used in making the necklace….. 58
Plate 4.5 Some necklace made by the girls…………………………….
59
Plate 4.6 The girls arranged their works for the researcher to inspect…… 59
Plate 4.7 The researcher was assessing the girls’ work………………….. 60
Plate 4.8 Samples of knitted chair backs made by the…………………… 60
Plate 4.9 A knitted table cloth made by the girls……………………….. 61
Plate 4.10 Some of the girls’ work……………………………………… 61
Plate 4.11 Articles made by the girls……………………………………. 62
Plate 4.12 Vest made by one of the girls……………………………….. 62
Plate 4.13 Blouse was made by a JHS 2 girl..…………………………… 63
Plate 4.14 A pair trousers knitted by a JHS 3 girl……………………….. 63
Plate 4.15 School bag knitted by two JHS 2 girls………………………. 64
Plate 4.16 Knitted vests by the girls……………………………………. 64
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Plate 4.17 Bareback vest knitted by one of the girls…………………… 65
Plate 4.18 Articles presented by girls for exhibition………………......... 65
Plate 4.19 Singlet made by one of the girls……………………………… 66
Plate 4.20 Sample of a woven chair back using a wooden frame……….. 66
Plate 4.21 Chair back woven by the girls………………………………… 67
Plate 4.22 Some bags that the girls made ……………............................. 67
Plate 4.23 Girls assembled their works for inspection and assessment…… 68
Plate 4.24 Macramé bag was made by a JHS 3 girl………………………. 68
Plate 4.25 Bags arranged for assessment…………………………………. 69
Plate 4.26 Bag made by two girls who are in JHS 2…………………….. 69
Plate 4.27 Macramé bags arranged for exhibition……………………….. 70
Plate 4.28 This was made by a JHS 3 girl………………………………… 70
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of the study
Education is seen as a major tool for national development. Educating boys
and girls produce similar increases in their subsequent earnings and expand future
opportunities for both. However, when girls are educated, the society and the nation
as a whole benefit much (UNICEF, 1990). Odaga and Heneveld (1995) are of the
view that various institutions and individuals have advocated for the need to educate
girls since education is a pivot around which everything revolves. Njeuma (1993),
Gachukia (1992) and Namuddu (1992) point out that girls’ participation in education
has been identified as one of the most significant developmental challenges facing
Sub-Saharan Africa. Generally, the enrollment rate of girls remains lower than that of
boys, their drop out and absenteeism rates higher, and their achievements and
performance are poorer particularly in Mathematics and Science (Harding, 1992).
The most daunting challenge in Ghana’s education system is that of promoting
girl- child education. A country’s development greatly lies on the shoulders of women
because they play a major role in the society. This is what Kofi Annan, former UN
Secretary General meant when he cited Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey’s statement that “if you
educate a man, you educate an individual but if you educate a woman, you educate a
whole nation’’ at the World Education Forum in 2000.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Girl-child education is recognized as one of the critical pathways to promote
social and economic development. Offorma (2009) shows that girls do not have
access to school despite the concerted efforts to push the cause. Fiscal crises, civil
strife, political instability, drought, endemic poverty and persistently high
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demographic pressures on the education systems have resulted in stagnation in
enrollment and a decline in quality (Asmal, 2003). In view of this, the government of
Ghana introduced the FCUBE (Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education) in 1996
to promote access to basic education for all children in the country (World Bank
Report 2004).
Despite the numerous campaigns made by the Ghana government and other
stakeholders in the country, female enrollment at Trabuom in the Atwima Kwanwoma
District of Ashanti Region is very low as many girls do not go to school. A
preliminary study at the Trabuom Roman Catholic (R/C) Junior High School (JHS)
revealed that out of a class size of 40 students, in each class, there were 13 girls and
27 boys in JHS 1A, 11 girls and 29 boys in 1B. 2A had 7 girls and 33 boys while 2B
had 12 female girls and 28 male students. In JHS 3, the 3A class had 9 girls and 31
boys whereas 3B had 12 girls and 28 boys. This shows a clear gender disparity
between girls and boys enrolled in school. With this problem in mind, the researcher
sought to understand why few girls were enrolled in the school.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1. To establish the factors that influence girls’ enrollment at Trabuom R/C JHS.
2. To identify and explore visual arts activities that can encourage and sustain girls’
interest in school.
3. To assess the impact of the selected visual art activities on the girls’ enrollment at
Trabuom R/C JHS.
1.4 Research Questions
1. Why are some female students at Trabuom not going to school?
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2. What selected visual art activities can be used to encourage and sustain the
girls’ interest in school?
3. What impact will the selected visual art activities have on the girls’ at
Trabuom R/C JHS?
1.5 Delimitation
The research was limited to Trabuom in the Atwima Kwanwoma District of
Ashanti Region with Trabuom Roman Catholic Junior High School as a case study.
The focus was on girls between 12 and 16 years of age, particularly those in J.H.S
One, Two and Three. The choice of the age range was based on the fact that girls who
normally drop out of school are within this particular group.
1.6 Limitations
The study was limited by the fact that only the period allocated to vocational
skills (Visual Art) on the JHS time table could be used through the research.
Negotiating access to the girls took a long time before the researcher was allowed to
interview them. This limited the amount of data collected because she could not
interview the number of girls she intended to solicit data from. Some parents and
elders collected copies of the questionnaire but returned them unanswered after
keeping them for two weeks with the reason that girls’ education is not important
because the girls will grow and get married which does not require school education.
The low level of education in the study area made it difficult to use the designed
questionnaire to collect data from a large number of people. Some respondents also
thought the researcher was carrying out a government exercise so they demanded to
be paid for their input. Besides, the researcher had to plead with some of the
respondents who were farmers before she got the opportunity to interview them.
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They were simply not willing to leave their farm work for the interviews because they
realized that they were not going to be paid for it. The research grant from the
government was inadequate to satisfy payments demanded by respondents for data
required to complete the thesis.
1.7 Definitions of Terms
Education: The process by which the mind develops through learning at a school,
college or University.
Girl-Child: A biological female child from birth to eighteen years of age.
Junior High School: Educational institution in which children who complete the
primary school attend for three years.
Vocational Education: Education given to students to enable them acquire
skills which will help them gain employment in future.
Crocheting: A type of needlework that uses a hooked needle to pull a thread into
interlocking looped stitches to form a fabric.
Macrame : A creative and decorative art of knotting.
Abbreviations
BECE: Basic Education Certificate Examination.
JHS : Junior High School.
BDT : Basic Design Technology.
EFA : Education For All.
ICT : Information Communication Technology.
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1.8 Importance of the Study
1. It is a fact that when girls are educated the society in which they live also
develops. Thus, when the girls grow and become mothers, they are able to help reduce
fertility rate, infant and maternal mortality, enhance family health and improve on
their children’s education. According to Lifanda (2005), women who are educated are
able manage their homes, educate their children and also give their children food that
has the needed nutrients which can help them grow very well.
2. Besides, the outcome of this study will be valuable to both teachers and
parents in the sense that if a girl is not academically good, there are some vocational
skills that the girl can be taught so that she will be able to make ends meet in future.
Agyenim-Boateng (2011), says when students learn visual arts as a course they
acquire some skills and knowledge which help them to become self reliant.
3. The study will help to eliminate some bad impressions and misconceptions about
girl-child education. For instance the notion that if a girl is educated, she will
definitely end up in the kitchen.
4. The study will create an awareness that negative cultural practices like early
marriage, the “trokosi” system where young virgins are sent to shrines to serve the
fetish priest for the offense committed by a relative, and child betrothal that hinder
human development and progress especially with regards to the girl-child are not
good.
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5. The outcome of the study will be valuable for the training of teachers,
particularly art teachers. This is because it will enable them to identify the appropriate
methods to use in teaching.
6. The thesis provides a body of knowledge that will serve as a reference to
researchers. For example researchers who will conduct research in similar situations
can use this work as a source of reference,
1.9 Organization of the Rest of Text
Chapter Two deals with review of related literature and the Chapter Three
entails the methodology used in gathering data. Presentation of data and discussion of
findings are found in Chapter Four while summary,conclusions and recommendations
are also in Chapter Five.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Overview
This chapter forms the framework of the study. The researcher selected and
reviewed documents that are related to the study. Apart from definitions of education
and their types, the review also focuses on factors that influence girl-child education,
gender equity and vocational education which were sourced from books, theses and
other secondary sources.
2.2 Meaning of Education
Education has been defined to mean many things by various authors. Offorma
(2009), Afful Broni and Ziggah (2006), Ocho (2005), Bhushan (1997) and Aggarwal
(1995) see education as the process of providing information to an inexperienced
person to help him or her develop physically, mentally, socially, emotionally,
spiritually, politically and economically. These authors say that the definition given
means that the individual has to acquire adequate and appropriate knowledge, skills
and attitudes and values known as cognitive, psychomotor and affective behaviours to
be able to function optimally as a citizen. These behaviours are the focus of training
individuals in institutions of learning.
Annor (1997), Bishop (1995) and Shafritz (1988) are of the view that
education is what happens to human beings from the day they are born to the day they
die. They perceive education beyond schooling and think it is a process that covers
the total lifespan of every human being. This implies that education is more than a
formal process and amounts to something more than formal learning as well.
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Antwi (1992) sees education as sharing, transmission or imparting of
knowledge that is worthwhile. He adds that education is a process which involves
helping those who are taught to become aware of what is happening. Arends (2002)
claims that the proper meaning of education covers these four important aspects of
how we become educated:
1. The necessity of having and manipulating knowledge, skills and information.
2. The helpfulness of teachers, without requiring them.
3. The constant need to see through the inherent illusion that arises from our
unconscious mind.
4. Our inability to influence our states of mind.
Based on the four criteria given, Arends sees education as a process of
cognitive cartography which is explained as what all learners do to develop a map of
reliable methods of getting from negative state of mind to positive state of mind.
It can be inferred from the various definitions that education is the process of
creating the awareness which leads to critical thinking and in effect leads to human
development. In other words, education opens one’s eyes about something for the
person to get an interest in it and then develop a positive attitude towards that.
2.3 Types of Education
2.3. 1 Formal Education
Norris (1999) and Nie, Junn & Stehlik-Barry (1996) explain formal education
as a process which helps one to acquire verbal and cognitive proficiency so that
he/she would be able to construct his/her own ideas and thoughts critically. The
definition above indicates that formal education aims at opening people’s minds so
that knowledge and skills acquired can be used profitably. Besides, Krueger & Mikael
20
(2001) and Farrant (1996) agree that formal education is a process whereby children
are provided with the tools for learning, such as reading, writing and manipulating
numbers. It also introduces the children to the richness of the wider world and gives
them the chance later on to obtain work and make a meaningful contribution to
society. The authors imply that when children are given the necessary tuition, they
will be able to read and write. When they are able to do so, it will help them to
develop themselves and the society as a whole.
Annoh (1997) has the same idea as Shafritz (1988) that formal education is the
process of acquiring new knowledge and skills through the benefit of structured
teaching. They further explain that formal education is that which is deliberately
planned and is guided by specific aims and objects, it should be time bound.
2. 3. 2 Informal Education
Norris (1999), Annoh (1997) and Shafritz (1988) have indicated that informal
education is the process of acquiring new knowledge and skills without the benefit of
structured teaching. Thus, it is based on a style or approach in which desired skills or
behaviours are reached through means that are not intentionally organized, structured
or planned. The authors simply see informal education as a way of behaviour that has
been traditionally accepted by the society and does not necessarily take place in the
conventional classroom although some aspects of informal education do occur in the
classroom.
Roy and Woodcock (2010) point out that informal education is that learning
which goes on outside of a formal learning environment such as a school, a college or
a university. In other words they view informal education as learning which occur
outside the classroom or lecture theatre. Smith (1997) adds that informal education is
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just the learning that goes on in our daily lives or learning projects that we undertake
for ourselves. It can be seen that informal education is incidental as it does not occur
in the formal classrooms and is not planned. It occurs unintentionally and the
education can come from anywhere including one’s home and church.
2.3.3 Non-Formal Education
According to Spronk (1999), non-formal education is any skill that one
acquires while he or she is growing. Carron and Carr-Hill (1991) define non-formal
education as all educational activities organized outside the formal system and
designed to serve identifiable clientele. Farrant (1996) sees non-formal education as
any organized activity, outside the structure of the formal education system that is
consciously aimed at meeting specific learning needs of particular groups of children,
youths or adults in the community. Addison (2009) adds that non-formal education
takes many forms like adult education, continuing education, on-the- job training,
accelerated training, farmer or work training, functional literacy, extension services
and second-chance schools. These three types of education reviewed are relevant to
the study in the sense it will help the researcher to know how to explore the selected
visual art activities with the girls.
2.4 Educational Reform in Ghana
Ghana’s education has gone through a lot of amendments since independence.
According to Agyenim-Boateng (2011), as soon as Ghana gained independence, the
Education Act of 1961 came into being and the Dzobo Report also gave birth to the
Junior Secondary School (JSS) Concept in 1973. In 1974, the New Structure and
Content of Education designed by the Dzobo Committee were implemented. There
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was also an Education Commission Report on Basic and Secondary Education which
also brought about the 1987/ 88 Education Reform Programme.
The Free Compulsory Universal Basic Programme which was enshrined in the
1992 Constitution was introduced in 1996 and the Ghana Education Trust Fund set up
by the GET Fund Act 581 was implemented in 2000 to make sure that every child
gets access to basic education in Ghana. The Jophus Anamuah-Mensah’s
Committee1992 Constitution was introduced in 1996 and the Ghana Education Trust
Fund set up by the GET Fund Act 581 was implemented in 2000 to make sure that
every child gets access to basic education in Ghana. The Jophus Anamuah-Mensah’s
Committee which was set up by the former president of Ghana, H. E John Agyekum
Kuffour in 2001 also reviewed the education system and proposed a new structure to
resolve the flaws identified by the Committee. The 29 member Anamuah-Mensah
Committee report brought about the 2007 Educational Reform which is still in use but
