EKC314: TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

Core Course for

B.Eng.(Chemical Engineering)
Semester II (2008/2009)
Dr. Mohamad Hekarl Uzir-chhekarl@eng.usm.my

School of Chemical Engineering

Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal
Seberang Perai Selatan
EKC314-SCE – p. 1/5
Penang.
 Syllabus

1. Introduction and Concepts

2. Momentum Transport
Viscosity and and mechanism of momentum
transport
Newtonian and non-newtonian fluids
Flux and gradients
Velocity distribution in in laminar and turbulent flows
Boundary layer
Velocity distribution with more than one
independent variables

EKC314-SCE – p. 2/5
 Syllabus

3. Equation of changes in Isothermal Systems;

Interphase transport in isothermal system.
Macroscopic balances for isothermal systems.

EKC314-SCE – p. 3/5
 Introduction and Concepts

What are Transport Phenomena?

1. Fluid dynamics
2. Heat transfer
3. Mass transfer
They should be studied together since:
1. they occur simultaneously
2. basic equations that described the 3 transport
phenomena are closely related
3. mathematical tools required are very similar
4. molecular mechanisms underlying various transport
phenomena are very closely related

EKC314-SCE – p. 4/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Write down balance equation;

Macroscopic level macroscopic balances.

Equations should describe; mass,

momentum, energy and angular
momentum within the system.

No need to understand the details of

the system.

Examination of the fluid mixture in a

Microscopic level small region within the equipment.

Can write down the equation of change

that describe mass, momentum,
energy and angular momentum change
within the small region

Aim is to get information about

velocity, temperature, pressure and
concentration profile within the
system.

To seek a fundamental
Molecular level understanding of the
mechanism of mass,
momentum, energy and angular
momentum in terms of
molecular structure and
intermolecular forces

Involve some theoretical

physics and physical chemistry
work EKC314-SCE – p. 5/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Mixture of gases

Macroscopic
Heat added to
the system

Molecular
Microscopic

EKC314-SCE – p. 6/5
 Introduction and Concepts

The flow of fluid are studied in 3 different parts which

consist of:
flow of pure fluids at constant temperature-with
emphasis on viscous and convective momentum
transport
flow of pure fluids with varying temperature-with
emphasis on conductive, convective and radiative
energy transport
flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition-with
emphasis on diffusive and convective mass transport

EKC314-SCE – p. 7/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Conservation Laws (mass):

Consider two colliding diatomic molecules (N2 and O2 ).
The conservation of mass can be written as;
′ ′
mN + mO = mN + mO

for a system with no chemical reaction;

′
mN = mN

and
′
mO = mO

EKC314-SCE – p. 8/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Conservation Laws (momentum):

According to the law of conservation of momentum, the
sum of the momenta of all atoms before collision must
equal that after the collision.
The conservation of momentum can be written as;
mN1 ṙN1 + mN2 ṙN2 + mO1 ṙO1 + mO2 ṙO2

= m′N1 ṙ′N1 + m′N2 ṙ′N2 + m′O1 ṙ′O1 + m′O2 ṙ′O2

EKC314-SCE – p. 9/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Conservation Laws (momentum):

rN1 is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule N and
ṙN1 is its velocity.
It can be written as;
r N1 = r N + RN1

rN1 is the sum of the position vector for the centre of

mass and the position vector of the atom w.r.t the
centre of mass.

EKC314-SCE – p. 10/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Conservation Laws (momentum):

Also RN2 = −RN1
Then the conservation equation can be simplified as;

mN ṙN + mO ṙO = mN ṙ′N + mO ṙ′O

EKC314-SCE – p. 11/5
 Introduction and Concepts

How to study Transport Phenomena?

Read the text with pencil and paper in

hand-work through details of the
mathematical developments

Refer back to any maths textbook just

to brush up on culculus, differential
equations, vectors etc.

Make a point to give a physical

interpretation of key results-get into
habit of relating physical ideas to the
equations

Ask whether results seem reasonable.

