CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is Pulse Detonation engine?

A pulse detonation engine (PDE) is a type of propulsion system that uses detonation
waves to combust the fuel and oxidizer mixture. The engine is pulsed because the mixture must
be renewed in the combustion chamber between each detonation wave and the next.
Theoretically, a PDE can operate from subsonic up to a hypersonic flight speed of roughly Mach
no. 5. An ideal PDE design can have a thermodynamic efficiency higher than other designs
like turbojets and turbofans because a detonation wave rapidly compresses the mixture and adds
heat at constant volume. Consequently, moving parts like compressor spools are not necessarily
required in the engine, which could significantly reduce overall weight and cost. PDEs have been
considered for propulsion since 1940. Key issues for further development include fast and
efficient mixing of the fuel and oxidizer, the prevention of autoignition, and integration with an
inlet and nozzle.

To date, no practical PDE has been put into production, but several test bed engines
have been built and one was successfully integrated into a low-speed demonstration aircraft that
flew in sustained PDE powered flight in 2008. In June 2008, the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) unveiled Black swift, which was intended to use this technology to
reach speeds of up to Mach 6.

Detonation combustion research has traditionally been limited to single shot pulses
of detonations utilizing highly reactive mixtures such as hydrogen and oxygen due to the
difficulty of initiating a detonation, however any practical implementation would require a nearly
steady or continuous flow exiting the combustion chamber and combined with the utilization of
common aviation and transportation fuels. Due to the supersonic nature of detonation waves, the
entire combustion region must be filled and mixed prior to detonation which effectively
determines the maximum rate at which a detonation can be repeated. In this quasi steady flow, a
device downstream of the flow will experience periodic bursts of high amplitude pressure waves
followed by nearly zero gauge pressure (in some cases a vacuum). To mitigate this effect it is
then necessary to minimize the periodic nature by increasing the detonation cycle frequency. It
is then the intent of the research to identify the chief variables that govern detonation transition
and overall filling time in an effort to achieve quasi-steady flow for integration into more
advanced designs applicable to propulsion and shaft power.

1.2 Mach No.: The Mach No. is the dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow
velocity(u) past a boundary to the local speed of sound.

1
Where-
M is the Mach number, and
u is the local flow velocity with respect to the boundaries (either internal, such as an object
immersed in the flow, or external, like a channel), and
c is the speed of sound in the medium.

Fig.1: An F/A-18 Hornet creating a vapor cone just before reaching the speed of sound

By definition, at Mach 1, the local flow velocity u is equal to the speed of sound. At
Mach 0.65, u is 65% of the speed of sound (subsonic), and,
at Mach 1.35, u is 35% faster than the speed of sound (supersonic).

2
 CHAPTER 2
COMBUSTION
Combustion can occur in two distinct modes, one is a “ DEFLAGRATION” and the other
“DETONATION”. Each mode has its own characteristic behavior which differs radically in their
respective final thermodynamic state. Deflagration is typically what most people imagine when
they think of combustion and explosions; it is the subsonic, constant pressure consumption of
reactants into products resulting in a high temperature gas. A detonation is a violent supersonic
combustion that releases an incredible amount of energy in a rather short period. Detonation is
commonly referred to as knocking or pinging in traditional internal combustion engines and can
lead to disastrous consequences if left unchecked. In the aerospace industry however, the
explosive power of detonations can be harnessed for thrust or shaft power production.

2.1 Defination-

2.1.1 Deflagration: Deflagration is the subsonic combustion of a fuel and oxidizer mixture
usually producing a small pressure drop with significant temperature increases. Deflagration can
be modeled as an isobaric process in most cases as the pressure loss that occurs during
combustion is negligible. Deflagration is typical in internal combustion engines (Otto and Diesel
thermodynamic cycles) and aircraft turbine engines (Brayton Cycle) and what is classically
observed when a fuel and oxidizer is ignited. The flame front or reaction usually propagates
through its fuel mixture at a rate of nearly 1 m/s. If the combustion is confined to a closed
volume, i.e. a cylinder, thermodynamics dictates that there must be a corresponding increase in
pressure from which mechanical work can be extracted.