with a slight change to that of Senior High School (Ghana Government Official Portal
website, 2010).
The new Education Reform had the following elements: two years of
Kindergarten, six years of Primary School and three years of Junior High School and
four years of Senior High School education. This makes up a total of eleven years
Universal Basic Education. From the JHS, students who pass the Basic Education
Certificate Examination (BECE) are expected to enter the SHS for four years. The
current government has reverted this from four to three years. At the SHS, students
are expected to offer any course of their choice for a period of four years (now three
years).
The Anamuah-Mensah Committee also placed emphasis on Literacy,
Numeracy, Creative Arts, ICT and Problem Solving Skills at the Basic level. Apart
23
from the Kindergarten and Lower Primary where the Ghanaian Language of the
school’s location is used alongside English, at all other levels the medium of
instruction is English.
The New Education Reform also introduced Creative Arts to the Primary
school curriculum and Basic Design and Technology to the Junior High School (JHS)
curriculum. Both constitute the nine-year Basic Education system in Ghana. These
subjects were introduced in the basic school curriculum to enable both primary and
JHS students to exhibit their inherent skills so that these skills could be used to solve
problems in the society in which they live. The reform designed the JHS curriculum
to consist of nine subjects which are English Language, Mathematics, Integrated
Science, Social Studies, Ghanaian Language, Information Communication
Technology, Religious and Moral Education, French and Basic Design and
Technology. The Basic Design and Technology comprise Pre-Technical Skills, Home
Economics and Visual Arts and students can choose to study one of these areas. The
general aim of the JHS courses is to equip students with basic life skills which can
help them to solve some problems in life.
2.5 What is Gender?
According to Fant (2008), gender is being male or female. Evans-Solomon
(2004) explains gender as the perception of maleness or femaleness related to our
membership in a given society. Fant(2008) is of the view that the society assigns
roles based on a person’s sex. He adds that some of the roles are assigned while some
are shaped by ideology, culture, religion and economic development. Gender roles,
according to the author, are learned behaviours in a given society or community or
24
other social groups through activities, tasks and responsibilities that are perceived as
fit for males and females.
2.5.1 Gender Equity
According to Osita-Oleribe (2007), gender equity is whereby both males and females
are given equal opportunity either in school, work place and the society in which they
live. Ngounoue (2010) also adds that gender equity is a fair and reasonable way of
behaving towards males and females so that both are treated equally without any
discrimination.
2.6 Girl-child Education
According to Evans-Solomon (2004), girl-child education is any formal
education that the girl-child receives to enable her acquire knowledge, skills, good
habit, values and attitudes. The values that the girls acquire through education can
help them to exhibit their talents. Offorma (2009) explains girl-child education as
education girls receive through learning and it can be formal or informal. She adds
that it is very important that girls are given equal opportunities as boys to enable them
use what they have learnt to solve problems in their society. Girl-child education has
since been given a boost in some parts of Ghana (Evans-Solomon, 2004).
2.7 Factors that Influence Girl-Child Education
Randell and Gergel (2009) and Rena (2007) give some of the factors that
influence Girl-Child Education as follows:
 Curricula that reinforce traditional gender stereotypes.
 Cost of Primary and Secondary Education.
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 Inadequate sanitation facilities and lack of provision of sanitary.
 Cost of basic and secondary education.
 Sexual harassment by male teachers and classmates
 Lack of female teachers as role models
Ocho (2005) adds that in developing countries, despite the decrease in the
gender gap, girls still receive less education than boys for reasons such as institutional
structure which exhibits biases against girls’ school choice and cultural impediments.
In India, specifically Andhra Pradesh, Rena (2007) found that parents’ inability to pay
their wards’ school fees have made them to decide not to send their girl children to
school because of inadequate income. Rena (2007 claims that parents try to keep the
girl- children in the house with the view that the girls will help them both in the farm
and also take care of the younger siblings. On the other hand, parents in Andhra
Pradesh who managed to send their girl-children to school withdrew them so that they
can help their mothers to manufacture local cigarettes known as “beedi” which they
sell to earn money for survival as well as for the girls’ marriage in future. Other
factors that militate against girl-child education, according to Fant (2008) and King &
Hill (1993), are demand and supply factors while Hyde (1993) adds household,
societal and institutional factors.
Lungwangwa, Kelly & Sililo (1999) agree with Odaga and Heneveld (1995)
that the factors that impede girl-child education are school-related factors, political
and institutional factors, socio-cultural factors and socio-economic factors. The
school-related factors and political and institutional factors represent supply whiles
socio-cultural factors and socio-economic factors represent demand. The socio-
economic and socio-cultural factors can further be characterized as limiting the
26
demand for female education. The authors opine that at the household and community
levels, demand for female education is limited, particularly in poorer communities
and rural areas. The authors claim poverty is a major depressing factor that prevents
female education and where resources are scarce and choices have to be made, boys
are more likely to be sent to school.
Socio-cultural factors are a major deterrent to schooling for girls. This is
because some parents hold very strong negative views or are ambivalent about girls’
schooling and see little relevance in formal education for girls. Bista (2004) and
Houston (2003) are of the opinion that social and cultural beliefs, practices and
attitudes often do not favour girls in their pursuit of education as boys. The authors
cite factors that influence girl- child education in Ghana as financial factors, societal /
parental attitudes to girls’ education and lack of female role models. Houston’s(2003)
explanation is that financial strain on parents particularly parents in the rural areas
who are unable to provide some basic needs of their girl-child is an obstacle for their
girl- child to further their education.
Kasente (2004) and Kukuru (2003) mention that in Uganda, early marriage is
a factor that influences girl- child education. They found out that when the girl- child
grows and marries, it helps the family to escape the route from poverty. The authors
found that parents think that if their girl children are sent to school, they will get
pregnant and the parental investment in them will be a waste of money. Holmes
(2003) expounds that overall, females receive less education than males, and they tend
to dropout, or are withdrawn earlier for economic and social-cultural reasons.
According to Holmes, the opportunity cost of sending female children to school in the
rural areas of Uganda is very high. Parents therefore push their girls to marry early
27
and the early marriage of the girls helps the parents to acquire a lot of money since the
benefit of their schooling will not be accrued to their parental household.
Lifanda (2005) also emphasizes on the negative social attitudes and cultural
practices which serve as a hindrance to girl child education in Nigeria mainly because
parents have preference for their boys’ education over that of girls. The reason given
is that the family name is preserved in the lineage of the male child, hence the male or
boy child should be given better education than the girl-child. Lifanda explains that
the belief that women are mainly brought up for the purpose of reproduction and
domestic activity hinders the need to educate the girl-child as it is considered a waste
of resources. The author further explains that some fathers in Nigeria think it is of no
use to send their girl-child to school because she will by all means marry and will
become another person’s family member. Also, if a girl-child is educated, it will be
very difficult for her husband to control her in marriage due to the knowledge she has
acquired. Lifanda (2005) also mentions that one ethnic group in Mali prevents girls
from attending school because their religious beliefs and attitudes remain very strong
and for that matter women are not allowed to participate in literacy classes. He again
points out that girls are not permitted to be seen in public places where they would
mingle with the opposite sex. For this same reason, the girls in a village in Nigeria are
also not able to attend school.
According to Randell & Gergel (2009), the four main factors that affect girls’
education in Nigeria are macro-level factors, legal and policy factors, school-related
factors and socio-cultural factors. The authors explain the various factors as follows:
the macro-level factors are poverty, inadequate educational resources, HIV/AIDS,
continued economic dependence on former colonial powers, and urban versus rural
resource disparities. The legal and policy factors are lack of government funding for
28
schools and teachers, lack of free basic education and lack of financial incentives for
girls education. They outline the school-related factors as curricula that reinforce
traditional gender stereotypes, inadequate sanitation facilities and lack of provision of
sanitary materials for teenage girls, lack of female teachers as role models and sexual
harassment by male teachers and classmates. Randell & Gergel give the socio-cultural
factors as sexual and gender based violence, child labour and domestic labour, early
marriages and education for boys being more highly valued.
It can be inferred from the literature cited that the factors that limit girls
participation in formal education ranges from finance to religion and male attitudes to
women and girls. These factors have been categorized by Odaga & Heneveld (1995)
in Figure 2.1. As seen from the diagram below, the outcome for girls is absenteeism,
high levels of dropout and levels of illiteracy particularly in the developing countries.
29
Fig 2.1: Factors that influence girls’ education.
School Related Factors Political and Institutional Factors
Prohibitive costs of schooling Political instability and civil strife
Irrelevant curricula Unclear girls’ education strategy
Long distance to schools Low status of women
Sexual harassment and/or liaison Fiscal crisis
Pregnancy Limited employment
Socio-cultural Factors Socio-economic Factors
Premium placed on apprenticeships Poverty
Initiation ceremonies Direct Schooling costs
Early marriage and bride price/ wealth systems Limited employment prospects
Religion The economic value of girls
Gender socialization Level of parental education
Source: Odaga and Heneveld (1995)
Adetunde and Akensina (2008) cite some of the factors that influence the girl-child
education in the Kassena-Nankana District of Upper East Region, Ghana, as poverty,
30
long-held negative attitudes about women’s intellectual capabilities, teenage
pregnancy, early marriage, examination failure in mathematics and science, and the
traditional division of household labour that continues to keep vast numbers of girls
out of the classroom.
Furthermore, Wilson (2010) adds that some of the barriers to girls’ education
are low levels of parents’ education, religious practices, poverty and pregnancy.
Wilson stresses that due to these factors some girls in Africa, especially Malawi, are
unable to go to school as their male counterparts. As a result, girls have been
relegated to the background and find it difficult to forge ahead in life.
Anin and Huq (2008) are of the opinion that girls in Bangladesh are prevented
from schooling by marriage. According to them, parents prefer collecting dowry
prices on their girl children than to send them to school. The reason is that the parents
think it is a waste of resources to send the girl child to school because at all cost the
girl will marry and her education will be useless.
Ngounoue (2010), Hart (2009), Uwakwe (2008) and Osita-Oleribe (2007)
assert that girl-child education has suffered several setbacks over the years due to
socio-cultural, economic and political factors. They add that girls constitute the
largest population of illiterate children world wide and because they are discriminated
against in education they are unable to occupy high positions as their male
counterparts. In view of this there has been a serious human and economic impact on
the society. Hart stresses that despite the Kenyan government’s abolition of fees,
more than 800,000 children continue to miss out in education particularly girls. By
investigating why girls were still out of school, Hart (2009) found the cause to be
pregnancy, sexual harassment, negative parental attitude towards education and
gender stereotypes. Although these factors exist, Hart believes girls need to be
31
empowered in order to become future leaders, self-fulfilled individuals and role
models in the communities. In Malawi, cultural factors and gender-specific attitudes
about the division of labour also shape decisions about whether a child should or
should not be in school (Davison and Kanyuka,1992).
2.8 Strategies to improve Girl-Child Education
Mumba (2002) explains education as a tool which helps human beings to
develop very well. Education for girls in Zambia was not encouraging so the
Programme for Advance Girls Education (PAGE) was instituted in 1994 to focus on
capacity building, gender sensitization, and quality education for all children
especially girls. This was done to empower girls and women to fully participate in
economic and social development of the nation. Pigozzi (1999) thinks an important
aspect of the measures that can be taken to mediate girl child education is to check the
mental and physical health of the girl, her economic needs and educational needs. The
author insists that life skills such as safety and sanitation are very important to the
girl-child so she must be taught this. To Pigozzi attention must be paid to skills
training to increase the livelihood of girls and women.
To increase the participation of girls in secondary school in Malawi, the
government of Malawi in 1993 adopted a policy which allowed girls who had become
pregnant to return to school one year later (Mazloum, 2000). This was because 585
girls were dismissed from school due to pregnancy from 1997 to 2000 while 541 were
readmitted within that same period as a result of the policy. Bernard (2000) is of the
view that making education free and compulsory is the keystone of any national plan
to eliminate gender disparity in education and achieve universal education. Bernard
emphasizes the need to make the classroom more child-centred and gender sensitive
so that there will be high enrolment rate for girls. Bernard adds that both male and
32
female teachers must receive training in gender awareness in the classroom and be
given regular salaries so that they can help implement the policies that will be
introduced. Furthermore, the author adds that allowing young mothers to return to
school and providing alternative education for girls also increase girls’ participation in
education. Bernard (2002) cites an example that in 2000, Chile allowed girls who had
dropped out of school due to pregnancy to continue and complete their education after
they have given birth while in Turkey, learning centres were opened in five provinces
to enable girls who did not get formal education acquire alternative education.
Another strategy that Bernard (2002) talks about is to recruit more female
teachers who can serve as role models and make the girls feel more comfortable in
school. Besides, girls must be given the opportunity to participate in sports because
female athletes gain recognition and they become mentors to others. Through sports,
girls are given the chance to be leaders and improve their confidence and self-esteem.
According to Vescio (2005), sports play a major role in girl-child education.
That is when girls are involved in sporting activities it helps them to stay in school
and the sports also broaden their minds. He suggests that girls should be forced to
engage in sports so that it can be used as a strategy to boost girl-child education.
Similarly, Bernard (2002), says sports can contribute to achieving gender parity in
education because as girls participate in sports, they acquire new interpersonal skills.
And through additional social networks, the girls gain access to different opportunities
which allow them to become more engaged in school and community life. The author
cites an example that in Romania, sports has increased school participation among
girls and their academic performance as well. Lincove (2006) agrees with Bruce
(1997) that educating girls produces considerable social and welfare benefits, such as
lower infant mortality and fertility rates.
33
In Bruce’s (1997) view, girls’ education in Ghana has some strategies which
are quantitative (targeting access to and participation in education), and qualitative
(focusing on transforming the learning environment and increasing achievement).
They also include improving management efficiency, which could increase retention
and completion. Other strategies that can help increase access to education of girls
are:
 Use of role models.

