Global Art, Post-Colonialism and the End of Art History

Hans Belting’s “Contemporary Art as Global Art: A Critical Estimate”

Robert McDougall

In Contemporary Art as Global Art: A Critical Estimate, Hans Belting sets out to explain how
the concept of ‘global art’ since the late 1980’s has transgressed our traditional
understandings of art history, modernism’s ideals of “progress and hegemony”, and our
hitherto Eurocentric historical assumptions, as well as how market forces and regionalism
are effecting contemporary art in the age of globalisation.1 Serving as the introduction to a
book he himself edited, The Global Art World – Audience, Markets, and Museums, the piece
was published by GAM – Global Art and the Museum, a ZKM (Centre for Art and Media –
Karlsruhe)-based group convened by Belting himself with Peter Weibel in 2006, and
dedicated to “documenting the contested boundaries of today’s art world”.2

Global art, says Belting, doesn’t signify a new context or new sense of aesthetics, but
moreover indicates a “loss of context”, in that largely much artwork today can no longer be
positioned within the frameworks of European ‘art history’, but rather in the context of
regionalism, and the heterogeneous contributive nature of all the world’s cultural
traditions.3 This, Belting describes, opposes Modernism’s “self-appointed universalism”,
which was always based upon a “hegemonial conception” of art, towards a conception of
what Russel Storer and others have termed ‘multiple modernisms’.45 It is Belting’s essay, its
context within global art studies and the potential of these ideas that will be discussed here.

“Global art is no longer synonymous with modern art”, writes Belting, in asserting a
semantic difference between ‘modern’ and ‘contemporary’, the former for Belting having

1
Hans Belting, "Contemporary Art as Global Art: A Critical Estimate," in The global art world:
audiences,markets, and museums, ed. Hans Belting and Andrea Buddensieg, (Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2009), 2.
2
GAM - Global Art and the Museum, “GAM - Global Art and the Museum – About Us”,
http://www.globalartmuseum.de/site/guest_author/236.
3
Belting, Contemporary Art, 2
4
Ibid., 2.
5 st
Russell Storer, "More than half the world: Asian and Pacific artists in the 21st century,” in 21
century: art in the first decade, ed. Miranda Wallace, (South Brisbane, QLD: Queensland Art Gallery, 2010), 34.

1
loaded associations with the Eurocentric and the latter simply meaning “the most recent”.6
As Giorgio Agamben has written, contemporaneousness might mean “a single relationship
with one's own time, which adheres to it and also takes distance from it” - a useful
definition in light of Belting’s thesis.7

Furthermore, Belting’s conception essentially relies upon a distinction between the terms
‘world art’ and ‘global art’, and explores how the former was supplanted by the latter
around the late 1980’s, particularly around the time of Jean-Hubert Martin’s Magiciens de la
Terre exhibition at the Pompidou centre in Paris when both Western and non-Western
artists were shown together for the first time in a major exhibition. A valuable distinction
certainly, world art for Belting refers to the pre-1989 conception of non-European art as the
primitive aesthetic foundation of mankind, which Belting relates is expressed in such
contexts as André Malraux’s ‘Museum without Walls’ compendium or the Sainsbury
Collection of African and Oceanic art objects. No doubt also Belting is referring in general to
the various collections of ‘primitivist’ objects from Africa and elsewhere lauded by figures in
European modernism such as Pablo Picasso or André Breton.89

It was “a paradigm of Modernist aesthetics to regard every form or work that humanity
created, as art”, writes Belting, yet it was also a claim of Modernism that this ‘world art’ be
forever ‘othered’ as primal and ethnographically historical, but never contemporary. As
historian Ian MacLean has written about Australian Aboriginal art of remote indigenous
communities, in agreement with Belting’s assertion, the artwork itself is often kept “locked
out of the contemporary and within a romanticised netherworld”, a segregation that is
“perpetuated” by the artwork being “firmly in the ethnology museum and European art in
the art museum”, a segregation that Belting elsewhere has also referred to.1011

6
Belting, Contemporary Art, 3.
7
Giorgio Agamben, "What is the Contemporary?," in What is an apparatus? and other Essays,
(Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2009), 41.
8
Patricia Leighten, "The White Peril and l'Art nègre: Picasso, Primitivism, and Anticolonialism," The
Art Bulletin 72, no. 4 (1990), 610.
9
Clifford Browder, "Surreality," in André Breton, arbiter of surrealism (Geneva: Droz, 1967), 61.
10
Ian McLean, "Aboriginal Art and Globalisation,” in 21st century: art in the first decade, ed. Miranda
Wallace, (South Brisbane, QLD: Queensland Art Gallery, 2010), 212-221.
11
Hans Belting, "World art and global art. A new challenge to art history," Lecture, Global Art
Symposium, (Salzburg, July 29, 2011) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uLvFavurQBE (accessed June 10,
2013).