2.1.2 Detonation: Detonation is the supersonic ignition of a combustible mixture where a

shock wave is fueled by an exothermic (heat generating) reaction. Detonation waves propagate at
supersonic speeds on the order of 2000 m/s. Detonations, which are modeled as a constant
volume combustion (Humphrey thermodynamic cycles) produce a higher thermal efficiency (1.3
-1.5 times) than that of a constant pressure combustion cycle at an equivalent pressure ratio and
thus can result in a similar increase in fuel efficiency provided that other mechanical and related
efficiencies can be maintained . The formation and propagation of a detonation wave compresses
the gas ahead of it causing a dramatic increase in pressure and temperature after the combustion
process.

2.1.2.1 Detonation Wave Formation:

In the instant immediately preceding the onset of a detonation wave, a detonation
kernel (a miniature explosion) occurs, which cause a blast wave that accelerates the local
reaction rate and leads to the formation of an unstable detonation wave. This explosion can either
occur as an interaction between the leading shock and the flame, at the flame front, at the shock
front, or at the merging of shock waves that precede the flame. The occurrence of a localized

3
explosion generates a strong shock wave travelling back through the burnt reactants, referred to
as are detonation wave which can in some case reflect and merge with the leading shock front.
If the initial shock wave is strong enough then the accompanied rise in temperature may be able
to trigger auto ignition behind the shock front. Once the auto ignition has occurred a stable
detonation can be formed in which the shock waves are sustained by the energy of the chemical
reaction that has been initiated by shock compression and heating.

Fig.2: - Soot image of detonation propagation (H2 + O2)

2.1.2.2 Detonation waves can be initiated through:

A. Direct initiation: Deposition of a large amount of energy at a given spatial location.

B. Deflagration-to-detonation transition:

1.Generation of a flame using a weak spark .

2.Flame acceleration through turbulence.

3.Generation of compression waves coalescing into a shock wave.

4.Transition to detonation

4
 Fig.3 Deflagration-to-detonation transition

C. Shock focusing: Diffraction of a planar detonation into a larger volume to form a spherical
detonation.

Fig.4 Shock waves

2.2: Difference between DEFLAGRATION AND DETONATION in gaseous

and oxidizer mixture:
1.Deflagration means ‘to burn down’, whereas detonation means ‘to explode’.

2.Deflagration is a relatively slow process when compared to detonation which happens at

supersonic speeds.

3.Detonation releases more energy than a deflagration process during a shorter time.

4.Heat and energy propagation in a detonation process occurs via a shock wave front whereas, in
a deflagration process, heat transfer happens by heat escaping from layer to layer in region

5.In a detonation process, high pressure gas is released in addition to heat, but in deflagration it is
mainly heat that is released and causes relatively less release in pressure.

5
6.The velocity of detonation combustion is by the orders of magnitude higher than of the slow
burning in the flame front (deflagration).

2.3 Comparison between “DEFLAGRATION AND DETONATION”:

A) Deflagrations are subsonic combustion waves: M1<1.

1.Characteristic of combustion in ramjet and turbojet engines.

2.Typical deflagrations propagate at speeds on the order of 1-100 m/s

3.Across a deflagration, the pressure decreases while the volume increases

P2<P1 and v2>v1.

B) Detonations are supersonic combustion waves: M1>1.

1. Typical detonation waves propagate at a velocity on the order 2000m/s

(M1on the order of 4-8).

2. Across a detonation, the pressure increases while the volume decreses

P2>P1 and v2<v1.

3. For detonations in stoichiometric hydrocarbon fuel-air: P2/P1~20.

6
 CHAPTER 3
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
Can something better than Brayton cycle be offered?

Yes, it's Humphrey cycle, in which the heat is supplied at constant volume of the working fluid.

The Humphrey cycle model detonations as a constant volume combustion process but differ in
overall thermal efficiency and theoretical work output. The Humphrey cycle is generally the
most frequently used to estimate the thermal efficiency of a PDE because it is essentially the
Brayton cycle modified for a constant volume compression process..

