Hydraulic Modication

Dewatering and Preloading

Rakesh J. Pillai
rakeshpilla@nitw.ac.in
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Warangal
October 27, 2018
 Introduction
Dewatering

• Dewatering is required for construction excavations or permanent

structures that are below the water table and are not waterproof or are
waterproof but are not designed to resist the hydrostatic pressure.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 2 40

 Introduction
Dewatering

• Dewatering is required for construction excavations or permanent

structures that are below the water table and are not waterproof or are
waterproof but are not designed to resist the hydrostatic pressure.
• Permanent dewatering systems are far less commonly used than
temporary dewatering systems.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 2 40

 Objectives of Dewatering

• To provide dry working area for the construction of foundations or

buildings, bridges, dams and tunnels
• Increase the bearing capacity
• To reduce the compressibility of soils
• To mitigate or reduce the potential for liquefaction
• To maintain the stability of natural or man made slopes
• To reduce the potential for piping in dams
• To reduce the damage caused by frost heave
• To reduce the lateral earth pressure on foundation and retaining structures

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 3 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

1. Sumps, trenches and pumps

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 4 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

1. Sumps, trenches and pumps

2. Well points

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 4 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

1. Sumps, trenches and pumps

2. Well points
3. Deep wells with submersible pumps

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 4 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

1. Sumps, trenches and pumps

2. Well points
3. Deep wells with submersible pumps
4. Vacuum well point system

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 4 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

1. Sumps, trenches and pumps

2. Well points
3. Deep wells with submersible pumps
4. Vacuum well point system
5. Electro osmosis

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 4 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Sumps, Trenches and Pumps

• Small amount of water inow needs to be handled.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 5 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Sumps, Trenches and Pumps

• Small amount of water inow needs to be handled.
• The height of groundwater above the excavation bottom is relatively small
(1.5 m or less)

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 5 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Sumps, Trenches and Pumps

• Small amount of water inow needs to be handled.
• The height of groundwater above the excavation bottom is relatively small
(1.5 m or less)
• The surrounding soil is relatively impermeable

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 5 40

 Common Dewatering Methods
Sumps, Trenches and Pumps

• This method involves collecting seepage water and removing it by gravity

or pumping.
• This method is most common and economical and is suitable in case of
dense well graded soils, rock and other sti grounds where slope stability
is not a problem under excavations.
• This can be used during well sinking, braced excavations, slope
stabilization etc.
• When it is adopted in case of braced excavation adequate care should be
taken against the quick condition or bottom heave.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 6 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Well Point Method

• Eective of soil with permeability of range 10−2 − 10−4 cm/s

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 7 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Well Point Method

• Eective of soil with permeability of range 10−2 − 10−4 cm/s
• Multiple closely spaced wells are connected by pipes to a strong pump.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 7 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Well Point Method

• Eective of soil with permeability of range 10−2 − 10−4 cm/s
• Multiple closely spaced wells are connected by pipes to a strong pump.
• Multiple lines or stages of well points are required for excavations more
than 4.5 to 6.0 m below the groundwater table.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 7 40

 Common Dewatering Methods
Well Point Method

• A well point is a perforated pipe of 75 - 100 cm long and 50 - 75 mm

diameter.
• They are covered with a well screen to prevent their clogging
• Well points are made either brass or stainless steel.
• In a well point system the well points are arranged along or around an
excavation and connected to a common header pipe with a central pump
• Well points can be installed in pre-bored holes or by self jetting method.
• In self jetting method a water jet is allowed to ow through a pipe with a
one way valve at bottom which allows water to ow only downwards. The
ner particles will be washed out, leaving sand and gravel at the bottom of
the well point which forms a natural lter.
• In case if natural sand lter is not formed, additional sand is poured to
form the lter.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 8 40