2
Belting then explores whether a notion of ‘world art history’ in its traditional Eurocentric
form can ever be truly inclusive of the range of non-Western regional histories that have
gone into developing the artwork of our globalized world, or whether a legitimate ‘global
art history’ is necessarily one that embraces an “exodus” from art history entirely, towards
more heterogeneous understandings of artistic historiography.12

Belting then explores the contemporary phenomena of the MoCA, or Museum of

Contemporary Art, particularly in Asia where such museums, and the Biennales that follow
them, are increasingly emerging. Belting positions these places as contextual and symbolic
sites where often art hasn’t found localized meaning yet. In some instances their contents,
collections and events have no meaningful relation to the social culture that surrounds
them, precisely because of a lack of consolidation of a local definition of art, Belting argues,
given that the MoCA and the ‘hegemonial Modernism’ of European art history that
accompanies it is largely Western-imported. Therefore, he writes, it is not as simple as
establishing a MoCA and a Biennale in these regional localities but for the local culture to
define a meaning and function for ‘art’, and what sense of an ‘art history’ they wish to work
from, as the Eurocentric model of art history, with its system of hegemonial exclusions,
cannot legitimately provide this.

Cannot provide because, as Belting describes, of Modernism’s historical “double

exclusion”.13 That being, firstly the non-inclusion of non-Western artists regardless of their
own sense of contemporaneity to the annals of ‘modern art’ because of their geographic
locality (and the subsequent, only recent attempts to ‘fill in the gaps’ of modernity by
looking elsewhere for ‘lost’ avant gardes). Belting gives the example, quite rightly, that this
deeply-entrenched Eurocentric attitude perpetuated for many years has only recently been
confronted, by figures such as Rasheed Araeen in his The Other Story (1989), and his
subsequent work with The Third Text.14 And secondly, Belting writes, because of
Modernism’s insistence on the confinement of non-European art to this world art category.

12
Belting, Contemporary Art, 5.
13
Ibid., 12.
14
Ibid.

3
Citing Arthur Danto’s work regarding the “end of art history” and then comparing it with his
own, Belting then argues as a comparison to this ‘post-historic’ position, the position of the
non-Western artist as ‘post-ethnic’.15 Giving the example of Chéri Zamba and V.S Naipaul,
both of whose work plays with the notions of multiple ethnic identities, Belting argues that
the ‘post-ethnic’ artist is one that does away with the concept of authenticity, primacy, and
primitivism so caught up in the European gaze. Citing Holland Cotter and his talk about the
“crisis of history”, Belting argues once again it was concepts of contemporaneity and
geography which forever set the Western gaze apart from the colonial, primitivist ‘other’.16

Belting then explores how technology has influenced the globalisation of art, relating how
the phenomena of Video Art democratized the art world, as previously predicted that
photographic technologies would by Walter Benjamin, because of the way it allowed artists
outside the Western formal tradition to use cheaply available technology the world over.
Likewise, with the ascension of Pop Art, in which the world “looked flat everywhere”, artists
from across Asia were able to talk about and aestheticize their shared experiences of Late
Capitalism.17 It is from here that Belting begins to talk, by way of the example of Chinese
Neo-Pop Art and how it has risen to surpass Western Pop Art in terms of financial value, the
economics of the global art market.