If they do not agree with intuition, it is
important to find out which is correct

Make a habit to check the dimensions

of all results. This is a very good way
to locate errors in derivations
EKC314-SCE – p. 12/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Recap: Vector Calculus

If given a vector of a form;

a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k

consists of the real vector space R3 with vector

addition defined as;

[a1 , a2 , a3 ] + [b1 , b2 , b3 ] = [a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ]

and scalar multiplication defined by;

c[a1 , a2 , a3 ] = [ca1 , ca2 , ca3 ]

EKC314-SCE – p. 13/5
 Introduction and Concepts

The dot product of two vectors is defined by;

a · b = |a||b|cosγ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

where γ is the angle between a and b. This gives the

norm or length |a| of a with a formula;
√ q
|a| = a · a = a21 + a22 + a33

If a · b = 0 therefore a and b orthogonal.

EKC314-SCE – p. 14/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Example of a dot product is given by;

W =p·d

which is work done by a force p in a displacement d.

EKC314-SCE – p. 15/5
 Introduction and Concepts

The cross product v = a × b is a vector of length;

|a × b| = |a||b|sinγ

and perpendicular to both a and b such that a, b, v

form a right-handed triple.
This can also be written in the form of;
 
i j k
a × b =  a1 a2 a3 
b1 b2 b3

The cross product is anticommutative a × b = −b × a

and not associative. EKC314-SCE – p. 16/5
 Introduction and Concepts

For a vector function given by

v(t) = [v1 (t), v2 (t), v3 (t)] = v1 (t)i + v2 (t)j + v3 (t)k

Then the derivative is;

′ dv v(t + ∆t) − v(t)

v = = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
therefore;

v′ = [v1′ , v2′ , v3′ ] = v1′ i + v2′ j + v3′ k

EKC314-SCE – p. 17/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Vector function r(t) can be used to represent a curve C

in space.
Then r(t) associates with each t = t0 in some interval
a < t < b the point of C with position vector r(t0 ).
The derivative r′ (t) is a tangent vector of C.
If a vector in a Cartesian coordinate is given by;

v(x, y, z) = [v1 (x, y, z), v2 (x, y, z), v3 (x, y, z)]

= v1 (x, y, z)i + v2 (x, y, z)j + v3 (x, y, z)k

EKC314-SCE – p. 18/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Therefore, the partial derivative of v can be obtained

by;
 
∂v ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
= , ,
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂x ∂x

EKC314-SCE – p. 19/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Gradient of a function f can be written as;

 
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad f = ∇f = , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

Therefore, using the operation, the directional

derivative of f in a direction of a unit vector b can be
obtained by;
df
Db f = = b · ∇f
ds

EKC314-SCE – p. 20/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Divergence of a vector function v can be written as;

∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3

div v = ∇ · v = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

And the curl of v is given as;

 
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl v = ∇ × v =  ∂x ∂y ∂z

v1 v2 v3

EKC314-SCE – p. 21/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Some basic formula for grad, div and curl;

Grad:
∇(f g) = f ∇g + g∇f
∇(f /g) = (1/g 2 )(g∇f − f ∇g)
Div:
div(f v) = f div v + v · ∇f
div(f ∇g) = f ∇2 g + ∇f · ∇g

EKC314-SCE – p. 22/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Div and Grad (Laplacian):

∇2 f = div(∇f )

∇2 (f g) = g∇2 f + 2∇f · ∇g + f ∇2 g
Div and Curl:
curl(f v) = ∇f × v + f curl v

div(u × v) = v · curl u − u · curl v

EKC314-SCE – p. 23/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Extra:
curl(∇f ) = 0
div(curl v) = 0

EKC314-SCE – p. 24/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Example 1:
Let a particle A of mass M be fixed at point P0 and let a
particle B of mass m be free to take up various positions P
in space. Then A attracts B. According to Newton’s Law
of Gravitation, the corresponding gravitational force p is
directed from P to P0 and its magnitude is proportional to
1
r2
, where r is the distance between P and P0 . This can be
written as;
c
|p| = 2
r

EKC314-SCE – p. 25/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Hence p defines a vector field in space. Using Cartesian

coordinates, such that P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and P (x, y, z), therefore
the distance r can be determined as;
p
r = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2

For r > 0 in vector form;

r = [x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ] = (x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k

EKC314-SCE – p. 26/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Therefore;
|r| = r
and (−1/r)r is a unit vector in the direction of p. The minus
sign indicates that p is directed from P to P0 . Thus,
 
1 c x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
p = |p| − r = − 3 r = −c 3
i−c 3 j−c 3 k
r r r r r