 Common Dewatering Methods
Well Point Method

Pumping
• After the installation of well points to the desired depth as per the design
spacing, pumping is started.
• Centrifugal pumps can be used up to a lift of about 6m. If the depth of
dewatering is more than 6m, multistage well point system is used.
• Pumping once started should be continued (adequate number of standby
pumps are to be kept ready for emergency use).
• Jet pumps which can lift water upto 30m high (but with less eciency)
can be used if amount of water is less due to lower permeability of soil
strata and if depth of excavation is more than 6m.
• In case of depths more than 10 - 12 m and artesian wells present near the
excavation submersible pumps of high capacity can be used.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 9 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Deep Well with Submersible Pump

• Pumps are placed at the bottom of the wells and the water is discharged
through a pipe connected to the pump and run up through the well hole
to a suitable discharge point.
• They are more powerful than well points (so require only fewer well holes
and wider spacing)

• A borehole is dug with rotary boring

method
• Insert a temporary outer casing if
necessary
• Place a perforated well liner
• Plug the well bottom
• Place layers of lter material around the
casing
Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 10 40
 Common Dewatering Methods

Vacuum Well Point System

• In case of ne sand, silt and silty sand with permeability of the order of
10−3 − 10−5 cm/s water may be held by capillary forces.
• In such case gravity methods of drainage will not be eective and vacuum
dewatering can be used.
• In this technique the riser pipe is installed to the desired depth and a
continuous sand lter is provided around the riser pipe.
• Bentonite or clay seal is used to seal the top of riser pipe.
• The set of riser pipes/well points are connected to a common header pipe
and to a vacuum pump of designed capacity.
• Upon the application of vacuum, a pressure gradient is created between
the ground surface where atmospheric pressure will be acting.
• To be eective, the vacuum well points are spaced at 1 - 2.5 m c/c in a
row and the rows are maintained at a distance of 15 - 20 m.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 11 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Electro osmosis
• In clays water is held by electrochemical forces and the permeability will
be very low (range of 10−5 − 10−7 cm/s).
• In such soil deposits gravity methods and vacuum methods will not be
eective and electro osmosis can be adopted.
• Surfaces of clay particles are negatively charged and positive charged
cations are attracted towards them (Diuse double layer). Cations attract
water molecules to satisfy their own charge by a process known as cation
hydration.
• When direct current is passed between anode and cathode, the cations will
be repelled by the anode and attracted by the cathode.
• Along with the cations the water from the diused double layer also move
towards the cathode

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 12 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Electro osmosis

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 13 40

 Common Dewatering Methods

Electro osmosis
• The anodes are in the form of steel rods and cathodes are in the form of
perforated pipes with well point at the bottom.
• Only intermittent pumping is required to remove the collected water.
• According to 'Helmholtz model' the electro osmotic ow velocity is given
by
Dζ∆E
ve = = ke ie
4πµ∆L
D is dielectric constant of pore water (80 for distilled water and 55 for polluted water)
ζ is the zeta potential (volts)
µ is viscosity of pore uid (in centi poise)
1 Poise = 0.1 kgm−1 s−1 ; Analogous SI unit is 1 Pa.s = 1 kgm−1 s−1 = 10 Poise
∆E is electrical gradient (volts)
∆L is distance between electrodes (in cm)
• ke is the coecient of electro osmotic permeability and is independent of
soil properties such as grain size or pore size (generally taken as 5 × 10−5
cm/s)

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 14 40

 Suitability

• The suitability of dewatering technique depends on:

Location, type, size and depth of excavation

Thickness, stratication and permeability of geomaterials
Required depth of groundwater to be lowered
Potential damage resulting from failure of dewatering system
Cost of installation and operation

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 15 40

 Suitability

• Deep wells and well points are suitable for sandy soils.

• Vacuum is needed for deep wells and well points to dewater in silty soils.

• Electro osmosis technique can be used for silts, clayey silts, clayey and
silty sands, but not suitable for saline soils (which require high current)
and organic soils (due to adverse environmental impact).

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 16 40

 Suitability

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 17 40

 Applications

• Dewatering is mostly used for construction excavations.

• Dewatering has also been used as a permanent dewatering system for

structures and highways.

