SHORT REPORT JBMR

Evidence of Staphylococcus aureus Deformation,

Proliferation, and Migration in Canaliculi of Live Cortical
Bone in Murine Models of Osteomyelitis
Karen L de Mesy Bentley,1,2,3 Ryan Trombetta,1,4 Kohei Nishitani,1 Sheila N Bello-Irizarry,1 Mark Ninomiya,1
Longze Zhang,1 Hung Li Chung,4 James L McGrath,4 John L Daiss,1 Hani A Awad,1,4 Stephen L Kates,1,5
and Edward M Schwarz1,2,3,4
1
University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
2
Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
3
Department of Orthopaedics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
4
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
5
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA

ABSTRACT
Although Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis is considered to be incurable, the major bacterial reservoir in live cortical bone has
remained unknown. In addition to biofilm bacteria on necrotic tissue and implants, studies have implicated intracellular infection of
osteoblasts and osteocytes as a mechanism of chronic osteomyelitis. Thus, we performed the first systematic transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) studies to formally define major reservoirs of S. aureus in chronically infected mouse (Balb/c J) long bone tissue.
Although rare, evidence of colonized osteoblasts was found. In contrast, we readily observed S. aureus within canaliculi of live cortical
bone, which existed as chains of individual cocci and submicron rod-shaped bacteria leading to biofilm formation in osteocyte lacunae.
As these observations do not conform to the expectations of S. aureus as non-motile cocci 1.0 to 1.5 mm in diameter, we also performed
immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) following in vivo BrdU labeling to assess the role of bacterial proliferation in canalicular invasion.
The results suggest that the deformed bacteria: (1) enter canaliculi via asymmetric binary fission; and (2) migrate toward osteocyte
lacunae via proliferation at the leading edge. Additional in vitro studies confirmed S. aureus migration through a 0.5-mm porous
membrane. Collectively, these findings define a novel mechanism of bone infection, and provide possible new insight as to why
S. aureus implant-related infections of bone tissue are so challenging to treat. © 2016 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

KEY WORDS: STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; OSTEOMYELITIS; CANALICULAR SYSTEM; CORTICAL BONE; ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; HAPTOTAXIS;
DUROTAXIS

Introduction However, to date there have been no systematic transmission

S taphylococcus aureus accounts for the majority of chronic
osteomyelitis cases, and these bone infections remain a major
challenge in orthopedics.(1) Moreover, this condition is considered
to be incurable because of biofilm-dwelling bacteria persisting
deep within cortical bone(2) and this condition costs billions of
dollars each year.(3) Animal models of implant-associated S. aureus
infections utilizing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have
provided important insights on biofilm formation, maturation, and
accessory gene regulator-dependent bacterial emigration to
perpetuate chronic infections.(4,5) Moreover, results from in vitro
experiments,(6) animal model studies,(7,8) and clinical biopsies(9)
have demonstrated S. aureus infection of osteoblasts and
osteocytes, implicating intracellular persistence within bone cells
as a mechanism of immune evasion and chronic infection.
electron microscopy (TEM) studies to formally define the major
reservoirs of S. aureus in chronically infected live bone. To
address this we utilized murine models of tibial(4) and femoral(5)
osteomyelitis, and performed TEM studies on the behavior of
prototypic methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA; UAMS-1),(10)
and the most common clinical strain of methicillin-resistant
S. aureus (MRSA; USA300 LAC).(11)
Materials and Methods
S. aureus strains and mice
Four S. aureus strains were used: UAMS-1,(10) UAMS-1 expressing
the green fluorescent protein (GFPþ UAMS-1; provided by
Dr. Steven Gill, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY), a

Received in original form August 19, 2016; revised form December 2, 2016; accepted December 5, 2016. Accepted manuscript online December 8, 2016.
Address correspondence to: Edward M Schwarz, PHD, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 665, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
E-mail: Edward_Schwarz@URMC.Rochester.edu and Karen Bentley, MS, Pathology, Electron Microscope Resource, 601 Elmwood, Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642,
USA. E-mail: Karen_Bentley@URMC.Rochester.edu
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, Vol. 32, No. 5, May 2017, pp 985–990
DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.3055
© 2016 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research

