CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

HAZARD
 A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.

GEOLOGICAL HAZARD
 Natural process, originates from the solid earth geosphere
 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of a
geological process such as:
a. Earthquake
b. Volcanic eruption
c. Landslide.

The Philippines is prone to geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
These natural events bring about different hazards that may cause damage to infrastructures and endanger
human lives.

A. EARTHQUAKE
 An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from
accumulated stress along the geologic faults or by volcanic activity. It may cause collapse of
buildings, tsunamis, landslides, and ground-level changes.

Two Types of Earthquakes

1. Tectonic earthquakes – are those generated by the sudden displacement along faults in the solid and rigid
layer of the earth.
2. Volcanic earthquakes – induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.

EARTHQUAKE VOCABULARY

1. Focus or hypocenter – where an earthquake originates beneath the surface of the earth, where stress
builds in the rocks.
2. Epicenter – directly above the focus, on the surface of the earth. This is where the earthquake first felt.
3. Seismograph – an instrument/tool to measure the seismic waves or the earthquake activity.
4. Fault
 refers to a fracture, fissure or a zone of weakness where movement or displacement has occurred or
may occur again;
 a fault is said to be “active fault” if it has historical and contemporary seismicity, has evidence of fault
slip based on displaced rocks or soil units of known age and displaced landforms
 an active fault is defined as a fault which has moved within the last 10,000 years
5. Magnitude – of an earthquake refers to the amount of energy released, measured by the amount of ground
displacement or shaking. It is calculated based on record of the earthquake (seismograph). It is represented by
numerical value (ex. 4.8, 9.0)
6. Intensity – is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in a certain locality. It is a
numerical rating based on relative effects to people, objects, environment and structures in the surroundings.
The intensity is generally higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals (ex. II, IV, IX).

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
 Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause adverse effects on
organisms and their environment.
 The following earthquake hazards are:
1. Ground shaking – refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake. The intensity of
the vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and the distance from the epicenter.
Ground shaking may cause partial or total collapse of buildings and structures.
2. Ground rupture – is the horizontal or vertical displacement of the ground surface along the fault
zone. It affects smaller area compared to ground shaking. However, it severely damages buildings
and structures located adjacent to the faults.
3. Liquefaction – is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐like state during ground
shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
4. Earthquake-induced Ground Subsidence – Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often
occurs during earthquakes. This may be due to downward vertical displacement on one side of
a fault, and can sometimes affect a huge area of land. Coastal areas can become permanently
flooded as a result.
5. Earthquake-induced Landslide – failures in steep or hilly slopes triggered by an earthquake.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE

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 6. Tsunami – is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other disturbance under
the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near the shorelines.
7. Fire – the secondary hazard related to earthquake. Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during
ground shaking and displacement. It poses threat of explosions which may cause death and
destruction of property.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES FOR EARTHQUAKES

1. What to do BEFORE an earthquake

I. The key to effective disaster prevention is planning.

A. Know the earthquake hazards in your area
B. Follow structural design and engineering practices when constructing a house or a building
C. Evaluate structural soundness of the buildings and houses; strengthen or retrofit if necessary

II. Prepare your homes, workplace or schools:

A. Strap or bolt heavy furniture, cabinets to the walls
B. Check the stability of hanging objects like ceiling fans and chandeliers
C. Breakable items, harmful chemicals and flammable materials should be stored properly in the
lowermost secured shelves

III. Familiarize yourself with the exit routes.

IV. Know where fire extinguishers, first aid kits, alarms and communication facilities are located. Learn how to
use them beforehand.
A. Prepare a handy emergency supply kit with first aid kit, canned food and can opener, water, clothing,
blanket, battery-operated radio, flashlights and extra batteries

V. Conduct and participate in regular earthquake drills

2. What to do DURING an earthquake.

I. When you are INSIDE a structurally sound building or home…STAY there! Do the “Duck, Cover and Hold on”
A. If possible, quickly open the door for exit.
B. Duck under a sturdy desk or table, and hold on to it, or protect your head with your arms
C. Stay away from glass windows, shelves and other heavy objects
D. Beware of falling objects. Be alert and keep your eyes open.

II. If you’re OUTSIDE.. move to an open area!

A. Stay away from trees, power lines, posts and concrete structures
B. Move away from steep slopes which may be affected by landslides
C. If you’re near the shore and feel an earthquake especially if it’s too strong, MOVE QUICKLY TO
HIGHER GROUNDS. Tsunamis might follow.