Since Japan's economic boom in the mid-1980’s, which Belting writes “changed the game
forever”, the rise in art collecting has led to a culture of lifestyle over connoisseurship.18
Giving the example of the escalating number of countries represented in the trade, and the
strategies Sotheby’s and Christie’s now use to sell work, Belting argues that market values
have distanced art evaluation from traditional pedagogical criticism. Given this financial
climate, Belting explains, exhibition practice itself intentionally hides the economic
experience of both the artists and collectors, quoting Thomas McEvilly to say, “the problem

15
Ibid., 14.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid., 15.
18
Ibid., 18.

4
is no longer that art works will end up as commodities, but that they will start out as such”,
and giving the example of Elmgreen and Dragset's Prada Marfa as exemplary to the fact.19

Listing various examples of newly-established MoCAs across Asia, Belting argues again that
increasingly artistic values are eroding in the face of commodification. Firstly in Istanbul,
where the Istanbul Modern now only exhibits traditional Turkish artisanship for sale despite
having a Biennale in the past, secondly in New Delhi, where the National Museum of
Modern Art has greatly-declining visitor numbers whilst people flock to the Poddar
collection which houses commissions and folk art for sale, and thirdly in Abu Dhabi, in which
foreign collectors are taken on tours of the crown princess’ collection of Middle Eastern
contemporary works for sale.

From these examples, Belting suggests that as the idea of having modern museums headed
by curatorial experts who control acquisition is a Western idea based upon Western
conceptions of art and museum function, these new locations in Asia and elsewhere must
necessarily form their own local conceptions of art practice if they are to move past the
consumer notion of the private investor who develops and consolidates an audience based
upon economic interest alone.

Accurately, Belting is suggesting that it is the museums themselves and the surrounding
culture that has to make choices in how to support and champion art for art’s sake, and
moreover form a relationship with history, as history ultimately “has to be represented or
rediscovered, and sometimes reinvented”, when facing the opposing forces of markets and
economics.20 Speaking of the “newness” of global culture and the acceleration of its
inhabitants towards a state of true contemporaneousness, Belting quotes Marc Auge in
saying that “we must speak, therefore, of worlds in the plural, understanding that each of
them communicates with the others.”21 Museums of any capacity are, Belting writes, site
specific, “representing the local situation in the face of global art traffic”.22

19
Ibid., 20.
20
Ibid., 22.
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.

5
To conclude the piece, Belting then quotes the recent work of Bydler and Stallabrass, who’s
work surrounding this ‘global turn’ and the considerations of art after the end of the Cold
War and the rise of art worlds across the non-Western world, well and truly confirms that
indeed, art itself has “continued its exodus from art history”, that the erosion of borders and
the heterogenizing, democratizing nature of global art has proven the fallibility of
modernism’s master narratives.23

It is worth considering the historical background of the prejudices of world art, that being,
the history of colonialism and the scientific racism out of which it was justified. From
Classical writers like Vitruvius, forward to Enlightenment-era figures like Carl Linnaeus,
Georges Cuvier, Blumenbach and Buffon, Christoph Meiners, and even Hegel, Europe’s
intellectual tradition was full of philosophical and scientific justifications for the supremacy
of White Europeans.24 It was only around the mid-19th Century when Friedrich Tiedemann
became the first to make a scientific case against racism that Europe’s obsession with
racialized subjectification began to be questioned, eventually being followed in the social
sciences by Franz Boas, Margaret Meade and others who normalized the concept of cultural
relativism.25

Then, during the post-war period and following the dissolution of Europe’s colonial empires,
figures such as Frantz Fanon, Ibrahim Abu-Lughod and Eqbal Ahmad emerged to contribute
to the formation of Post-colonialism as a critical discourse. A protégé of both Abu-Lughod
and Ahmad, Edward Said’s contribution Orientalism (1978) was a study of the Western
misrepresentation of the ‘Orient’ in the arts and thus in the prevailing attitudes of European
social mores.26 Neglected by Belting at least in the text in question, Said spoke of Western
depictions of the East as an “ideal other” and "timeless orient", which "unlike the west

23
Ibid., 23.
24
Benjamin H. Isaac, The invention of racism in classical antiquity, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2006), 83-150.
25
Stephen Jay Gould, "The Great Physiologist of Heidelberg - Friedrich Tiedemann", Natural
History 108, (July 1999), 62-70.
26
Edward W Said, Orientalism, (New York, NY: Pantheon Books), 1978.