 Mobilising parents, communities and the private sector in support of
girls’ education.
 Supporting guardians or parents to cater for their children or wards
schooling.
 Addressing local problems.
The qualitative strategies in girls’ education are:
Making education relevant to the lives of girls

 Providing incentives to female teachers to teach in remote areas.
 Providing teachers with sensitisation and training.
 Increasing the supply of school infrastructure or teaching and learning
materials.
In a speech on the strategies to increase girls’ education, Kofi Annan, UN
Secretary General mentioned at the World Education Forum in 2000 that
No development strategy is better than one that involves women as central

players. It has immediate benefits for nutrition, health, savings and
reinvestment at the family, community, and ultimately country level. In other
words, educating girls is a social development policy that works. It is a long
term investment that yields an exceptional high return. We need those with
power to change things to come together in an alliance for girls’ education:
governments, voluntary progressive groups and above all, local communities,
schools and families. (p.11)
Tomasevski (2005) and DeJaeghere (2004) are of the view that there must be a
strategy which will ensure that all girls start and finish primary school. Their reason is
that education is a lever to provide girls with choices in life. Because primary
34
education may not be enough, the authors add the need to apply human rights law to
mould girls’ education. This suggests that girls should have an equal right in
education and their equal rights should be promoted through education. Tomasevski
(2005) and DeJaeghere (2004) further stress that integrating girls into mainstream
schools without altering curricula and textbooks perpetuates the stereotypes that
impede gender equality. They indicate that some textbooks tend to portray women as
staying at home whiles men are making history. An example is where textbooks in
Peru, women are mentioned ten times less than men while in Croatia, the study of
secondary school textbook showed that sons are the subject of 42% of the material
on family life, and daughters only 17%.
The Government of Ghana introduced an Education Strategic Plan from 2003
to 2015 which indicated that there should be increase in access to and participation in
education and training (Ameyaw Akumfi, 2003).Thus, girls and other disadvantaged
groups, must be encouraged to enroll in school. Besides, the Education Strategic Plan
stipulates that there must be improvement in the quality of teaching and learning for
enhanced girls’ achievement in school. Vocational/Technical education must be
improved and extended to all schools so that girls will be motivated to go to school.
Randell and Gergel (2009) outline some strategies that can improve girl-child
education and these strategies are as follows. The first strategy is making the
classroom more child-centred and gender sensitive. To the authors teachers should
involve students in their lessons so that the girls will be able to participate actively in
class. The authors cite an example in Guatemala, where teachers used participatory
teaching and learning methods to encourage girls to express themselves freely in
class. In addition, teachers make full use of the local language in teaching for students
to understand whatever is being taught and this has improved the enrolment rate of
35
girls in schools. Randell and Gergel mention that in Zambia, the Ministry of
Education has recruited and trained teachers to become sensitive to gender and child
rights issues in the country. They recommend that both female and male teachers
should receive training in gender issues so that they can cope with every student in the
classroom. Without this, some teachers may value and encourage boys’ participation
in class more than they value girls’ and may allocate school tasks along strict gender
lines, leaving girls to sweep the floors and the toilets.
Another strategy that Bernard (2002) mentions is eliminating gender bias
from textbooks and learning materials. He outlines that in Viet Nam, the government
has developed a new gender-sensitive teacher-training module which ensures that
textbooks are gender neutral and has increased girls’ enrolment in school to 28
percent. More so, Bernard (2002) is of the view that supplying safe water and latrines
encourage girls to go to school. The reason is that some girls drop out of school at the
onset of menstruation partly because there are no separate toilet facilities for both
boys and girls. This shows that a wide variety of strategies could be implemented to
promote girls’ education across the world.
2.9 Alternative Education for the girl child
According to Dennis and Fentiman (2007), alternative education is the over-
arching term that refers to all types of education programmes that are often not
considered formal education programmes by agencies, governments and donors. To
them, alternative education normally goes on outside the classroom. The authors
explain that alternative education programmes are generally designed for children and
youth who have missed the opportunity to go to school or who have dropped out of
school.
36
Baxter and Bethke (2009) define alternative education as a perspective and not
a procedure or programme. They explain that alternative is based upon the belief that
there are many ways to become educated as well as many types of environments and
structures within which this may occur. The authors stress that alternative education
helps to achieve the goals of Education for All (EFA) and improvement of the quality
of education. Baxter and Bethke say there are two broad types of alternative education
programmes which are those that provide an alternative means of access to education
(for example, accelerated learning programmes and home-based or community-based
schools) and those that are alternative in curriculum provision.
The authors explain the alternative access programmes as those that provide
alternative methods of delivery to “fill the gap” of education provision for children
who are not enrolled in the formal system due to age, gender, ethnicity or
geographical location. Alternative access programmes generally include the use of a
formal curriculum and pedagogy. According to the Baxter and Bethke(2009), case
studies in Nepal, Sierra Leone as well as Liberia reveal that the introduction of such
programmes often improve quality at the learner level but may not always address
quality concerns related to the overall education system. Alternative curriculum
provision programmes are those that offer non-traditional/alternative subjects such as
HIV and AIDS prevention or landmine awareness within traditional formal curricula
and sometimes in parallel to the formal system. Alternative curriculum provision
programmes are designed to change behaviour.
The discussion shows that alternative education may aim to support different
types of skills to those in the formal system (professional and vocational training
programmes) or aim to provide additional support to young children who might still
have the opportunity to gain access to the formal system but require a particular kind
37
of support to enable them do so. As Rose (2007) says, alternative education covers all
educational activities that fall outside the traditional school system including special
programmes for school dropouts, gifted students and home schooling.
2.10 Vocational Education
According to Addison (2009), vocational education is instruction intended to
equip individuals for industrial or commercial occupation. It may formally be
obtained either in Trade Schools, Technical /High Schools, or on the job.
Vocational education in schools is a related modern development and that until the
19th century such education, except for the professions, was provided only by
apprenticeship. Annor (1989) is of the view that vocational education has the
advantage of producing self-employable persons, reducing rural-urban migration.
Being more practical oriented in approach, it help to produce the needed labour force
for industrial and technological development, and it leads to productivity and national
development.
Chin-Aleong (1993), Strong (1990) and Pucel (1990) as cited in Akyeampong
(2002) add that the aim of vocational education is to give training for the various
vocations like catering, basketry, leatherworks, and textiles. They further state that the
traditional and universally accepted purpose of vocational education in general has
been the provision of occupational skills for employment. Kyere (2009) as cited in
Asante Kyei (2006) and Puakyiene (1996) say vocational education help learners
acquire academic and technical knowledge and skills that prepare them for further
education or career. The authors imply that vocational education may serve as a
means to an end but may not be the end itself. This indicates that learners may acquire
38
the fundamental knowledge and skills necessary for higher education and training in
post secondary institutions or workplace itself through vocational education.
2. 12 Entrepreneurial Skills
Anayakoha (2006) as cited in Oviawe (2010) claims the entrepreneur is one
who chooses or assumes risks, identifies business opportunity, gathers resources,
initiates actions and establishes organization or enterprise to meet such demand or
market opportunity. The author says the entrepreneur is seen as an independent, self-
sufficient individual who is willing to sink or swim with his/her ideas. Thus the
entrepreneur is a person who in the bid to survive makes profit and owns his/her own
business. The author opines that the entrepreneur utilizes his abilities effectively and
potentials confidently and further awaken his ability to maximize his potentials
through the discovery of new and existing business ideas. Oviawe adds that through
the process involved in entrepreneurship, success habits are imparted as the person
develops entrepreneurial integrity and entrepreneurship skills are equally learnt in the
process.
Eno-Obong (2006) claims entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s ability to
turn ideas into action. It includes creativity, innovation and risk taking as well as the
ability to plan and manage project in order to achieve objectives. This supports
individuals, not only in their everyday lives at home and in society but also in the
workplace. To him the entrepreneur should be able to identify available opportunity
for personal, available opportunities for personal, professional and business activities,
Besides, he should be able to relate to proactive project management (involving, for
example the ability to plan, organise, manage, lead and delegate, analyse,
communicate, debrief and evaluate and record).Rwigema and Venter (2004) as cited
39
Isaacs, Visser, Friedrick and Brijlal(2007) define entrepreneurship as the process of
conceptualising, organizing, launching and through innovation- nurturing a business
opportunity into a potentially high growth venture in a complex, unstable
environment. From the above definition, at least four key components can be
deduced: firstly, it involves a process which is therefore manageable, secondly it
creates value in organisations and the market place where there was nothing before,
thirdly, it also requires resources uniquely integrated as the purposeful intervention by
an educator in the life of the learner to impart entrepreneurial qualities and lastly,
skills to enable the learner to survive in the world of business.
Alberti, Sciascia and Poli (2004) agree with Rwigema and Venter and add that
entrepreneurship education is the structured formal conveyance of entrepreneurial
competencies, which in turn refers to the concepts, skills and mental awareness used
by individuals during the process of starting and developing their growth- oriented
ventures. Acquisition of entrepreneurial skills could be facilitated through Visual Arts
education.
2.12 Visual Arts Education in Ghana
According to Addison (2009), art is a discipline for the development of the intellect.
To him, the development of the senses of sight, feeling, beauty, balance, order and
appreciation, are necessary for the promotion of learning, and is made possible
through artistic training. Art is therefore an essential tool in education. Agyenim-
Boateng (2011) says art is human conception made manifest by the skilful use of a
medium. It signifies a doing, a making, a fashion or putting together. Art usually
implies anything that is accomplished by human skill. Art is thus described as a pivot
around which creativity revolves and the basis of all forms of education.
40
The Ghana Visual Arts programme which is offered at the Senior High School (SHS)
comprises Basketry, Ceramics, Graphic Design, Leatherwork, Picture making,
Sculpture, Jewellery, Textiles and General Knowledge in Art (Addison, 2009). Apart
from General Knowledge in Art which is a core course and compulsory for all Visual
Arts students, each student is required to study two other Elective subjects as a means
of getting them exposed to a variety of vocational skills and career opportunities. On
the other hand, Visual Arts is an option of Basic Design and Technology (BDT)
which is offered at the JHS level which has of Pre-Technical Skills and Home
Economics as the other options. At this level, the students offer all three areas in the
first and second year of JHS and then at JHS 3 major in one of these areas. The aim
for the BDT at the JHS level is to help students develop the ability to think and act
creatively with visual materials. This will help students acquire some skills so that
after school students who would not be able further their education can set up their
own businesses after gaining some more knowledge and skills through apprenticeship.
According to Addison (2009), the study of Visual Arts provides a creative base for
small-scale and rural art industries. Students who take the programme seriously are
able to acquire skills like cutting, designing, drawing, painting and the rest to produce
high quality products which can attract a good market.
The implication is that JHS students who study Visual Arts could gain entrepreneurial
skills that would enable them to survive if they end their formal education at this
level. Visual Arts activities can thus boost girl-child education and empower JHS
female students to achieve survival skills that they can engage in as a livelihood in
and outside of school.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
41
3.1 Overview
This chapter discusses the process of data acquisition and how the research
was planned. It covers the research methodology used, the size of the population for
the study and sampling techniques employed in selecting the participants from whom
data for the study were obtained. This gives a vivid explanation of the population and
sample sizes, and the data collection instruments and procedures used.
3.2 Research Design
The researcher employed qualitative method for the study. Qualitative
research method is the type of methodology in which the description of observation is
not ordinarily expressed in quantitative terms (Leedy & Ormrod 2005). Although
qualitative research uses numbers or numerals, it places more emphasis on methods of
description such as narration and observation. The qualitative research method
analyses, describes and gives interpretations to insights that are discovered. It asks