III. If you’re in a moving vehicle, STOP and get out! Do not attempt to cross bridges, overpasses or flyovers
which may have been damaged.

3. What to do AFTER an earthquake.

I. Be prepared for aftershocks. Once the shaking stops, take the fastest and safest way out of the building.

II. DON’T…
A. …use elevators
B. …enter damaged buildings
C. …use telephone unless necessary
D. …PANIC

III. CHECK…
A. …yourself and others for injuries
B. ...water and electrical lines for damages
C. …for spills of chemical, toxic and flammable materials
D. …and control fires which may spread

IV. If you need to evacuate your residence, leave a message stating where you are going and bring your
emergency supply kit

V. Keep updated on disaster prevention instructions from battery-operated radios.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE

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B. VOLCANIC ERUPTION
 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released from a volcano
due to a buildup of pressure inside.

Volcanic Eruption Hazards

 are events associated with a volcanic eruption that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their
environment.
 The following are volcanic hazards:
1. Lahar – is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the slopes of the volcano. It destroys
infrastructures, buries towns and crops, and fills river channels.
2. Ashfall – Also known as “tephra”. It refers to volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into
the air by explosions or carried upward by eruption column’s hot gases or lava fountains.
3. Pyroclastic flow – is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of ash and dust) and hot gases.
It moves rapidly along the ground surface. It buries towns and causes burns, injury, and damage
upon impact.
4. Ballistic projectile – are special kind of tephra. These follow a projectile path as these are forced out
of the vent at steep angles like a cannon ball. It consists of bombs that are derived from fresh
magma and blocks are chips of the walls of the volcanic vent.
5. Volcanic gases – the principal components of volcanic gases are:
a. Water vapor (H2O)
b. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
c. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
d. Hydrogen fluoride (HF)
e. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
f. Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
6. Lava flow – is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. The resulting rock after
solidification and cooling is also called IGNEOUS ROCK.
7. Debris Avalanche/Volcanic Landslide – Massive collapse of a volcano, usually triggered by an
earthquake or volcanic eruption.
8. Tsunami – sea waves or wave trains that are generated by sudden displacement of water (could be
generated during undersea eruptions or debris avalanches).

PRECAUTIONARY SAFETY MEASURES FOR VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Volcanic Eruption Preparedness

BEFORE

1. For longer-term development planning, consult available volcano hazard maps that indicate areas declared
as permanent danger zones (PDZs) and areas likely to be affected by different volcanic hazards so that these
areas are avoided when choosing sites for developing new residential areas, commercial/ business areas,
siting for critical facilities etc.
2. Be aware of the kinds of volcanic hazards present in your area. Determine the distance of your residence,
workplace and livelihood (farms, etc) from the volcano. Know if you are within what kilometer radius from the
volcano summit your location is.
3. Be aware of the meanings of Alert Levels, and recommended actions. Make sure your family emergency
plan has taken this into consideration.
4. Be aware of community efforts such as identified evacuation areas as well as designated pick up points.
Make sure that the whole family knows about this. If you do not plan to stay in evacuation area, and has other
alternatives (another house, relatives in another town), make sure that the whole family is aware of this.
5. Stock enough non-perishable off and potable water. Cooking fuel, emergency light,/ flashlight, whistle,
battery operated radio, medicines, first-aid kit, dust mask, goggles should be made part of your emergency kit.
6. Consider provisions for pet animals, etc.
7. In the hazardous zone, it is necessary to have extra filters both for cars and home ventilation/heating
systems.
8. It is necessary to have wrapping plastic/polyethylene in order to wrap and protect the computer and other
electric equipment in case of necessity.
9. For people with existing respiratory difficulties, extra medication and oxygen required to live in dusty or ashy
conditions.
10. Spare contact lenses, cleaning solution, eye glasses.
11. Always listen to the radio’s latest PHIVOLCS Alerts and information. Heed the advice of community leaders
or LGUs about evacuation procedures.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE

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DURING

1. Stay inside the house or evacuation area. Take the higher floor, as it is possible that poisoning gas
accumulates on lower floors of the building. Do not go sightseeing.
2. Listen to the radio for advice and information.
3. If you are outside and very near the volcano, leave the area immediately. If caught in ashfall or tephra fall,
seek shelter immediately. Sometimes, pieces of rocks may be hot, seek care for burns right away.
4. Do not drive. If you must drive, keep the car windows up and do not operate the air conditioning system as
this will bring in ash from outside. Drive slowly as ashfall will reduce visibility. Ash on road surface can cause
the roads to become slippery.
5. Check that your pet or livestock have enough food.
6. Do not try to clean or shovel the ashfall during eruptions.
7. Protect yourself from ashfall.
I. Close windows and doors to stop the ash from entering the house.
II. Turn off all electric fans and air-conditioning units.
III. Wear dust-mask or cover your face with clean wet towel or cloth to prevent ash from irritating the
eyes and entering the respiratory track. Wear clothes with long sleeves and long trousers.
IV. Better to use bottled water. If you must use tap water, always boil water first before using.