EKC314-SCE – p. 27/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Example 2:
From the former example, by the Newton’s Law of
Gravitation, the force of attraction between 2 particles is
given as;
 
c x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
p = − 3 r = −c 3
i+ 3
j+ 3
k
r r r r

where r is a distance between two particles P0 and P of

the given coordinates. Thus,
p
r = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2

EKC314-SCE – p. 28/5
 Introduction and Concepts

The important observation now is

 
∂ 1 −2(x − x0 ) x − x0
= 2 2 2 3/2
=−
∂x r 2[(x − x0 ) + (y − y0 ) + (z − z0 ) ] r3

Similarly;
 
∂ 1 y − y0
=− 3
∂y r r
and  
∂ 1 z − z0
=− 3
∂z r r

EKC314-SCE – p. 29/5
 Introduction and Concepts

From here, it is observed that p is the gradient of the scalar

function;
c
f (x, y, z) =
r
and f is a potential of that gravitational field. Applying
Laplace Equation of the form;

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂2f
2
+ 2 + 2 =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

EKC314-SCE – p. 30/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Applying this to the unit vector, gives for the individual

component;
2
3(x − x0 )2
 
∂ 1 1
2
=− 3 +
∂x r r r5
2
3(y − y0 )2
 
∂ 1 1
2
=− 3 +
∂y r r r5
2
3(z − z0 )2
 
∂ 1 1
2
=− 3 +
∂z r r r5

EKC314-SCE – p. 31/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Combining the 3 gives;

 2 2 2

∂ ∂ ∂ c
2
+ 2+ 2 =0
∂x ∂y ∂z r

or it can be written in the form of;

∇2 f = 0

which is normally termed as the Laplacian operator of a

function.

EKC314-SCE – p. 32/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Example 3:
From Example 2, it is known that the gravitational force p is
the gradient of the scalar function f (x, y, z) = rc which
satisfies Laplace’s equation ∇2 f = 0. Therefore,

div p = 0

for r > 0.

EKC314-SCE – p. 33/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Example 4:
Consider a motion of a fluid in a region R having no
sources and sinks in R (no points at which the fluid is
produced or disappeared). Assuming that the fluid is
compressible and it flows through a small rectangular box
W of dimension ∆x, ∆y and ∆z with edges parallel to the
coordinate axes. W has a volume of ∆V = ∆x∆y∆z.
Let v is the velocity vector of the form given by;

v = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k

EKC314-SCE – p. 34/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Setting

u = ρv = [u1 , u2 , u3 ] = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k

where ρ is the density of the fluid. Consider the flow of fluid

out of the box W is through the left face whose area is
∆x∆z and the components v1 and v3 are parallel to that
face and contribute nothing to that flow. Thus, the mass of
fluid entering through that face during a short time interval
∆t is approx. given by;

(ρv2 )y ∆x∆z∆t = (u2 )y ∆x∆z∆t

EKC314-SCE – p. 35/5
 Introduction and Concepts

And the mass of fluid leaving the opposite face of the box
W, during the same time interval is approx. given by;

(u2 )y+∆y ∆x∆z∆t

Therefore, the difference is in the form of;

∆u2
∆u2 ∆x∆z∆t = ∆V ∆t
∆y

where
∆u2 = (u2 )y+∆y − (u2 )y

EKC314-SCE – p. 36/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Two other pairs in x and z directions are taken and

combined in the form given by;
 
∆u1 ∆u2 ∆u3
+ + ∆V ∆t
∆x ∆y ∆z

The loss of mass in W is caused by the rate of change of

the density and therefore equals to;

∂ρ
− ∆V ∆t
∂t

EKC314-SCE – p. 37/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Equating both equations gives;

 
∆u1 ∆u2 ∆u3 ∂ρ
+ + ∆V ∆t = − ∆V ∆t
∆x ∆y ∆z ∂t

Diving the above equation by ∆V ∆t and let ∆x, ∆y, ∆z

and ∆t approaching 0 leads to;
 
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂ρ
+ + =−
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

EKC314-SCE – p. 38/5
 Introduction and Concepts

Or in its simplified form;

∂ρ
div u = −
∂t
or
∂ρ
div(ρv) = −
∂t
which consequently becomes;