broad questions and collects data from participants.
According to Enti (2008), the aim of qualitative research is to select either
informants or documents or visual images who or that will best answer the research
question(s) or meet the objectives of the study. The four parameters that must be
noted in such a study are (1) the setting or where the research will take place, (2) the
actors, that is those who will be observed or interviewed, (3) what the actors will be
observed doing or interviewed about, and (4) the process (the evolving nature of
events undertaken by the actors within the setting). However, data gathered from
qualitative research are sometimes expressed in quantitative terms such as tables and
charts.
42
Given (2008) is also of the view that in quantitative and qualitative analysis it
is important to summarise all data gathered so that it will be very easy to study it. In
qualitative research, descriptive statistics are typically observed in mixed method for
example, action research, or other qualitative designs. In this study, the researcher
used participatory action research in order to acquire the necessary information about
why the girls at Trabuom do not attend school and then find an intervention to resolve
the existing problem.
Participatory action research method is a method in which the researcher
works with the group under investigation, that is to say he or she takes a lead of the
group on what is to be done (Creswell, 2002). McAlpine (2005) explains that
participatory action research is based on the fundamental principle that people are best
equipped to research when they are able to understand, explain and address issues
bordering them. Participatory action research protagonists maintain that practitioners
are more likely to make better decisions and engage in more effective practices if they
are active participants.
Profile of the Sampled School
Trabuom Roman Catholic Junior High School (R/C JHS) is located within the
Atwima Kwanwonma District of Ashanti. It was established in 1935 by one Rev.
Muuwsen who started the school with only five students. Because the school is a
faith-based (mission) school, it is being managed by the Rev. Father of the local
church in the town and he supervises the activities of the school. The school has two
streams with one headmistress. Teachers are appointed by the Ghana Education
Service. The school has a population of about 250 students and the boys are about 190
and the girls are about 60. The classrooms are over crowded and the boys and girls sit
43
together. It is the only basic school in the town. Some of the students also come from
nearby villages to the school. The level of discipline in the school is very low and so
norms and traditions such as punctuality and regularity are not observed by both
teachers and students. The school has a very big land and so it has used some for a
school farm and also a big football pitch. The male teachers who teach in the school
are 14 while female teachers are 4. The uniform that the students wear is the same as
the uniform that all catholic schools wear which is green and white for the girls and
white shirt and khaki shorts for boys.
3.3 Population
Population here refers to the group of people the researcher used to get the
results of the study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). According to Agyenim Boateng (2011),
target population (ideal choice) is the actual population for which the researcher
would use the findings to generalize the research findings. The target population in
this enquiry comprised all female students in the Junior High Schools within Trabuom
educational circuit their teachers their parents. From this heterogeneous population,
the accessible population consisted of all female students of Trabuom R/C JHS,
teachers and parents. The adult target population was made up of teachers, the
headmistress of the school, District Education Officers, the Queen Mother, elders of
the community and parents.
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique
Sampling, according to Leedy & Ormrod (2005) is the process of selecting a
number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individual selected will
represent the larger group. Fraenkel & Wallen (2009) explain sample as a group in a
research study from which information is obtained. The purposive sampling technique
44
was used to select the population of students. Convenience sampling technique was
also employed to select those who could provide the needed data. Besides, the
researcher had to use convenience technique to select students for the project.
Sample
The sample use for the research were girls chosen from JHS 1-3 for both
streams A and B. Ten girls were chosen from each class and the criteria for the
selection was based on punctuality and regularity. Besides, the headmistress of the
school and ten other teachers were also sampled and their selection were also based
on punctuality and regularity. There were seven male teachers and three female
teachers. In addition, one hundred and forty three parents and elders were
conveniently sampled. Out of this number, sixty were male and eighty three were
female. The total number of population sampled were 215
Table 3.1 Sample size
Participants Male Female Ages Experience
Headmistress 1 38 12years+
Teachers 7 4 30+ 10years+
Parents& Elders 60 83 40+ 0
Students 60 13+ 0
Total 67 148
3.5 Data Collecting Instruments
Observation and interview were the data collection instruments adopted for the study.
45
Observation
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2009), the researcher can choose either to
observe or participate in the activities taking place. Observation in a qualitative study
is intentionally unstructured and free-flowing. Thus the researcher shifts focus from
one thing to another as new and potentially significant objects and events presents
themselves (Given, 2008). There are types of observing behaviours; however, non-
participant observation technique was adopted in order to achieve the stated
objectives. Non-participant observation is a method of data collection in which the
researcher do not participate in the activity being observed but rather “sit on the
sidelines” and watch. The researcher does not directly involve him or herself in the
situation he or she is observing. The naturalistic observation was used in the sense
that she observed the girls in their natural setting and did not make any effort
whatsoever to manipulate variables or to control their activities. The researcher used
to observe the girls during teaching and learning process every day for a period of
eight weeks. The technique used by the researcher was appropriate in the sense that it
gave her the opportunity to gather and also record the necessary data.
Observation check list
Observation check list is a set of questions or guidelines that the researcher
writes down to guide him or her on what to look for during the observation process.
The researcher checks his or her observations against the checklist to prevent him or
her from observing things which would not be relevant to the project. The observation
check list was used to guide the researcher on what to look out for when observing
participants ( Agyenim-Boateng, 2011). An observation check list was also used as a
guide for the researcher to follow and observe specific behavior that goes on in and
46
out side the classroom ( Appendix E). This was to assist the researcher to observe the
behaviour, activities, movements and relationships between teachers and students.
Interview
According to Ackroyed & Hughes (1983), interviews are encounters between
a researcher and a respondent in which the latter is asked a series of questions relevant
to the subject of the research. The respondents’ answers constitute the raw data which
is analyzed at a later point in time by the researcher. The four major types of
interview according to Cohen & Manion,(1989) are the structured interviews which is
strictly formal, unstructured interviews that are the open situation, having gender
flexibility and freedom thus the non- directive interviews and the focused interviews.
The researcher opted for the unstructured and focused interviews. The unstructured
interviews were chosen because it would allow the informants to express themselves
freely and also enable the researcher acquire rich information. On the other hand, the
hallmark of the focused interviews was to use group interaction to generate data and
insights that would be unlikely to emerge without the interaction. The technique
inherently allows observation of group dynamics and firsthand insight into the
respondents’ behavior and attitudes.
Interview guide
According to Fant (2008), an interview guide is similar to a questionnaire and
both are set of questions to be answered by participants of a study but with an
interview guide, the questions are administered by the researcher and information
47
gathered are recorded. The set of questions which the researcher wrote was used as a
guide to acquire information from all participants (Appendices B, C, D).
Validation of the selected data collection instruments
This was done through editing of the prepared questions by the researcher,
friends and research supervisor. The interview guide was piloted with friends to make
the questions free from error.
Data collection procedure
The researcher went to the selected school to administer the research
instrument and the respondents who were involved were the headmistress, 11 teachers
and 60 female students and 143 elders and parents. Interview dates were scheduled
with the respondents and the researcher met them at the appointed times for their
response on the proposed days. The headmistress of the school was also interviewed
to seek their opinion about the issue under study. This was after copies of prepared
interview guide had been given to her in advance for prior study.
Besides, one-on-one interviews were conducted to collect data from the
headmistress and teachers of Trabuom R/C JHS. The researcher initially planned to
use focus group interview with teachers but after the first meeting, the researcher
realized the contribution and answers from the teachers were almost the same so she
changed her plan to one-on-one interview. On the part of the students, the researcher
conducted focus group interviews while face-to-face interviews were conducted with
the elders and parents. The researcher asked questions and the respondents provided
answers and their answers were recorded. Responses gathered from the respondents
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were documented and later sent to them to verify the data gathered from them.
Observation was also used to gather data on teaching and learning activities from the
teachers and students. The researcher did so by sitting in the various classes to
observe the methods the teachers used in teaching and how the students participated
in the lessons.
Objective One: To establish the factors that influence girls’ enrollment at Trabuom
R/C JHS. To achieve this objective, the researcher had direct interviews with the
population which comprised the following: The headmistress of Trabuom R/C JHS,
Kontihene of Trabuom, Queen Mother of Trabuom, nine elders of Trabuom, P.T.A
chairman of Trabuom R/C JHS, S.M.C chairman of Trabuom R/C JHS, assembly man
of Trabuom, parents and guardians and teachers and students of the school. Besides,
the researcher also managed to observe some of the teachers during teaching and
learning process for a period of eight weeks to find out what goes on in the classroom.
This aided the researcher to gather some important data she needed. In observing the
female students, the researcher employed non-participant observation because she did
not want to control their activities in the classroom. She was interested in the data
needed for the study.
Objective Two: To identify and explore Visual Arts activities that can encourage
and sustain the girls’ interest in school. To achieve the stated objective, the 60 girls
who sampled were grouped according to classes and the researcher used a step-by-
step method to teach the girls how to do the Wreath, Crocheting, Weaving, Necklace
and Macrame. These activities were selected based on the following: (1) the standard
of the students, that is based on their ability and performance (2) availability of tools
49
and materials, and (3) the prices of the tools and materials. The activities or projects
which were carried out with the girls were wreath making, necklace or choker
making, crocheting and making of macramé bags. The girls who were engaged in the
practical activities were always interviewed and observed whiles the activities were
going on and the responses and observations were recorded.
The initial setting of the practical activities was in front of the classrooms but
later it was changed to a classroom. The reason for the change of venue was that the
school is by the road side and so whatever goes on in the street attracts the girls’
attention. Also, the time for the practical session was changed from the second break
to after school from 2.30pm to 4pm because the second break was just 20 minutes
which was not enough for the researcher to do practical activities with the girls. These
practical activities lasted for eight weeks during which the researcher met the girls on
Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. The researcher used the first two weeks for the
introduction of the selected visual art activities and the tools and materials used. The
remaining six weeks was used for the project. Basically, the researcher taught the
girls how the various articles were done and made sure that the girls followed
systematically the techniques used in making the selected articles. Again, the
researcher ensured that all the girls who were selected for the practical activities were
able to do all the selected visual art activities which were introduced and master them.
The procedure adopted for the Visual Art Activities
Project One: Wreath
Tools and materials used
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Grass frame, ribbons, office pins, sellotape, a pair of scissors, brush, adhesive,
cardboard, wrapper and cellophane.
Procedure
1. To begin with, the cardboard was cut into a desired shape and then placed on both
sides of the frame which was made of grass.
2. After that adhesive was applied on the cardboard and then a wrapper was wound
around it.
3. Ribbons were then cut into desirable shapes and designs, and then tacked with the
office pins on one side of the frame where the wrapper had been placed.
4. When the researcher finished the designs that she wanted to have on the surface,
she then covered the wreath with transparent cellophane to help protect the wreath
from attracting dust and unwanted particles. Plates3.1-3.6 illustrates the process
adopted to complete the project.
Plate 3.1 Teaching placement of card board on grass frame.
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Plate 3.2 Cutting ribbons for the wreath.
Plate 3.3 Teaching wreath making.
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Plate 3.4 Demonstrating pleating of ribbons and tacking on the frame.
Plate 3.5 Students making a wreath.
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Plate 3.6 Assessing the wreath made by the girls
Project Two: Necklace
Pearls, elastic string, cutter, pliers, locket and metal string.
Procedure
The second project that the researcher taught the girls was the type of necklace which