6
doesn't develop", and which is forever languishing in a myopic, yet romanticised, savagery,
creating an image forever “outside of history".27

One can obviously see in Belting’s critique of world art echoes of Said’s Orientalism.
Belting’s mention of the MoMa Primitivism show of 1984, of which Martin’s Magiciens de la
terre was a critical response, clearly evidences the kind of colonialist attitudes that until very
recently haunted, like Derrida’s notion of hauntology and the spectres of the past, Western
art history.28

Historical considerations aside, how is it that global art has emerged and what of Belting’s
‘estimate’? Pioneering curator Okwui Enwezor, responsible for Documenta 11’s largely
global art agenda, which he wrote was to “redress the past exclusions” of Western art, has
talked about how global art culture has heralded an era of vast ”postcolonial
constellations”, the dynamic routes of cultural exchange across the globe.2930 Similarly,
Nancy Adajania has spoken of how “the old centre-periphery model” of the world has been
displaced by a new vista of individuals, communities and nations, “connected by surprising
webs of information and alliances across borders, and where the ex-periphery is a garland of
emergent centres.”31

As an extension of this and in confirmation of Belting’s thesis, it is most evident that a

fundamental decentring of the West’s cultural power is occurring. As Ian Maclean writes, art
is no longer “the God-given right of Europeans. Instead, it is a set of autonomous styles
disconnected from any historicist project (such as modernism or the avant-garde) and

27
On Orientalism, DVD, directed by Edward Said (1998; Northampton, Massachusetts: Media
Education Foundation, 2002).
28
Jacques Derrida, Spectres of Marx: the state of the debt, the work of mourning, and the New
International (New York: Routledge, 1994).
29
Kobena Mercer, "Documenta 11," Frieze, September 1, 2002
http://www.frieze.com/issue/article/documenta_113/ (accessed June 18, 2013).
30
Okwui Enwezor, "The Postcolonial Constellation: Contemporary Art In A State Of Permanent
Transition" Research in African Literatures 34, no. 4 (2003), 57-82.
31
Nancy Adajania, "Time to restage the world: Theorising a new and complicated sense of solidarity,"
st
in 21 century: art in the first decade, ed. Miranda Wallace (South Brisbane, QLD: Queensland Art Gallery,
2010), 222.

7
contemporaneously available to anyone anywhere in the world.”32 Likewise, as Tim
Soutphommasane has written about Psy’s ‘Gangham Style’ being evident of South Korea’s
reestablishment of ‘soft power’ after America’s cultural supremacy of so many years, I too
recall speaking to Indonesian artist Rully Shabara earlier this year, when he spoke of the
West “no longer being cool” for Asian youth, with their attention now lying at different
Asian centres.3334

Anthony Gardner, in a piece commissioned by GAM, proclaims a difference, in that one

needs to “evaluate the possible shifts from the postcolonial to the global”, pointing out that
there are “as many postcolonial studies as there are postcolonial spaces”, in reference to
the curators of the Guangzhou Triennial who lambasted postcolonial theory for its
‘multicultural managerialism’.3536 Hal Foster similarly warns of this in The Artist as
Ethnographer?, of a self-aggrandizing “ethnographic fashioning” in which the artist,
identified or perceived by their alterity has an assumed “automatic access” to ‘otherness’,
and becomes “not decentred so much as the other is fashioned in artistic guise.”37 Gardner
also posits that Post-colonialism has seen a ‘withering’ – a reabsorption of its values into a
new aesthetic of identity politics.38

With that comes the consideration of localized identity either thriving or succumbing in the
face of a global audience and art market. Many artists now embrace a truly transcultural art
practice, something which today is still being questioned for its long-term effects on

32
McLean, Aboriginal Art, 223.
33
Tim Soutphommasane, "Gangham points to our future," The Age, October 8, 2012,
http://www.theage.com.au/opinion/politics/gangnam-points-to-our-future-20121007-27740.html (accessed
June 17, 2013)
34
Rully Shabara. Interview by author. Personal interview. Yogyakarta, Indonesia, February 28, 2013.
35
Anthony Gardner, "Whither the Postcolonial? Three Responses from Australia", Global Art and the
Museum, http://www.globalartmuseum.de/site/guest_author/236 (accessed June 11, 2013).
36
Gao Shiming, "Observations and Presentiments after Post-Colonialism," in The Third Guangzhou
Triennial: Farewell to Post-Colonialism, ed. Gao Shiming, Sarat Maharaj, and Johnson Tsongzung Chang
(Guangzhou: The China Academy of Art Press, 2008), 34-43.
37
Hal Foster, "The Artist as Ethnographer?," in Global visions: towards a new internationalism in the
Visual arts, ed. Jean Fisher (London: Kala Press in association with the Institute of International Visual Arts,
1994), 306.
38
Anthony Gardner, "Whither”.