985
protein A-deficient mutant of UAMS-1 (DSpa; provided by
Dr. Paul Dunman, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY), and
USA300LAC.(11) These strains were used as described in the three
separate in vivo experiments, and an in vitro study, as listed in
the sections below. All animal studies were performed in
accordance with protocols approved by the University of
Rochester’s Committee on Animal Resources. To be consistent
with our previous studies,(4,5,12) normal and healthy female
Balb/c J mice (Jackson Research Labs, Bar Harbor, ME, USA) at 8
to 10 weeks of age were acclimated for 1 week prior to surgery
and randomly assigned to an infection group. All mice were fed
Purina Chow 5008 (St. Louis, MO), and were anesthetized just
prior to each type of surgery with xylazine (12 mg/kg) and
ketamine (130 mg/kg) injected intraperitoneally. The weight of
the mice at the time of surgery ranged from 21 to 28 g. They
typically lost 2 to 3 g 1 day postoperation, and recovered this
weight loss by day 14. There were no significant weight
differences between the groups at any time point.
Experiment 1
To assess S. aureus infection during the establishment of
implant-associated osteomyelitis, we utilized a transtibial pin
implant model.(4) Briefly, an overnight culture was established
by inoculating 1  107 colony forming units (CFU) of UAMS-1 in
10 mL of tryptic soy broth (TSB), which was incubated for
16 hours at 37°C. The next day, flat stainless steel wires were
incubated in this overnight culture for 30 min prior to surgical
implantation into the mice, which contaminated them with
5  105 CFU (group 1, test). Untreated wires were used as
group 2 sterile pin controls (n ¼ 5 per group; 10 total). After
anesthesia, a 5-mm to 7-mm longitudinal skin incision was made
on the medial side of the proximal right lower limb. The center of
the incision was about 5 mm posteromedial to the tibial
tuberosity. Then the soft tissue was removed, and the medial
aspect of the proximal tibia was exposed. A medial hole was
created by manually inserting a 23G needle at the level of the
tibial tuberosity, and the center of the anteroposterior axis. A
30G needle was then used to enlarge the hole of the medial
surface, via insertion parallel to the knee joint line and posterior
aspect of the tibia. Then, a flat stainless steel wire (cross-section
0.2 mm  0.5 mm; MicroDyne Technologies, Plainville, CT, USA)
was cut to a 4 mm length, and bent into an L-shaped implant
(long side 3 mm, short side 1 mm), which was inserted along a
medial-to-lateral path through the medial and lateral holes,
leaving the 1-mm dimension protruding on the medial aspect of
the tibia, but tightly apposed to its periosteal surface. Afterward,
the muscle and skin were closed with sutures. The mice were
housed for 14 days prior to euthanasia and tibia harvest for TEM
analysis.
Experiment 2
To assess S. aureus infection of bone following direct
contamination, we utilized a femoral osteotomy model.(5)
Briefly, after anesthesia the right femur was exposed by a
direct lateral approach blunt dissection, and a six-hole
radiolucent polyether ether ketone (PEEK) femoral plate
(11 mm in length  1.75 mm in width  1 mm thick) with a
40-nm titanium coating (RIS.401.130 MouseFix plate 6 hole,
rigid; RISystem, Davos, Switzerland), was implanted 2 to 3 mm
from the distal end of the femur on the anterolateral surface of
the bone using just four titanium screws (RIS.401.100
MouseFix screw, L ¼ 2.00 mm; RISystem, Davos, Switzerland),
986 DE MESY BENTLEY ET AL.
which were placed in the four outermost screw holes of the
plate. A 0.7-mm transverse osteotomy was cut through the
femoral mid-diaphysis under the plate using a 0.67-mm wire
Gigli saw and a cutting guide (RISystem, Davos, Switzerland). A
1-mm radius semicircle of fibrillar collagen sheet (Kensey Nash,
Exton, PA, USA) was soaked for at least 2 hours in an overnight
culture of USA300 prepared as described in Experiment 1
(contaminating dose 5  104 CFU, group 1, test), or was
untreated (group 2, sterile control). A collagen sheet was
placed into the femoral defect (n ¼ 5 per group; 10 total),
which was secured with 5-0 nylon monofilament sutures
wrapped around the muscle and skin during wound closure to
ensure retention of the collagen sheet in the osteotomy defect
for the duration of the in vivo experiment. The mice were
housed for 14 days prior to euthanasia and femur harvest for
TEM analysis.
Experiment 3
To assess the role of proliferation in S. aureus infection of bone
following direct contamination, mice (n ¼ 5; 10 total) received
the femoral osteotomy surgery with a sterile collagen sheet
(group 1, negative control), or a collagen sheet soaked with
UAMS-1DSpa (group 2). Following surgery, the mice were fed
0.5 mg/mL bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) (Sigma, St. Louis, MO,
USA) in their drinking water, which was available ad libitum
24 hours/day until euthanasia on day 14, and the femurs were
harvested for IEM.
TEM
Tibias were excised and immersion fixed in 0.1M sodium
cacodylate buffered 2.5% glutaraldehyde/4% paraformalde-
hyde overnight. Femurs were perfusion fixed via the
descending aorta using the same fixative. Afterward, the
long bones underwent decalcification for 7 to 10 days with
14% EDTA. Following decalcification, all implants (pins,
plates, screws, and sponges) were removed prior to trimming
and processing for TEM. The bones were postfixed in 2.0%
osmium tetroxide, dehydrated through a graded series of
ethanol to 100%, transitioned into propylene oxide (PO), PO/
EPON/Araldite epoxy resin, two changes of 100% EPON/
Araldite epoxy resin before embedment into large inverted
(flat cap side) BEEM size 00 capsule molds for 48 hours of
polymerization at 60°C. A variation of our large block
sectioning technique(13) was utilized to produce 1-mm
sections of the entire proximal tibia (>3 mm), and the
femoral diaphysis flanking the osteotomy (two pieces 3 mm
proximal and distal to the defect) were embedded as intact
bone samples. One-micron (1-mm) sections cut using a
diamond Histoknife, and stained with Toluidine blue, were
used to identify S. aureus infiltrating into the canalicular
system of cortical bone. Serial step (every 300 nm) thin
sections were cut at 70 nm using a diamond knife, placed
onto formvar/carbon slot grids, stained with aqueous uranyl
acetate and lead citrate then imaged using a Hitachi 7650
TEM with an attached Gatan Erlangshen 11 megapixel digital
camera.
IEM
UAMS-1DSpa was used for IEM to eliminate background
antibody binding to protein A. The femurs were perfusion
fixed, excised, and postfixed an additional 8 hours with 4.0%
paraformaldehyde in 0.1M sodium cacodylate buffer and then
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
decalcified with 14% EDTA for 10 days before embedding into
LR White resin. The blocks were sectioned at 1-mm for
Toluidine blue staining to identify by light microscopy cortical
bone infection sites (Fig. 2A). Thin sections at 80 nm were
placed onto carbon/formvar 150 mesh grids and incubated in
5N HCl for 15 min to denature double stranded DNA into
single strands. The grids were rinsed in distilled water, PBS,
incubated in blocking solution containing 2% normal donkey
serum in PBS, then overnight at 4°C in sheep anti-BrdU
(Fitzgerald) primary antibody at 1/100, rinsed in PBS and
incubated at room temperature for 1.5 hours in donkey anti-
sheep 12-nm gold-tagged secondary (Jackson ImmunoRe-
search). For a negative control, the primary antibody was
substituted with 2% normal serum in PBS. The grids were
stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and examined
using the same Hitachi 7650 TEM and the same digital camera
system.
In vitro experiment
To validate S. aureus migration through submicron pores,
we utilized an in vitro transwell system (Fig. 2E). Briefly,
0.4-mm-thick silicon nitride membrane chips containing pores
0.5 mm in diameter were fabricated by SiMPore Inc. (West
Henrietta, NY, USA) as described.(14) Individual chips were housed
within a circular culture well system made of a firm silicon gel. A
silicon gasket was used to form a tight seal maintaining 150 mL of
GFPþ UAMS-1 in TSB exclusively on the topside of the chip
(covered with a sterile coverslip). Real-time fluorescent imaging
of the bacteria at 37°C was performed using an Olympus FV 1000
microscope, in which z-stack images, starting at the topside of