people normally refer to as “choker”.
1. The researcher drafted the shape that she wanted the necklace to assume on a piece
of paper.
2. After the drafting, the researcher cut required length of string with the cutter and
passed it through the tiny holes of the pearls and strung it.
3. Then researcher strung the pearls into the desired patterns and shapes and used a
similar method to make both the accompanying ear rings and bracelet.
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4. The pliers were used to bend the metal string to shape it into the ear rings while the
locket was also fixed at the ends of the necklace the hand. Plates 3.7-3.9 show the
processes involved.
Plate 3.7 Introducing pearl to the girls.
Plate 3.8 Demonstrating threading of pearls using elastic string.
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Plate 3.9 Teaching the girls how to fix locket on necklace.
Project Three: Crocheting
Crocheting pin, a pair of scissors, tape measure and crocheting thread.
Procedure
1. The researcher hung the crocheting thread on the edge of the crocheting pin which
looked like a hook and then created a loop.
2. She created several loops and then interwove the loops alternatively to create the
desired shape and design.
3. The interwoven loops were used to make the various articles. Plates 3.10-3.11 show
the processes involved.
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Plate 3.10 Demonstrating how to handle the crocheting pin.
Plate 3.11 Observing the use of crochet pin to make a loop.
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Project Four: Chair backs
Wooden frame, nails, a pair of scissor, tape measure, hammer and stranded cotton.
Procedure
1. To begin with, the nails were fixed at intervals one inch on the rectangular wooden
frame which was made by a carpenter.
2. The researcher then used the stranded cotton to lay a warp on the longer side of the
frame and the weft on the shorter side of the frame.
3. Then the researcher used the one-over-one and one-under-one method in interlacing
the warp and the weft. This means one weft laid over one warp and one warp laid
under one weft. This was done continuously to complete the whole weaving process.
4. The tape measure was used to measure the length and the breath of the woven chair
back while the pair of scissors was used to cut the woven chair back from the frame.
These steps are illustrated in Plates 3.12 and 3.13
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Plate 3.12 Demonstrating how to lay a warp.
Plate 3.13 The girls were laying a warp a the for chair backs.
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Project Five: Macrame bags
Tool sand Materials
Nylon cords, a pair of scissors, zip, needle, thread, tape measure, matches, lining and
candle.
Procedure
1. At the beginning, the researcher measured the nylon cord with a tape measure and
then cut the nylon cord into desirable lengths with the pair of scissors.
2. She then joined the cords in a loop form one by one to make a basic knot which is
known as square knot.
3. After joining all the cords, the researcher then used the alternative square knot
method to weave the bags to desirable size and shape.
4. The edges were secured tightly and the candle was used to burn off the ends the all
edges which were hanging.
5. The researcher then sewed the lining using the needle and thread and then fixed it
at the opening of the bag.
6. Finally, the zip was fixed at the opening of the woven bag so that it can be opened
and closed. Plates 3.14 and 3.15 show the processes involved.
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Plate 3.14 Demonstrating basic macramé knot.
Plate 3.15 Teaching alternative macramé square knot.
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3.8 Data Analysis Plan
The data collected were assembled, described, analyzed and the facts
interpreted in narrative form and where applicable, pictures were used to give more
detail to the discussion provided in the next chapter.
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CHAPER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS
4.1 Overview
This chapter presents the procedure for analyzing data gathered from
respondents, observation and interviews; data collected during the practical activities
with students and their works.
4.2 Data collected through interview
Interview with the headmistress of Trabuom R/C JHS
When the headmistress of the school was interviewed, it was revealed that
some of the girls do not come to school because they have nobody to take care of
them. She added that some of the girls are made to sell at the market in order to help
their mothers to cater for their families. The headmistress said “A girl had to go to
Kumasi everyday to buy fish from the cold store before coming to school and by the
time she gets home, it is already 9.30am and so she does not come to school at all”.
Besides, she explained that due to lack of parental control some of the girls get
pregnant and drop out of school. The headmistress added that some of the girls are
academically weak and so they either absent themselves from school or are not
punctual to school and for that reason, she has visited those girls’ parents yet they are
not regular to school. The headmistress said she went to the District Education Office
to see the officer in charge of girl-child and discussed the issue with her. The officer
came to the school to form a girls’ club and made one of the female teachers the
coordinator of the club with the officer as the patron.
Through the interview, the headmistress said she consulted the PTA to provide toilets
and urinals for both the girls and the boys because she realized that both the boys and
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girls were using the only toilet in the school. This, she said, this could be a factor that
deters the girls from coming to school.
Interview with the teachers at Trabuom R/C JHS
The response from some of the teachers interviewed indicated that about 80%
of the girls in the school stay with their grandmothers. Due to old age, the
grandmothers are not able to check the girls and that is why they do not attend school.
More so, the teachers said that there are no role models in the town whom the girls
would look up to that is why some of them do not go to school. The teachers added
that the girls in the town do not attend school due to poverty. They said the reason
was that some girls come to school without eating and for that matter they find it
difficult to stay in school. Another thing they mentioned was that some of the girls do
not get their basic needs like sanitary pad, books and school uniform and so they find
it difficult to come to school.
One of the teachers interviewed mentioned that some of the male teachers who
try to help some of the girls because of their plight tend to impregnate them and they
drop out of school. In addition, the interview revealed that some of the girls sell things
in the night and so whenever they come to school, they sleep in class and are unable
to perform and because of that, they do not attend school.
Interview with parents and elders of Trabuom
Some of the parents interviewed mentioned that they are single parents and for
that matter they find it difficult to provide everything for their children .Some said
they are divorcees while others said they are widows and widowers. One of the
parents said that men who are still married to their wives and are staying with them do
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not take care of their children especially the girl-child. The reasons are that (1) if a
girl is sent to school she will end up in the kitchen and (2) in the Akan society, the
system of inheritance is matrilineal and so it is the duty or responsibility of the uncles
of the girls to take care of them. He said “I see it to be a waste of time and money to
take my girl-child to school because after all she will grow and get married and so it is
not necessary to waste money on her. If the mother insists that she wants her daughter
to go to school, then she should let the brother take her daughter to school since she is
the property of the uncle. But as for me, I will take care of my nephews and nieces
because they are my property” (personal interview, 12th January, 2012) .
The elders interviewed also revealed that about 70% of parents in the town are
illiterates and so they do not know the essence of education especially for the girl-
child that is why some of the girls do not attend school. Besides, the elders said that
many couples in the town have between eight and ten children and they do not have
money too so they find it difficult to take their children to school. The elders added
that some of the teachers in the school are part of the existing problem. They said the
reason is that 80% of the teachers stay in Kumasi and for that matter they do not come
to school early and so the students take advantage of that and do not come to the
school.
Again, during the interview, the elders mentioned that some of the male
teachers harass the girls’ that is why some of the girls do not come to school. They
explained that if a male teacher proposes to a girl and she refuses, the teacher
punishes that girl severely that is why some girls do not go to school. The elders also
said that if girls are sent to school, they do not acknowledge the customs and cultural
values of the society in which they lived and that is why some families feel reluctant
to send their girl children to school. The Queen mother also said that some of the
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parents have the perception that girls’ perform less than boys in school and so no
matter what if girls are sent to school, they will waste the monies that have been
invested in them. The Queen mother added that some of the girls go for video shows
and wake keeping sleep around with men and so they get pregnant from that and then
drop out of school. She said for this reason she has asked the Unit Committee
members to go round in the night and catch girls who roam about and then charge
their parents for not taking good care of their children.
Interview with the students
The girls who were interviewed also revealed that some of the male teachers
do harass them and that is why some of them do not come to school. They further
explained that if a teacher proposes to a girl and the girl refuses, that teacher will
make sure that he punishes that very girl any time he sees her. One of the girls whom
I interviewed mentioned that a teacher proposed to her and she refused and since then
she has been getting zero in that teacher’s subject.
Other girls said they do not get their basic need like sanitary pads and panties
from their parents’ that is why they do not attend school. The girls added that some of
the teachers beat and embarrass them when they are unable to answer questions in
class that is why they do not go to school. Some of the girls interviewed said they stay
with their step mothers and so they do a lot of work in the house and for that matter,
are unable to come to school early that is why they do not have interest in schooling.
The girls said the headmistress had assured them that she was trying to get
scholarship from the district assembly for the needy but brilliant girls in the school.
They further mentioned that they want the headmistress to inform the authorities so
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that more female teachers can be posted to the school so that the male teachers cannot
abuse them sexually.
4.2 Outcome of Observations
The researcher used an observation checklist to observe both teachers and
students in the classroom. It was observed that some of the teachers do not ask
the girls questions during instructional periods. These teachers, most of the time,
direct their questions to the boys in the classroom. In view of this the girls always
become quiet and dull in class. This normally happens during science and
mathematics lessons. In addition, it was observed that the teachers do not use
teaching-learning materials during the teaching and learning process. For example,
the researcher observed a Social Studies lesson when the teacher was a lesson on
teaching topic “The Ten Regions of Ghana and their Capitals”. This teacher did not
bring a map of Ghana to the classroom and neither did he sketch it on the board. The
students were just looking at him while he was talking without making any
contribution. Again, it was observed that because teachers do not involve the girls in
their lessons, they do not pay attention in the classroom at all but rather they always
sit at the back and converse.
It was also observed that the girls were interested in practical subjects like
Basic Design and Technology (BDT) which consists of Visual Arts, Pre-Technical
and Home Economics. For example, whenever there was a practical lesson in Home
Economics, the attendance of girls in the school increased. Furthermore, it was also
observed that some of the teachers send the girls to go and buy food for them during
classes hours which makes the girls miss lessons. A teacher told me that the girls’ do
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not normally participate in lessons that was why he always sent them to go and buy
food for him. The researcher also observed that the rate at which some of the teachers
used canes on the girls was too much and so they were always timid in the classroom.
For the fear of being caned and humiliated when a question was answered wrongly,
the girls chose not to participate in the lessons in class.
In addition, it was observed that about 75% of the girls always sleep in class
while teachers were teaching. It was also observed that girls stay with people who are
not their relatives and because they have chores to do, do not come to school early
and for that matter teachers mark the register before they come.
4.3 The Girls and their Practical Activities
After collecting the necessary data from the respondents, the researcher
selected some girls for the project. The 60 girls who were involved in the practical
activities were those who were purposely selected for the study. The criteria for the
selection of students were based on punctuality and regularity. The researcher chose
visual art activities which were wreath making, necklace making, making of macramé
bags, crocheting and weaving of chair backs and taught the girls. These activities
were easy to make and sell well. Before the whole project started, the researcher
introduced the girls to the tools and materials that she intended to use for the various
projects. She then grouped the girls and then begun the whole project of making of the
wreath, choker or necklace, crocheting, weaving of chair back and making of
macramé bags. Plates 4.1- 4.28 show the processes the researcher took the girls
through and the products that were made.
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Plate 4.1: A wreath that the girls were doing.
Plate 4.2: A wreath made by the JHS 3 girls.
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Plate 4.3: This work was also done by the JHS 2 girls.
Plate4.4 Discussing with girls about the methods used in making the necklace.
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Plate 4.5: Some necklaces made by the girls.
Plate 4.6: The girls arranged their works for the researcher to inspect.
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Plate 4.7: The researcher was assessing the girls’ works.