8
regional or national identities.39 When one considers artists responding to this kind of ‘post-
post-colonialism’ with either a reinforcement or an abandonment of national identities, one
is reminded of Gayatri Spivak’s call to “maintain an ethics of alterity rather than a politics of
identity”, so that considerations of identity, dislocation and transculturalism aside, art
should forever remain centred in its discursive power against the kind of commodification
that Belting alludes to.4041

On the subject of Belting’s lengthy analysis of the challenges in regional centres to define a
localized art history, one is reminded of glocalization, Roland Robertson’s conception of the
simultaneity of “universalizing and particularizing tendencies” which Belting fails to
mention.42 Thomas Friedman has argued against this proposal, asserting the ‘flattening’ of
the world and of histories in the face of globalization, where ‘glocalizing’ phenomena such
as the internet suggest that history and innovation can be formed in regional centres in their
own right.43 However, Friedman’s critics such as Richard Florida might argue that adversely,
despite this ‘flattening’ effect of globalization, it is still the large Western centres in which
innovative people ‘cluster’, suggesting, like Belting, and no doubt quite accurately, that a
true heterogenizing of the art world might be a long way off.44

The call for local culture scenes in regional localities to create something ‘’unique to their
environment”, as Chris Hobson writes, without getting swamped by financial pressure like

39
David Gordon Smith and Alison Kilian, "Kunst Without Borders: Europe's Art World from a Glocal
Perspective,” Spiegel Online, http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/kunst-without-borders-europe-s-
art-world-from-a-glocal-perspective-a-762207.html (accessed June 18, 2013).
40
Maia Dauner and Cynthia Foo, "After Post-Colonialism? – Introduction," Invisible Culture Spring, no.
13 (2009): 1, http://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/Issue_13_/pdf/IVC13.pdf (accessed June 15, 2013).
41
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, A critique of postcolonial reason: toward a history of the vanishing
present (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999).
42
Michael Stohl, Cynthia Stohl and Nikki Townsley, "A New Generation of Global Corporate Social
Responsibility," Paper, International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre
(Dresden, Germany, June 16, 2006)
http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/9/2/4/3/pages92436/p92436-2.php
(accessed June 14, 2013).
43
Thomas L. Friedman, The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century (New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 2005).
44
Richard Florida, "The World is Spiky," The Atlantic Monthly (October 1, 2005), 50.
http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/images/issues/200510/world-is-spiky.pdf (accessed June 16, 2013).

9
Belting mentions, is surely the hallmark of global art of this era.45 Nancy Adajania has
written about this at length, calling for a “transient pedagogy”, a new formulation of art
history pedagogy which embraces a “critical transregionality”, setting aside “exhausted
cartographies” of the Cold War and late-colonialism and moving towards a re-imagining of
pre-existing global power structures.46 Central to this project, she writes, is the formation of
“vast narratives” and the “generation of numerous regional histories”.4748 Certainly one can
see in Adajania’s vision a great potential towards the amelioration of the problems Belting
proposes.

Further still, Gayatri Spivak’s ‘Can the Subaltern Speak’, offers further clues to the dynamics
of Eurocentric art history. As an historical study of the West’s philosophical "desire for
subjectivity", it highlights the way ‘knowledge gathering’ was always used to justify
colonialist projects, and that in modern times the European field of critical theory has
inherited this form of subjugating hubris.49 As a result, those from non-Western cultures are
robbed of their voice in the face of European intellectual traditions and therefore must
endeavour to reclaim it. One immediately sees a connection between Spivak’s position and
Belting’s thesis, and a justifiable call for the necessity of regional centres to reclaim their
own definitions of art and thus their own art histories.

Turning then to Belting’s concluding sentiment asserting art’s “exodus from art history”, one
considers Arthur Danto, whom Belting mentions, and his originating talk of the ‘end of art
history’, when he wrote about “the end of a certain narrative”, and how because of art’s
self-reflexivity, “there is no special way works of art have to be”, and that it is therefore ”the
final moment in the master narrative”.50 Danto was essentially asserting a
contemporaneous addendum to Hegel’s own suggestion that eventually art would ‘end’,

45
Chris Hobson, "Build your own Berghain", Boing Poum Tchak! (February 1, 2011), 17.
46
Adajania, "Time”, 222.
47
Nancy Adajania, "In Focus | The Critical Importance of Pedagogy for Biennales in the Global South",
ArtNow Pakistan - Contemporary Art of Pakistan,
http://www.artnowpakistan.com/profile_detail.php?id=249#.UcdXZvky06w (accessed June 15, 2013).
48
Adajania, "Time”, 223.
49
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Can the subaltern speak? (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988), 66-104.
50
Arthur Danto, After the end of art: contemporary art and the pale of history (Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1997), 47.