• There are case studies where dewatering is used for improving soil
properties and resistance to liquefaction.

• Chen and Jensen (2013) reported a case history where permanent wells are
provided within building footprint to lower groundwater table to eliminate
the risk of liquefaction

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 18 40

 Advantages and Limitations

• Dewatering systems are easy to install and can eliminate possible

problems associated with water during excavations and permanent uses.

• Dewatering may induce ground subsidence and cause damage to adjacent

structures (should be used with caution when there are nearby structures
and utilities).

• Dewatering requires disposal or recycling of water removed from the

ground and continuous power supplies.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 19 40

 Principles
Dupuit - Thiem Approximation

Unconned Aquifer

The rate of water ow (discharge) from the well;

π k(h2w0 − h2w1 ) (h2 − h2w1 )
Qw = = 1.364k w0
ln(Ri /r0 ) log(Ri /r0 )
hs is known as free discharge height which can be ignored for rough calculations
Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 20 40
 Principles
Dupuit - Thiem Approximation

Conned Aquifer

The rate of water ow (discharge) from the well;

2π khdr (hw0 − hw1 ) (hw0 − hw1 )
Qw = = 2.729khdr
ln(Ri /r0 ) log(Ri /r0 )
Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 21 40
 Principles
Inuence Range

• The radius of inuence (L) can be calculated according to an empirical

formula proposed by Sichardt (1928);
√ √
L = C(hw0 − hw1 ) k = Cs k
For s in meters and k in m/s, the value of the constant C = 3000 for wells

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 22 40

 Principles
Individual Well Capacity

• For an individual well of radius r, the discharge quantity can be calculated

as;
Qi = 2π rhw1 kie
hw1 can be set to h0 if the free discharge height is ignored
• According to empirical ndings by Sichardt, the entry gradient should not
exceed
1
iemax = √
15 k
(where k is in m/s), otherwise turbulence, high head losses and lter
instability may result.
• The capacity of an individual well is therefore limited to
√
k
Qimax = 2π rh0
15
with r and h0 in meters, k in m/s and Q in m3 /s
Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 23 40
 Principles
Drawdown Curve

• To minimize the entry of water, the drawdown curve should be below the
base of excavation
• The draw down curve can be induced by one-side wells and two-side wells

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 24 40

 Principles
Drawdown Curve

• Multiple staged well points or a deep well can be used to lower the
drawdown curve

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 25 40

 Example 1

In an electro osmotic application the voltage applied is 50 V and the length

between electrodes is 350 cm. The viscosity of water is 1 centi Poise. The zeta
potential is 2 × 10−6 V. Calculate the electro osmotic ow velocity.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 26 40

 Example 2

Well points are placed around the perimeter of a 36m wide circular excavation
in order to lower the water level by a minimum of 5m below the existing GWL.
The unconned water bearing layer is 12m thick and is located above an
impermeable stratum. Assume well radius = 0.15 m, k = 10−4 m/s. Find the
minimum number of wells and pump capacity required to achieve the
dewatering target.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 27 40

 Example 3

A 6 m thick sand layer is overlaying a 3 m thick clay layer. The GWL is at the
surface. A 2 m thick is laying over the sand layer for a very long time. A major
excavation requires dewatering and the water level is expected to be lowered by
2 m. The ll supports a raft foundation exerting 100 kPa of pressure. Using
1-D consolidation theory, calculate the settlement expected underneath the ll
due to consolidation of clay layer due to dewatering. The soil properties are:
Fill: γ = 19kN/m3
Sand: γsat = 19kN/m3
Clay: γsat = 17kN/m3 , e0 = 1.1, Cc = 0.87

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 28 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

• Vertical drains are introduced in clay layer to accelerate the consolidation

process
• Sand drains were used in earlier times, subsequently sand wicks, band
drains/cardboard drains, rope drains, strip drains etc. have been used.
• Sand drains are installed by driving a hollow casing pipe to the required
depth. Subsequently sand is lled in the casing pipe while it is gradually
withdrawn.
• Upon the application of preload excess pore water pressure is developed
within the saturated soil system which tries to dissipate.
• The presence of sand drains facilitates the radial ow to take place.
(horizontal permeability is ten times that of vertical permeability)