Plate 4.8: Samples of knitted chair backs made by the girls
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Plate 4.9: A knitted table cloth made by the girls
Plate 4.10: These are some of the girls’ work.
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Plate 4.11: Some articles made by the girls
Plate 4.12: A vest made by one of the girls
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Plate 4.13: This blouse was made by a JHS 2 girl.
Plate 4.14: A trousers knitted by a JHS 3 girl.
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Plate 4.15: A school bag knitted by two of the JHS 2 girls.
Plate 4.16: Some knitted vests by the girls.
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Plate 4.17: A bare back vest knitted by one of the girls.
Plate 4.18: Articles that the girls presented for exhibition.
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Plate 4.19: A singlet made by one of the girls
Plate 4.20: A sample of a woven chair back using a wooden frame
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Plate 4.21: A chair back woven by the girls
Plate 4.22: These are some of the bags that the girls made.
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Plate 4.23: The girls assembled their works for the researcher to inspect and assess.
Plate 4.24: This macramé bag was made by a JHS 3 girl
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Plate 4.25: These bags were arranged for assessment
Plate 4.26: This bag was made by two girls who are in JHS 2.
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Plate 4.27: These macramé bags were arranged for exhibition.
Plate 4.28: This was made by a JHS 3 girl.
4.4 Discussion of Main Findings
The study sought to answer the following questions:
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1. To establish the factors that influence girls’ enrollment at Trabuom R/C JHS.
2. To identify and explore Visual Art activities that can encourage and sustain the
students’ interest in attending school.
3. To assess the impact of the selected Visual Art activities on the girls’ enrollment at
Trabuom R/C JHS?
1. Assessing the factors that deter female students of Trabuom R/C JHS from
attending school.
It was ascertained through the study that the major factor that militate against
girls’ education at Trabuom R/C JHS is poverty. The reason is that some of the girls’
parents are too poor to provide basic needs like sanitary pad, school uniform, shoes
and exercise books to make it easy for them to stay in school.
Secondly, it was found from the study that some of the male teachers harass the girls
sexually and so they do not have interest in being in school. The fact that a teacher
should propose love to a girl who is still in school is bad enough but for him to go to
the extent of punishing a girl who refuses such advances any time he sees the girl is
rather infringing on the rights of the girl. This makes it difficult for the girl to enjoy
being in school and also exercise her right to education and freedom of association.
Also because some of the teachers do not involve the girls in their lessons, the girls do
not see the need to attend school. Another key factor that affects the girls at Trabuom
R/C JHS is that some of their parents are not educated and so they do not know the
importance of girls’ education. In view of this, some of the parents pay more
attention to their boys’ education than the girls, thinking it is a waste of resources to
send the girl-child to school. After all, they will marry and their education will not be
of any benefit.
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More so some of the girls drop out of school due to pregnancy. It was realized
from the study that because some of the girls do not get their basic needs supplied by
their parents, they follow men with the aim of acquiring money to cater for
themselves and this leads to pregnancy and eventually drop out of school.
In addition, some of the teachers’ negative attitude towards girls also affects
girls’ education at Trabuom. Some teachers have the impression that the girls are not
good academically and so they always send them to go and buy food them when
classes are going on and this has discouraged some of the girls.
2. Selected Visual Art activities
The researcher selected five Visual Art activities and then took the girls
through the process of making the related articles so that the girls could adopt them.
Although the girls were deemed to be academically weak, it was found out from their
works that they were very good in practical activities. In fact about 85% of the girls
exhibited high level skills and talents in the works that they executed. It was also
found out that the girls were not dull as some of the teachers claimed because they
were able to follow all the steps that were used to do the various art works.
Again, during the eight weeks project period, the attendance of girls to school
was very high. This was evident when the number of girls in JHS 1A rose from 13 to
22 at the start of the project. Formally, the enrollment for JHS 1A was 40 students and
out of that number 13 were female students and now there are 45 students in 1A and
22 of them are female students. When it came to 1B, the female students’ were 11 out
of 40 students but now the class is having 21 female students out 45 students. The
form 2A class was having 7 female students out of 40 students but now the class has
35 students of which 15 are female. In form 2B class, the female students were 12 out
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of 40 students and now the female students have increased 18 while the enrollment is
still 40. The form 3A and 3B had 16 and 19 female students’ respectively. Initially,
the females in 3A were 9 but the number increased to 16 during the practical activities
while the 12 female students in 3B also increased to 19. All the girls who were
selected for the study participated actively in the practical activities. They were
regular and punctual to school and even the truant started coming to school in order to
be part of the activities.
Again, the researcher realized that the girls who were very good helped those
who were not all that good to master the skills which were being taught. Some of the
girls also commented that they never new all these things are taught in school and if
they had known they would not have been in the house.
3. The Impact of Visual Art activities
After practical activities the researcher realized that the enrollment of girls in
the school had increased from about 35% to about 50%. This was evident through the
checking of the attendance register every week. The truant also started coming to
school regularly. Some of the girls also bought their own materials and made some of
the items and sold them.
Besides, the two female teachers in the school also learnt the visual art skills
that the researcher taught the students and were seen practising with all girls in school
and so the headmistress asked the BDT (Home Economics) teacher to teach these
visual art activities to the students on every Friday during the second break. Also,
through the activities that the researcher engaged the students in, the headmistress of
the school has written to the district director of education that she needs a Visual Art
teacher in the school. According to the headmistress next academic year the school
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will offer Visual Arts as part of BDT which consists of the three The BDT subject has
three areas which are Pre-technical skills, Home Economics and Visual Arts. She
said she has seen that every individual has got his or her potentials and so no one
should be denied of these. This demonstrates the feasibility of using Visual Arts to
promote girls’ education.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
This chapter provides the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the
research undertaken. The objectives of the study were:
1. To establish the factors that influence enrollment of girls at Trabuom R/C JHS.
2. To identify and explore Visual Arts activities that can encourage and sustain girls’
interest in school.
3. To assess the impact of the selected Visual Art activities on girls’ enrollment in
Trabuom R/C JHS.
The researcher asked the following research questions.
1. Why are some female students at Trabuom not going to school?
2. What selected Visual Art activities can be used to encourage and sustain the girls’
interest in school?
3. What impact will the selected Visual Art activities have on the girl at Trabuom R/C
JHS?
The focus of the study was to find out why girls at Trabuom are not interested
in school and then identify and explore selected visual art activities that will
encourage and sustain the girls’ interest in school. Participatory action research
methodology was used. Interviews and observation were the main data collection
instruments. Purposive and convenience sampling techniques were used to select
respondents for the study.
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The researcher selected five visual art activities and then used eight weeks to
teach girls how to do those activities. Data gathered were assembled, analyzed and
interpreted.The following findings were made at the end of the study:
1 .The study revealed that sexual harassment by male teachers is a factor that
affects girls’ education at Trabuom. According Hart (2009) although girls continue to
miss out in school due to sexual harassment and other related factors, they need to be
empowered in order to become future leaders, self-fulfilled individuals and role
models in the communities.
2. Some parents in the study area do not give recognition to girls’ education
because of their negative attitude. This has led most of the girls to become prostitutes,
truants and low academic achievers. A girl’s development greatly lies on the level of
education that she acquires or attains and so parents must endeavour to send their girls
to school to enable them develop and improve upon their lives (Offorma 2009).
3. Poverty is one of the major factors that hinder girls’ education at Trabuom.
The reason is that about 75% of parents at Trabuom are small scale farmers and have
between eight to ten children so they are unable to send their children to school and
cater fully for their needs.
4. There is only one toilet in the school and it is used by both the boys and girls
and so when the girls come to school, they are unable to use the facility for the fear of
meeting a boy in there. This makes them uncomfortable to be in school for fear of
needing the use of the toilet.
5. The teachers in the school do not use appropriate methods in teaching their
lessons and they also do not involve the girls in their lessons because they think the
girls are not academically good. So the teacher must use variety of methods in
teaching to help students acquire the needed skills and knowledge.
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6. The low level of parents’ education is a contributory factor to low girls’
education at Trabuom. As the study, revealed about 85% of parents are illiterates and
so they do not know the importance of education and for that matter they do not want
to take their children to school.
7. The study revealed that there are very few female role models whom the
girls would look up to. The reason is that the school has two streams with 18 teachers
and out of this number only 3 are female. The primary school which is also a double
stream has 12 teachers and out of this number, only 2 are female. This gives a male
female teacher ratio of 6:1. For this reason, the girls do not get enough female
teachers to relate to as their role model to encourage them to pursue education to a
higher level.
8. The study revealed that some of the teachers have wrong perceptions about
the girls. The reason is that some of the teachers claimed the girls are dull and cannot
do anything but when the girls were introduced to the visual art activities, they
exhibited creative skills and produced good quality works. This suggests that the girls
are intelligent in practical ways and not absorbing abstract lessons.
5.2 Conclusions
This study has shown that although there are several factors that influence girl-
child education, something important can be done to either reduce their negative
effects on the girls or stop this completely. The measures that can be taken are as
follows:-
1. Motivating all students in class irrespective of gender to do well in school.
2. Providing adequate basic amenities like toilets and urinals in schools for
boys and girls
89
3. Finding ways to control birth among couples in communities.
4. Checking male teachers who harass girls sexually in schools.
5. Discarding the negative attitudes about girls’ education among parents.
6. Introducing teachers to a variety of methods of teaching to enable them
promote learning.
7. Teaching vocational skills in schools.
8. Gathering and preparing quality teaching and learning materials for lessons.
If these and other relevant measures are taken into consideration girl-child
education which has become a stumbling block to development will improve and help
girls’ to attain a maximum height in the society.
5.3 Recommendations
Considering the finding and conclusions drawn from the research, it is
recommended that:
1. The government must enact a law that will compel parents to send their
female children to school and anyone who goes contrary to this must be dealt with
severely to serve as a deterrent to others.
2. Teachers, parents and guardians should not discriminate against the girl-
child but rather encourage them and let them know that they are equally important as
the boy-child. This will let the girl-child back up in school and also feel that she is
very important.
3. Alternative education must be introduced in the basic education system.
This means that areas like life skills, home science and vocational skills should be
reintroduced in the school curriculum so that girls who are not academically good in
general can choose the areas that have been mentioned above and then specialize in it.
90
4. The Ministry of Education (MOE) could train more female teachers who
will be posted to the various towns and villages that have few female teachers to serve
as role models to the girls in those areas. Also, male teachers who harass and be friend
the girls must be dealt with severely to serve as a deterrent to others.
5. More so, I will recommend that girls who get pregnant in school and drop
out of school should be readmitted after delivery so that they can continue their
education.
6. The researcher recommends that the Ghana Art Teachers Association
(GATA) should try and organize workshops and seminars for teachers at the basic
school level every term to enable them acquire some knowledge and skills in art.
7. The Ministry of Education should try and post a Guidance and Counselling
teachers to every basic school so that those teachers can help mould the character of
students in the various schools.
8. The researcher recommends that Visual Art should be a subject on its own
at the JHS level. That is the Visual Art should not be put under Basic Design
Technology (BDT) where Pre-technical skills and Home Economics are combined
with the Visual Art.
91
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99
APPENDIX A
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL ART STUDIES
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE OFFICER IN CHARGE OF GIRL-CHILD