10
and Heidegger’s scepticism in regards to it.51 Danto’s critics, such as Noël Carroll, would
assert his claim was a specimen of art criticism rather than a speculative philosophy.52
However, more simply, Belting would later write elsewhere of art history as an “outmoded
model that is no longer appropriate for dealing with the art of our time”.53

Perhaps as a criticism of Belting or Danto, Kathryn Weir has written that ‘global art’ does not
herald art history’s end, but merely generates “much more complex formulations of art
history”, where there is a “widening awareness of many historical and geographic frames of
reference” and “longstanding aesthetic heritages”.54 Rather than being a direct critique of
Belting, we can see the difference as more likely a language game, in that Weir clearly
shares Belting’s assertions that the rigidity of ‘traditional’ art history is supplanted by
whatever ‘formulations’ might occur.

To conclude, its unavoidable to consider the work of James Elkins, who’s opening chapter of
his own edited compendium Is Art History Global? is a seminal text in the field. The chapter
is concerned with whether or not Western art history is “compatible” in non-Western art
environments, and if not then what of the alternatives.55 After citing a range of factors, for
instance the global distribution of art history faculties, Elkins concludes that whilst the art
histories of all cultures have obvious educational benefits, it’s not ultimately necessary for
the content of regional histories to be taught cross-regionally. But, it is still the interpretive
methodologies of art history pedagogies of all different types which could be usefully
exchanged across cultures, even if those methodologies are used to interpret entirely
different subjects.56

Indeed, Belting’s call for this ‘exodus’ is not at all discounted by Elkin’s assertions, rather,

51
Arthur Danto, "Hegel’s End of Art Thesis”, http://www.rae.com.pt/,
www.rae.com.pt/Danto%20hegel%20end@20art.pdf (accessed June 5, 2013).
52
Noël Carroll, “The End of Art?”, History and Theory 37, no. 4, Theme Issue 37: Danto and His Critics:
Art History, Historiography and After the End of Art (December 1998), 17.
53
Hans Belting, Art History after Modernism (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1992), 116.
54
Kathryn Weir, "In this together: The aesthetics of inclusion," in 21st century: art in the first decade,
ed. Miranda Wallace (South Brisbane, QLD: Queensland Art Gallery, 2010), 24-33.
55
James Elkins, "Art History as a Global Discipline," in Is art history global?, ed. James Elkins (New
York: Routledge, 2007), 2.
56
James Elkins, “Art History”, 23.

11
like Danto, we can interpret ‘post-historical’ to imply not after ‘history’ in the sense of
history itself, but ‘history’ as in the way it has hitherto been taught and studied in the
“double exclusion” of its Eurocentrism. Second to that, Elkins’ call for a global exchange of
art historical methodologies mirrors that of Belting’s call for regional artistic-definitions.
Most definitely these are noble concerns, and visions appropriate for an ideal environment
of global cultural exchange, yet questions still remain whether or not pre-existing global
power structures, such as what some have called the neo-colonialist, ‘New Imperialism’ of
systems of higher education between former colonies and their European suzerains, will
inhibit such exchanges in the future.57 Certainly, we can only hope, that this ‘new art
history’ will be one that accounts for and embraces “fresh interactions, interpretations and
readings emerging from such transverse traffic.”58

57
Rajani Naidoo, "Rethinking development: higher education and the new imperialism," Handbook on
globalization and higher education, ed. Roger King (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2011), 40-58.
58
Nancy Adajania, “Time”, 24.

12
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Brisbane, QLD: Queensland Art Gallery, 2010. 222-229.

---. "In Focus | The Critical Importance of Pedagogy for Biennales in the Global South."

ArtNow Pakistan - Contemporary Art of Pakistan.

http://www.artnowpakistan.com/profile_detail.php?id=249#.UcdXZvky06w

(accessed June 15, 2013).

Agamben, Giorgio. "What is the Contemporary?" In What is an apparatus? and other essays.

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---. Art History after Modernism. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992. 116.

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61.

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