Topic 1 Stoichiometric relationships

Definitions
Element: a substance that cannot be split into anything simpler in a chemical reaction. Each
element has a unique proton number.
Mixture: substance that contain more than one element or compound that are not chemically
compound and so retain their individual properties.
Homogenous mixture: has uniform composition and properties and components cannot
be separated
Heterogeneous mixture: has non-uniform composition and properties are different, its
components can often be separated.
Compound: a substance in which two or more different elements are chemically combined.
Atom: Basic building blocks of matter. Contains only one type of element.
Molecule: a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction (same element).
Solid Liquid Gas
- Strong intramolecular forces - Medium-strong - Weak intramolecular forces
- Nucleons are tight in a intramolecular molecular - Bounce with each other and
lattice forces move in all directions
- Have a fixed volume and - Fixed volume but adapt - They adapt to the container.
shape (shape) to the container
Mole Concept
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the weighted mean of the masses of all the naturally occurring
isotopes in which the mass of Carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 au (atomic units).
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): the sum of all the relative atomic masses of the elements of a
molecular formula.
Relative Formula Mass: same as RMM but for ions.
The “mole” is a name for a fixed number of particles. In fact a mole (n) is exactly 6.02 x 1023 this
number is also known as Avogadro’s Constant (L or NA).
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 · 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
This is important because if we have a mole of an element then its atomic units is what is weighs
in grams. If we have 1 mole or 6.02 x 1023 particles of Carbon then our sample weighs 12 grams.
To find the number of moles or the number of particles we can use the following equation:
𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑏𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
To calculate the number of grams, moles or molar mass of a compound we use the following
formula:
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑛º 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
Solutions
Solute: the substance that has been dissolved.
Solvent: the substance in which the solute will be dissolved (always larger quantity).
Solution: made up of a solute and solvent. (Aqueous if the solvent is water).
Concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in the solution. Can be expressed in 𝑔 𝑑𝑚−3
or 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3. (Remember we can convert between those two).
To know something’s concentration (sometimes called molarity) we use the following formula:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑛) 𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶) = 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉) 𝑉
Remember that V should be in liters (𝑑𝑚3 ).
Stock solution: a solution of known concentration.
Using the law of conservation of mater we know that n will be the same, hence for dillutions we
can say that:
𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2

Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas follow the law of conservation: matter cannot be created nor destroyed, it can
only transform from one form to another. This means there must be the same number of every
atom in both sides of the equation, there is a breaking and rearranging of bonds which means that
all equations must be balanced.
𝐿𝑖2 𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
1: 2: 2: 1
Chemical formulas are important since they show the stoichiometry of our reaction and tell us how
many moles of what react with how many more moles of something else.
States
To know in which state an element is at room temperature we use state symbols at the bottom of
an element in the formula.
(g) – gas
(l) – liquid
(s) – solid
(aq) – aqueous (in solution)
Empirical formula: give the smallest whole number ratio of different elements in a compound.
Molecular formula: shows the actual number of atoms of different elements covalently bonded
in a compound.

Finding the % mass composition

Divide the relative atomic mass of each element by the relative atomic mass of the compound.
𝐻2 𝑂
𝐴𝑟 (𝐻2 ) 2.02
%𝐻2 = = = 11.2%
𝐴𝑟 (𝐻2 𝑂) 18.02
𝐴𝑟 (𝑂) 16
%𝑂 = = = 88.8%
𝐴𝑟 (𝐻2 𝑂) 18.02

Determining the empirical formula using % mass composition

1. Write the percentage of each compound.
𝑂 = 88.8% ; 𝐻 = 11.2%
2. Divide by the relative atomic mass of each element and it will give u a ratio.
88.8 11.2
= 5.55 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 11.1
16 1.01
3. Divide by the smallest ratio
5.55 11.1
= 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =2
5.55 5.55
4. This will be your empirical formula
𝐻2 𝑂

Determining the Molecular formula from the empirical formula and data
To determine the molecular formula, we must first know the empirical formula and the molar mass
of the compound. The molar mass of the empirical formula will be in direct proportion to the molar
mass of the molecular formula. For example, if we knew that the empirical formula of a
hydrocarbon was CH and its molar mass was 26.04g mol-1, to determine its molecular formula,
we would:
𝑀(𝐶𝐻) = 13.02 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝑀(𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑) = 26.04 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑀(𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑) 26.04
= =2
𝑀(𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎) 13.02
All coefficients must be multiplied by 2.
Molecular formula: 𝐶2 𝐻2
Solutions
Solute: the substance that has been dissolved.
Solvent: the substance in which the solute will be dissolved (always larger quantity).
Solution: made up of a solute and solvent. (Aqueous if the solvent is water).
Concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in the solution. Can be expressed in 𝑔 𝑑𝑚−3
or 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3. (Remember we can convert between those two). We always use [] to determine
concentration. ALWAYS!
To know something’s concentration (sometimes called molarity) we use the following formula:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑛) 𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶) = 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉) 𝑉
Remember that V should be in liters (𝑑𝑚3 ).
Additionally, concentration can also be shown in “parts per million” (ppm):
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) = · 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Dilutions
Stock solution: a solution of known concentration.
Using the law of conservation of mater we know that n will be the same, hence for dilutions we
can say that:
𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
Remember that V2 is the amount of our previous (stock) solution into our new one and the rest we
fill up with distilled water.

Calculating the concentration

We can use a practical method to determine the concentration of an unknown substance called
titration. In this method we use an acid or base of known concentration and a desired volume of
the unknown. An indicator is used and the amount of acid/base needed to neutralize our solution
is determined. Then we can look at the stoichiometry of the reaction and determine the number of
moles that reacted with your known base/acid and then calculate the concentration of the unknown.
𝑛
REMEMBER ALWAYS USE 𝐶 = 𝑉!!!
Reactions
Calculating theoretical yields
To calculate the yield of something, we must know how many number of moles represent each
element or compound in our reaction.

Determining the limiting and excess reactant

Once we have calculated the theoretical yields, we will have to divide by the coefficient and use
that value to determine which is the excess and which is the limiting reactant.
2𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2(𝑠) → 𝑆𝑖𝐶(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)

Theoretical and experimental yield

To do these questions we will need experimental data to use the following equation.
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = · 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Ideal and Real Gases

Avogadro’s law in gases
It states that two gases of equal pressure, volume and pressure contain equal number of particles.
𝑉∝𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
Molar volume (𝑽𝒎 ): the volume occupied by one mole of a gas. Must be equal for all gases under
the same temperature and pressure conditions.
When we talk about gases we have to use the right units:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 [𝑘𝑃𝑎]
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 [𝑑𝑚3 ]
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑢𝑟𝑒 [𝐾]
The ideal gas equation defines the behavior of an ideal gas (most do this at low pressures).
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑇1 𝑛2 𝑇2
A more generalized equation for an ideal gas is:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Although we like to talk about ideal gases, we have to know that in reality some gases do not act
like we want them to. In fact gases only act like an ideal gas under low pressures this might because
when describing an ideal gas we have assumed two things: the volume of the gas particles is
negligible and there are no attractive forces between particles.
As pressure increases, the gas particles are closer and closer together which makes the volume of
a particle reasonably big to the total volume.
When pressure is low, the gas particles are spaced enough that the intermolecular forces are very
weak, but when pressure is increased (and temp decreases) these particles become closer together,
hence the bonds are much more present.
Real gases deviate from ideal gases at high pressures and low temperatures.