AFTER

1. Listen to the latest update about Alert Levels, other information from the radio.
2. Cook food thoroughly.
3. If the family has evacuated during the eruption, only the adult members of the family should be allowed to go
home to inspect the house condition.
4. Only when local authorities- the LGUs have declared that it is safe to go home that the family should return.
5. How to clean up an ashfall
I. As soon as the ashfall has stopped, remove the ash immediately.
II. Wear dust mask before you start cleaning.
III. The recommended method to clean the ash is to lightly damp the ash so that it does not billow when
swept.
IV. Clean house roofs first, to prevent damage to gutters and down-pipes.
V. Do not dump ash in sewage systems.
VI. Inside the house, use damp cloth to remove ash. Avoid vigorous rubbing as ash particles are very
abrasive.
VII. To remove ash from your car, wash with plenty of water.
6. Check whether the neighbors need any assistance.

C. LANDSLIDE
 also called landslip
 it occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along a slope.
 Landslides occur when the sum of downward driving forces (gravity, seepage, earthquake forces, etc)
is greater than the sum of the resisting forces (strength of the material, lateral confining forces due to a
retaining wall).

CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE

A. Natural Causes
> Groundwater pressure
> Loss or absence of vertical vegetation, soil nutrients
> Erosion due to rivers and ocean waves
> Earthquakes adding loads
> Earthquake caused liquefaction
> Volcanic eruption

B. Causes by Human Activities

> Deforestation, construction, etc.
> Vibrations from machinery traffic
> Blasting
> Removal of deep-rooted vegetation
> Agricultural or forestry activities

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE

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Landslide Hazards
 are events associated with a landslide that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their
environment.
 Th following are the common landslide hazards:

1. Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and cars as it moves down the
slope. It may block bridges and tributaries causing flood along its path.
2. Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay, fine sand, and silt. It is slower
than mudflow, but it inflicts the same damage.
3. Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts road traffic in mountainous
regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it causes damage depending on the size of the rock and the
force of impact.

SIGNS OF IMPENDING LANDSLIDE

1. Trees and fence posts that tilt or fall

2. Foundations that slant
3. New small ponds that appear after rain
4. Cracks in the ground
5. Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
6. Dead patches of grass or plants
7. Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
8. Cracking of home’s concrete slab
9. Earthy odor in home after rain
10. Doors or windows that don’t open or close easily

SAFETY MEASURES BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER LANDSLIDE

BEFORE (PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION)

1. Secure clearance from the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) on status of possible landslides.
2. Know the landslide prone areas and learn the early signs of impending landslides.
3. Monitor the news for weather updates, warnings advisories.
4. Prepare your family’s GO BAG containing items needed for survival. Maintain a list of contact numbers
during emergencies.
5. Know the location of the evacuation site and the fastest and safest way to go there.
6. When notified, immediately evacuate to safer grounds
7. Plant grasses to cover slopes or build riprap to prevent soil erosion.
8. Reinforce the foundation and walls of the house and other structures when needed.

DURING

1. When inside a house or building and evacuation is not possible, stay inside and get under a sturdy
table.
2. When outside, avoid affected areas and go to a safer place.
3. When landslide cannot be avoided, protect your head.
4. When driving, do not cross bridges and damaged roads.

AFTER

1. Leave the evacuation area only when authorities say it is safe.

2. Avoid landslide affected areas.
3. Watch out for possible flash floods due to clogging of creeks or rivers.
4. Check out for missing persons and report it to authorities.
5. Bring the injured and sick to the nearest hospital.
6. Check your house for possible damages and repair as necessary.
7. Report fallen trees and electric posts to proper authorities.
8. Recommend to proper authorities to examine thoroughly the damaged structures and utilities before re-
occupying facilities.
9. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
5
CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE
T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
6