An ideal Humphrey cycle with states 0-1-2-3-0 can be divided into the following segments:

(0-1) Compression

(1-2) Detonation

(2-3) Expansion

(3-0) Exhaust

3.1 Working- During the first step of the cycle the engine’s chamber is filled with air-fuel
mixture. On the second step the ignition occurs.

Fig. 5. Functional principle of pulse jet engine

During the third step the combustion front runs through the combustion chamber, raising the
pressure in it at constant volume. On the fourth step the working fluid expands and performs
thework. On the fifth and sixth step the camera is vented by fresh air.

7
Shown below in Figure 5 and Figure 6 are the PV and TS diagrams for the Brayton and
Humphrey cycles:

Fig.6 P-V curve Fig.7 T-S curve

The work of heat engine in one cycle is equal to the area, bounded by the curve 0-1-4-5. Sector
1-2 shows the advantage of the thermodynamic Humphrey cycle, compared with the Brayton
cycle. Sector 0-5 shows the area that is inaccessible to cycles of Otto and Diesel heat engines.

Referencing the preceding equations one can notice that the difference between the
Humphrey and Brayton thermal efficiencies is a single group of terms which is always less than
one leading to the conclusion that for equivalent ratios of temperature and specific heat a
Humphrey Cycle will always have a higher thermal efficiency about 20-25% more than in
Brayton cycle engines.

8
Fig.8: Thermal efficiencies comparison of Brayton and Humphrey cycles at different degrees of pressure increase.

A detonation based engine has the potential to create high compression ratios (~15-20) from
combustion alone without the use of rotary blades or moving pistons, while simultaneously using
less fuel.

9
 CHAPTER 4
PULSE DETONATION ENGINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
There are some following considerations-

4.1 Oxidizer and Fuel Selection :

Selections of a fuel and oxidizer affect net thrust or work produced by a PDE cycle due to the
large variation in detonation velocities, compression ratios, and temperatures produced by
various types of fuels. It is typically best to use gaseous form reactants because of their lower
detonation energy requirements although liquid fuels can be used if atomized prior to ignition.
Even after atomization though, liquid fuels would require more power from a direct ignition
system or a longer deflagration-to-detonation transition section. As shown in Figure 8, Figure 16
and Figure 17, there is a strong dependence on stoichiometric ratio for cell size, initiation charge,
and critical tube diameter. It is thus important to ensure stoichiometric or near stoichiometric fuel
balances entering the combustion chamber.

4.2 Detonation Initiation:

Detonation initiation is currently one of the most critical problems in contemporary PDE
development. Initiation of a detonation requires significantly more input energy than that of
deflagration. For detonations there exists a critical initiation energy for which it is the smallest
amount of energy deposition that will cause a direct initiation of a detonation. A detonation will
be initiated if the energy release couples with the generated shock waves. If energy release
occurs too far behind the shock wave or if the shock waves are weak, a detonation will not be
initiated and result in a deflagration with modest pressure increases. There are generally two
types of initiation modes, direct initiation and detonation transition. Direct initiation is usually
caused by blast waves created by rapid energy addition either from the discharge of solid or
gaseous explosives, exploding wires or high energy spark discharges. Detonation transition is
usually carried out by means of flame acceleration via obstacle-wave interaction.

4.2.1 Spark Initiation:

Many experimental direct initiation tests are conducted through the use of solid explosives and
are based on the equivalent mass of explosive tetryl (C7H5N5O8) with a blast energy value of
4.2 MJ/kg. Varying the amount of explosive material can then be used to equate the energy
required for direct ignition to other methods of initiation. For "sensitive mixtures" like ethylene
the required energy can be in the tens of kilojoules and less sensitive mixtures can scale up to the
hundreds or even thousands of kilojoules. Direct initiation of detonation then can require very
large power input for high cycle frequencies.

10
 Fig.9: Cylinderical Detonation

4.2.2 Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT): In some situations the energy

required for direct initiation of detonation may be prohibitively high. This can be due to large
combustion chamber sizes, particularly insensitive fuel choices, very low temperature conditions,
or low pressures.

Deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) and shock to-detonation transition

(SDT) are two methods commonly employed to achieve the detonation with significantly
reduced energy requirements. In some cases an overdriven detonation wave, one that propagates
at a speed greater than the speed of a CJ detonation wave, can also be used to reduce the critical
diameter requirement needed for successful transition of a detonation wave from a tube of small
diameter to a tube of larger diameter. Critical conditions for DDT require that the cell width be
smaller than a specified fraction of the tube or obstacle dimensions, the expansion ratio (ratio of
burned to unburned gas volume) must be larger than a minimum value, and that the deflagration
speed exceed a minimum threshold. For simple situations, transition to detonation is possible
only if the detonation cell width is smaller 25 than the tube diameter (unobstructed tube) or
smaller than the obstacles' aperture (obstructed tube). For a successful transfer of a detonation
wave from one section to a larger or essentially unconfined volume, there exists a critical tube
diameter which is generally accepted to be on the order of thirteen times the detonation cell
width (13λ), (though in some cases it can be higher).

In DDT a subsonic combustion wave (deflagration or flame) is accelerated to a

supersonic combustion wave (detonation). The DDT process can be divided into four phases as
described in:

11
1. Deflagration initiation - A relatively weak energy source such as an electric spark is
used to create a flame.

2. Flame acceleration - Increasing energy release rate and the formation of strong shock
waves are caused by flame acceleration.

3. Formation and amplification of explosion centers - One or more localized

explosion centers form as pockets of reactants reach critical ignition. The explosion centers
create small blast waves which rapidly amplify in the surrounding mixture.

4. Formation of a detonation wave -The amplified blast waves and existing shock-
reaction zone complex merge into a supersonic detonation front which is self-sustaining.

12
 CHAPTER 5

FEATURES

5.1 Basic Features of PDE :

1. It is a revolutionary engine that uses detonation to combust the fuel

2. Detonation Principle Operation.
3. It operates in a cyclical and intermittent fashion.
4. Detonation is a more rapid and efficient form of combustion, as opposed to deflagration.
5. PDEs do not need heavy multi-stage compressors.
6. Thus PDEs can reduce weight, costs and improve fuel efficiency of propulsion systems
dramatically.
7. PDEs can operate from Mach 0 to about 5 and can be used in supersonic or hypersonic
vehicles.
8. PDEs can be applied for ground based electricity generation or aircraft propulsion
9. PDE can run on gaseous or liquid fuels, e.g. Hydrogen, Propane (Natural Gas), Coal Gas,
Kerosene, Diesel, Jet Fuel, etc.
10. PDE with Hydrogen is the ideal engine of the future.

13
 CHAPTER 6
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF DETONATION THEORY

6.1 Overview:

Figure 10: Configuration of a typical thrust producing PDE

Pulse detonation engines (PDE) operate through the use of supersonic combustion
rather than subsonic combustion of its fuel. The speed of combustion refers to the speed of flame
propagation through a combustible mixture. Pulse Detonation engines have gained much appeal
in recent years, particularly in the aerospace field where simplified mechanical operation and
lower operational weight have been the principal motivators.

Applications in aerospace propulsion have thus far operated on the basis of cyclic
detonation of fuel and air to produce thrust. A detonation based engine has the potential to create
high compression ratios (~15-20) from combustion alone without the use of rotary blades or
moving pistons, while simultaneously using less fuel. Because of this, applications in other areas
such shaft power production and supersonic combustors for scramjet vehicles, show promise as
well.

Currently, there are no production vehicles or engines in use today, with the
exception of a modified Rutan Long-EZ with an operating frequency of 80 Hz that flew for 10
seconds under its own power at a height of 30.48 mt and produced 800 N of thrust.

6.1.1 Applications to In-Atmosphere Flight

This section discusses the application of pure, combined-cycle and hybrid pulse detonation
engines to continental and inter-continental flight.