EDUCATION FROM THE DISTRICT EDUCATION OFFICE
Introduction
Education is a key to success and without it one can never develop properly. Knowing
this, the government of Ghana introduced the FCUBE for all children in the country.
Yet some of the girls at Trabuom do not attend school. I would therefore be grateful if
you could give me some of the reasons why some of the girls in the town do not
attend school. You are kindly requested to study these questions carefully and be
adequately prepared to answer them on the scheduled date.
Questions
1. Can you please give brief background information of your duties in relation
to girl-child education?
2. What role do you play as the officer in charge of girl-child education in the
district?
3. How many schools do you have in the district?
4. Are you able to go round all the schools in the district every term?
5. Do you have girl-child co-ordinators in all the schools in the school?
6. Do you organise workshops and seminars for the co-ordinators in the schools?
100
7. What do you think are the problems that prevent some of the girls from
attending school?
8. What measures can you put in place to solve some of the problems?
9. Does the GES provide funds for running the activities of the girl-child?
10. How many girls have dropped out of school due to pregnancy?
11. After delivery, are the girls re-admitted to the school?
12. Can you mention some strategies that you have put in place for the girls
in your district?
13. Do you have any inter-organizational relationship with NGOs and other
institutions and agencies outside the GES in connection with girl-child
education?
14 Do you pay particular attention to the performance of the girls in the
various schools in your district?
15. Is there any comment or suggestion that you would want to add, please?
101
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE HEADMISTRESS OF THE SCHOOL
Questions
1. Please, can you give me a brief background of yourself?
2. Before assuming your current position where you teaching?
3. What role do you play as the head of the school in connection with the
girl-child education?
4. How often do you attend workshops and seminars?
5. Have these workshops and seminars been helpful to you in your work?
6. How many girls do you have in the school?
7. Are the girls regular and punctual to school?
8. What are some the problems that you face pertaining to girls education
in the school?
9. How are you solving these problems?
10. Do some of the girls get pregnancy while in school?
11. How do the teachers in the school relate to the girls?
12. Do the female teachers relate well with the girls?
13. To what extend have you improved girls’ education in the school?
14. Do you organise in service training and workshops for your teachers?
15. Do parents bring complains about their girl-children to the school?
16. Is there any other thing you want to add to what we have discussed so far?
102
17. How would you compare the performance of the girls to that of the boys in the
school?
103
APPENDIX C
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGEOF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TEACHERS
Questions
1. What are your academic qualifications?
2. How many years have you been in the teaching profession?
3. How long have you been in this school?
4. Have you been attending seminars, workshops and in service?
5. What subject do you teach?
6. Do the girls in your class perform well in your subject?
7. How do the girls in your class behave when you are teaching?
8. Do they participate in your lessons?
9. What are some of the methods that you normally use in your teaching?
10. When you compare the boys to the girls who perform better in your class?
11. Are the girls regular and punctual to school?
12. How often do they come to school?
13. Do the girls pay attention when you are teaching?
104
APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE STUDENT
Questions
1. How many children do your parents have?
2. Are they all alive?
3. How many boys and girls do you have in your family?
4. Are your parents still marrying or they have separated?
5. Do you stay with your parents or someone else?
6. What do your parents do for a living?
7. How many sisters do you have in the secondary school?
8. Why are some of your female friends not in school?
9. Do your friends tease you if you do not perform in examination?
10. Why do most of your female friends come to school late?
11. Do the teachers in the school harass you when you come to school?
12. Who buys your sanitary pad and your clothes for you?
13. Have you ever had an affair with any of the male teachers in the school?
14. Why are you not interested in school?
105
APPENDIX E
OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
1. Do girls come to school?
2. How often do they come to school?
3. Do the girls participate in class activities?
4. Do teachers use the appropriate teaching and learning material as well as
methods?
5. Are there enough text books for books for all the students in class?
6. Do the girls pay attention in class?
7. Do teachers distribute questions fairly in class?
8. Do the teachers use fair criteria in assessing the girls?
9. Is there any difficulty that the teachers find during teaching and learning
process?
10. Is the time allocated to practical subjects the same as theoretical subjects?
106
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USING SELECTED VISUAL ART ACTIVITIES AS A STRATEGY TO