∂ρ
+ div(ρv) = 0
∂t
which is the condition for the conservation of mass or
the continuity equation of a compressible fluid flow!
EKC314-SCE – p. 39/5
 Introduction and Concepts

If the flow is steady, or it is independent of time, thus;

∂ρ
=0
∂t
and therefore the continuity equation reduces into

div(ρv) = 0

If the density ρ is constant, which means the fluid is

incompressible, therefore the continuity equation becomes;

div v = 0

EKC314-SCE – p. 40/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Consider a parallel plates with area A separated by

distance Y with a type of fluid;
The system is initially at rest
At time t = 0, the lower plate is set in motion in the
positive x direction at a constant velocity V .
As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum and the
linear steady-state velocity is established.
At steady motion, a constant force, F is required to
maintain the motion of the lower plate and this can be
expressed as;
F V
=µ
A Y
EKC314-SCE – p. 41/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Y t<0 Fluid initially at rest

t=0 Lower plate set in motion

V
vx(y,t) Velocity build up in unsteady flow
Small t

V
vx(y)
y
Large t Final velocity distribution in steady flow

x V

EKC314-SCE – p. 42/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Consider a parallel plates with area A separated by

distance Y with a type of fluid;
Force in the direction of x perpendicular to the y
direction given by F/A is replaced by τyx .
The term V /Y is replaced by −dvx /dy and therefore
the equation becomes;

dvx
τyx = −µ
dy

This means that the shearing force per unit area is

proportional to the negative of the velocity gradient i.e.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
EKC314-SCE – p. 43/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Similarly, let the angle between the fixed plate and the
moving boundary δγ and the distance from the origin is
δx.
Therefore,
δx
tan δγ =
Y
for a very small angle,

δx
= δγ
Y

EKC314-SCE – p. 44/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

But
δx = V δt
thus,
V δt
δγ =
Y
Taking limit on on the above terms;

δγ V dv
lim = =
δt→0 δt Y dy

EKC314-SCE – p. 45/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Hence;
δγ dv
∼
δt dy
But
γ̇ ∼ τ
Thus,
dv
τ∼
dy

EKC314-SCE – p. 46/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Which then becomes

dv
τ = −µ
dy

with µ as the proportionality constant.

The minus sign represents the force exerted by the
fluid of the lesser Y on the fluid of greater Y.

EKC314-SCE – p. 47/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

τ Shear thinning

Newtonian

Shear thickening

dγ/dt

EKC314-SCE – p. 48/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Generalisation of Newton’s Law of Viscosity.

Consider a fluid moving in 3-dimensional space with
respect to time t.
Therefore, the velocity components are given as
follows;

vx = vx (x, y, z, t) vy = vy (x, y, z, t) vz = vz (x, y, z, t)

In the given situation, there will be 9 stress

components, τij .

EKC314-SCE – p. 49/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Based on the given diagram:

The pressure force-always perpendicular to the
exposed surface.
Thus, the force per unit area on the shaded surface will
be a vector pδx (pressure multiplied by the unit vector
δx in the x direction)
Same goes to the y and z directions.

EKC314-SCE – p. 50/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

The velocity gradients within the fluid are neither

perpendicular to the surface element nor parallel to it,
but rather at some angle to the surface.
The force per unit area, τx exerted on the shaded area
with components (τxx , τxy and τxz ).
This can be conveniently represented by standard
symbols which include both types of stresses
(pressure and viscous stresses);

πij = pδij + τij

where i and j may be x, y or z.

EKC314-SCE – p. 51/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Here, δij is the Kronecker delta, which is 1 if i = j and

zero if i 6= j.
The term πij can be defined as;
force in the j direction on a unit area perpendicular
to the i direction, where it is understood that the
fluid in the region of lesser xi is exerting the force
on the fluid of greater xi .
flux of j-momentum in the positive i direction – that
is, from the region of lesser xi to that of greater xi .

EKC314-SCE – p. 52/5
 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of
Momentum Transport

Summary of the components of the molecular stress

tensor.
Components of forces
Dir. Vector force
x-component y-component z-component
x πx = pδx + τx πxx = p + τxx πxy = τxy πxz = τxz
y πy = pδy + τy πyx = τyx πyy = p + τyy πyz = τyz
z πz = pδz + τz πzx = τzx πzy = τzy πzz = p + τzz

EKC314-SCE – p. 53/5