6.1.2. Hybrid Pulse Detonation

Pulse detonation engines are well-suited for combination with turbofan and turbojet engines.
This hybrid combination can be applied not only to produce faster aircraft, but also to make them

14
more efficient and environmentally friendly. In a conventional turbofan engine, combustion is
used to turn a large fan, which drives air into and around the combustion chamber. The air
travelling around the chamber mixes with the exhaust from the combustion chamber to provide
the thrust (Rolls-Royce 1986, 17). In a hybrid pulse detonation engine, the bypass air enters
pulse detonation tubes that surround the standard combustion chamber (see Figure 6). The tubes
are then cyclically detonated; one detonates while the others fill with air or are primed with fuel
(Mawidet al. 2003, 271). This combination promises to require simpler engine mechanisms and
yield higher thrust with lower fuel consumption (NASA Glenn Research Center 2004).

Figure 6: A Standard Turbofan Engine (left) Compared to a PDE Hybrid Turbofan (right)

Hybrid pulse detonation engines will allow commercial aircraft to be faster, more efficient, and
more environmentally friendly. NASA is projecting that the intercity travel time will reduce
significantly by the year 2007, and inter-continental travel time will also reduce significantly by
2022, thanks to this technology. In addition, they suggest that NOx* emissions may decrease by
up to 70% and 80%respectively in the same time periods (NASA Glenn Research Center
2004).Similarly, hybrid PDEs can also be used in military applications. A large number of
modern fighter jets employ afterburner-equipped low-bypass* turbofan or turbojet engines. In
engines such as these, fuel is injected into the hot exhaust stream. The resulting combustion
causes the exhaust gas to accelerate, and thus increase thrust. Although this process is an
effective solution, it is not a fuel efficient solution. Hybrid PDEs will deliver the same thrust
with less fuel consumption (Benson 2004; Rolls Royce 1986, 170; Mawid et al. 2003, 270).

15
6.1.3 Pure Pulse Detonation

The applications of pure PDEs are primarily military, as they are light, easy to manufacture, and
have higher performance around Mach 1 than current engine technologies (Marshall Space Flight
Center). This makes them an ideal form of propulsion for missiles, unmanned vehicles, and other
small-scale applications11(NASA Glenn Research Center 2004). The decrease in efficiency of
PDEs at higher Mach numbers, the noise generated by them, and the advantages of using them in
a hybrid combination, means that pure PDEs will likely not be used often for large-scale
applications (Marshall Space Flight Center 200).

6.1.4 Combined Cycle Pulse Detonation

Combined cycle pulse detonation engines may provide the most exciting possibilities for
aviation. Adding a PDE to the flow path of a ramjet or scram jet engine would make an engine
capable of operating efficiently as high as Mach 5.As scramjet engines are still themselves under
development, the full scope of this combination and its applications are difficult to evaluate.
However, these engines would seem initially suitable for high-altitude, high-speed aircraft .

6.1.5 Applications to Space Flight

While air breathing pulse detonation engines would not be able to operate in space, they may be
used to reduce the cost and complexity of launching spacecraft. As PDEs do not require heavy
and expensive pumps, they offer a viable alternative to current rocket engines. The decreased
weight, along with better fuel consumption, would significantly reduce the cost of launching
spacecraft. Using pulse detonation in combination with other propulsion sources could
potentially decrease the cost of launching payloads into space and the incidence of crew loss by a
factor of 100 by the year 2025 (NASA Glenn Research Center 2004; Marshall Space Flight
Center un cat.).

16
 CHAPTER 7
Problems Associated with Pulse Detonation Technology with
Possible Solutions
Researchers wishing to implement Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE) technology have two main
obstacles to overcome: Attaining successive detonations instead of deflagration cycles and
engineering materials to withstand the immense pressures and thermal stresses caused by the
blasts.

7.1. Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT):

The difference between conventional engines and PDEs is the use of detonation waves instead of
deflagration to propel the vehicle forward. As such, the deflagration to detonation transition is
necessary to attain the increased thermodynamic efficiency and other benefits of pulse detonation
engines. The competing methods to control the DDT are through either mechanical or
aerodynamic valving (valve less operation).