BOOST GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION AT TRABUOM IN THE ATWIMA

KWANWONMA DISTRICT OF ASHANTI REGION

(Bed. Art Education)

A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies,

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi,

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

College of Art and Social Sciences

© 2012, Department of General Art Studies

been made in the text.

Linda Armah (20121859) ..........................................

Dr. Mavis Osei (Mrs) ......................................

Nana Afia Opoku-Asare (Mrs) .......................................

Compulsory Universal Basic Education to every child of school going age

education, negative parental attitude towards education, low value attached to

shape this thesis with the necessary suggestions and encouragement.

exceedingly indebted to my parents, sisters and my brother for their encouragement

and support. My deepest appreciation and gratitude also go to my children Lois,

as a research grant to enable me complete my project successfully. May God bless

you all. Amen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... vi

LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES….......................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study............................................................................. 1

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

Table 3.1: Sample size………………………………………………………. 33

BECE: Basic Education Certificate Examination………………………. 12

ICT : Information Communication Technology………………………... 12

EFA : Education For All………………………………………………… 25

JHS : Junior High School……………………………………………… 28

BDT : Basic Design Technology………………………………………. 28

Plate 3.1: Teaching placement of cards……………………………………

Plate 3.2: Cutting ribbons for the wreath………………………………….

Plate 3.3: Teaching wreath making……………………………………….

Plate 3.4: Demonstrating pleating of ribbon and tacking on the frame…..

Plate 3.5: Students making a wreath……………………………………..

Plate 3.6: Assessing the made by girls……………………………………

Plate 3.7 Introducing pearls to the girls…………………………………

Plate 3.8 Demonstrating threading of pearls using elastic string………...

Plate 3.9 Teaching the girls how to fix locket on necklace…………….

Plate 3.10 Demonstrating how to handle the crocheting pin……………..

Plate 3.11 Observing the use of crocheting pin to make a loop…………...

Plate 3.12 Demonstrating how to lay a warp………………………………

Plate 3.14 Demonstrating basic macramé knot…………………………..

Plate 3.15 Teaching alternative macramé knot………………………….

Plate 4.1 A wreath that the girls were doing……………………………

Plate 4.2 A wreath made by the JHS 3 girls…………………………….

Plate 4.5 Some necklace made by the girls…………………………….

Plate 4.7 The researcher was assessing the girls’ work………………….. 60

Plate 4.8 Samples of knitted chair backs made by the…………………… 60

Plate 4.9 A knitted table cloth made by the girls……………………….. 61

Plate 4.10 Some of the girls’ work……………………………………… 61

Plate 4.11 Articles made by the girls……………………………………. 62

Plate 4.12 Vest made by one of the girls……………………………….. 62