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 29 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Smear Eect
• Smear zone in sand drains indicate a small thickness of soil remoulded
around the sand drain during its installation
• This remoulding of clay results in reduced permeability
• In order to account for the smear eect, the eective drain diameter can
be reduced by 50%
Well Resistance
• Vertical drains may have limited discharge capacities and the water ow in
the vertical drains may encounter resistance.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 30 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Based on the unit cell model, Hansbo (1981) proposed an average degree of
consolidation of a sand drain due to radial ow considering smear and well
resistance: ( )
8
Ur = 1 − exp − T
Fm (ND ) r
N k 3 k
Fm (ND ) = ln D + r ln(Ns ) − + π z(2hdr − z) r
Ns ks 4 Qc
Ns = diameter ratio of smeared zone to vertical drain (Ns = ds /dc )
ds = diameter of smeared zone; ds = (1.5to3.0)dc
kr = radial permeability of undisturbed surrounding soil
1
ks = radial permeability of smeared soil; ks = kr , typically λ = 2 − 6
λ
z = depth in the ground at which the degree of consolidation is computed
hdr = longest drainage distance due to vertical ow
π d2
Qc = discharge capacity of a vertical drain; Qc = kc c
4
kc = vertical permeability of drain well

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 31 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Patterns

de = 1.13s for a square pattern

de = 1.06s for a triangular pattern

de = equivalent inuence diameter

s = spacing between two adjacent vertical drains

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 32 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains
Strip Drains
• In place of the conventional sand drains, strip drains are introduced as an
eective alternative.
• Strip drains consist of a plastic studded core with a geotextile lter
wrapped around it.
• A 10 cm wide strip chain has a tensile strength of 5 - 15 kN

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 33 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Equipment for PVD installation

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 34 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Strip Drains - Installation

• Strip drains are installed using a

special crane.
• The strip drains are prefabricated
and brought to site in the form of
rolls.
• One end of the strip drain is
attached to a base plate placed at
the bottom of the mandrel.
• The entire assembly is pushed to
desired depth and the mandrel is
retrieved back.
• The strip drain is cut at the top
and the process is repeated at
other locations

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 35 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 36 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Design of strip drains is done with equivalent sand drain method

π d2s
btg nd = ns
4
√
4btg nd
ds =
π ns
b = width of strip drain
tg = thickness of the strip drain
ds = diameter of sand drain
ns = porosity of sand drain
nd = porosity of strip drain

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 37 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Equivalent diameter of a PVD based on perimeter equivalency and considering

a correction factor;
2(b + tg )
dc = αd
π
where αd = correction factor, typically 0.9 - 1.0

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 38 40

 Preloading with Vertical Drains

Advantages of Strip Drains

• A denite amount of tensile strength is oered by strip drains though it
cannot be estimated easily
• The crane used is lighter and hence the thickness of sand blanket required
at the surface can be less
• The site remains clean and not much sand needs to be transported
• Requires less labour and time and hence economical
• There is no resistance for the ow of water once it enters the strip drains
• Additional research is being carried out to study the eect of soil smear
and kinking of drains (based on experience about 25% of the drainage may
be aected by kinking)

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 39 40

 Example 4

A 15 m thick hydraulically isotropic clay stratum overlies an impervious

stratum. If the coecient of consolidation is 5 × 10−4 cm2 /s, nd the time
required for 50% and 90% consolidation. In order to accelerate the rate of
settlement, vertical sand drains of 1 m diameter were installed at 5 m c/c.
Calculate how much time is reduced due to the provision of sand drains.
Assume triangular pattern of sand drains.

Rakesh J. Pillai (NIT Warangal) Hydraulic Modication October 27, 2018 40 40