7.1.1. Mechanically Valved Operation:

Pratt & Whitney began developing pulse detonation technologies in 1993. Their approach to
overcome the deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) is through the valved intake method
(Kelly 2003). This uses mechanical valves to supply the air-fuel mixture before detonation.
These systems use a spark ignition to instigate the DDT. This allows engineers to regulate the
fuel-flow to the detonation chambers (Roy et al. 2004). This also creates a near instant
detonation, guaranteeing the thermodynamic efficiency and ensures detonation occurs, provided
the spark has high enough energy to cause detonation instead of deflagration. To assist this, a
more volatile* mixture may be injected near the spark whose explosion then triggers the main
fuel in a stratified reaction.

7.1.2. Aerodynamically Valved Operation:

Another approach, taken by General Electric, relies on the pressure difference between the
atmosphere and the engine cavity to supply the fuel-air mixture to the detonation chambers
(Kelly 2003). This causes two main stages in the cycle: the entrance, when fuel is supplied, and
the exit, after detonation. The fuel and air enter at lower pressures than during the detonation. By
continually supplying the detonation tube with air and fuel, and ensuring that it only enters in
between detonations, the timing of the explosions depends on the length and temperature of the
tube. A buffer zone of previously detonated gases forms by cooling the exhaust, either naturally
or with a coolant. This isolates the entering fuel mixture from the high temperatures that may
cause premature detonation. This allows for proper mixing of the air and fuel An electric spark
then ignites the fuel, creating a deflagration which increases the temperature and pressure,

17
leading to a detonation wave. This wave then propagates down the detonation tube propelling the
vehicle forward and expelling the byproducts that form the buffer zone.

7.2. Physical Environment:

PDEs work in an intense physical environment. Typical operating conditions for PDEs include
temperature ranges of 227 - 1727 􀀀C and pressures from 0-20 MPa (He and Karagozian 2003).
The high temperatures are needed to change the deflagration into a detonation wave (Ben-Dor et
al. 2001). While the valving method influences the DDT, it has little effect on the immense heat
and pressure associated with the technology. The purpose of pulse detonation is to have many
detonations propel the object forward. Research completed for 1m long detonation tubes
operating at 1 atm pressure required detonation frequencies near 100Hz (one hundred
detonations per second) (Roy et al. 2004). Other tests have peak pressures occurring ever 14-18
s. This means in three hours, the detonation tubes are loaded between 1million and 771 million
times. Table 1 shows operating temperatures and pressures for varying altitudes at a specific
detonation velocity (Roy et al. 2004).

18
 CONCLUSION
The paper discusses the principles of operation of the pulse-jet engine, detonation jet and liquid
rocket engines. The advantage of using the thermodynamic cycle of detonation combustion
compared with the Brayton cycles (combustion at constant pressure) and Humphrey (combustion
at constant volume) is shown. It describes the combustion of flames. The paper describes the
working of PDE. The main research centers, conducting research on the new generation of
engines are listed. The main directions and tendencies of detonation engines construction are
discussed. Pulse Detonation Engines (PDEs) can be broken into three categories: Pure, combined
cycle, and hybrid. However, the general principle of operation for each is identical: The fuel-air
mixture is detonated in the engine cavity, rather than deflagrated. This violent thermodynamic
process creates a pressure wave which compresses the fuel-air mixture of the following cycle;
the process is repeated up to hundreds of times per second. The PDE in general has important
advantages over current propulsion systems. The PDE has an inherently simpler mechanical
design and a higher thermodynamic efficiency. As such, it is shown that the PDE is more
efficient, in both specific thrust and specific fuel consumption, than current ramjet systems at
speeds of up to approximately Mach 2.3.This performance advantage makes the PDE an
excellent choice for static thrust up to mid- Mach numbers, where a ramjet or scramjet could
begin operation in a multi-stage propulsion system. Therefore, the PDE has applications to many
aerospace industries Quick and efficient intercontinental travel, safe and cost-effective spacecraft
launch, and effective military operation. However, before this occurs, certain engineering
challenges must be overcome. The issues of transforming deflagration into detonation and
materials able to withstand the intense heat and pressure must be resolved .Pratt & Whitney and
General Electric have developed solutions to the deflagration-to detonation problem.

19
 REFERENCES
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2. Glassman, Irvin and Yetter, Richard A. Combustion. San Diego : Elsevier Inc, 2008.

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