Fig. 1. TEM evidence of submicron-elongated S. aureus in the osteocytic lacunar-canaliculi network of infected live bone tissue. Long bones from mice
(n ¼ 5) infected with a UAMS-1–contaminated tibial pin (A–F, H, I), or a USA300-infected femoral osteotomy (G), were harvested on day 14 postinfection
for TEM. (A) Low magnification TEM image (4000) of UAMS-1 invasion of live bone tissue (note osteocyte OC) in a canaliculus (green arrow)
communicating with the marrow cavity (MC). Also note the proximal neutrophils (yellow arrow) within the marrow. (B) Low magnification TEM image
(4000) of UAMS-1 invasion of an osteocytic lacunar-canaliculus adjacent to a channel infected with S. aureus (arrows) containing necrotic cells ( ).
Higher magnification TEM images (C: 8000; D: 10,000) of UAMS-1 colonization of osteocytic lacunae. (E) Low magnification TEM image of three
parallel canaliculi in various states of colonization (1: severely infected; 2: moderately infected; and 3: uninfected) by the invading UAMS-1 within the live
cortical bone (3500). (F) Higher magnification TEM image measuring submicron-elongated UAMS-1 (15,000). (G) Similar bacterial invasion of
canaliculi adjacent to the osteotomy (red arrow), and neutrophils in the marrow cavity ( ) were observed in USA300-infected femurs (4000), but not in
long bones that received sterile implants (data not shown). (H) Low magnification TEM image (4000) documenting cortical bone damage adjacent to
the infected tibia pin (red arrows), and a cavity filled with UAMS-1 (yellow bracket) that leads to a canaliculus (black arrow). (I) High magnification TEM of
the infected cavity in H demonstrating mitotic S. aureus in the live cortical bone (25,000). Note that only the bacterium entering the canaliculus has an
asymmetric septal plane (red arrows), which is aligned perpendicularly with the canaliculus orifice, perhaps to anchor and propel the emerging daughter
cell into the submicron channel in the cortical bone during binary fission.

Journal of Bone and Mineral Research S. AUREUS IN CANALICULI OF CORTICAL BONE IN MURINE MODELS OF OSTEOMYELITIS 987
Fig. 2. In vivo and in vitro evidence of proliferating S. aureus through canaliculi and submicron pores. Mice (n ¼ 5) received a femoral osteotomy that was
infected with UAMS-1 DSpA, and were fed BrdU in their drinking water continuously postoperation until euthanasia on day 14. (A) Light microscopy
image (4) of the toluidine blue–stained cortical bone section containing a defect (yellow bracket) leading to a canaliculus (black bracket) colonized with
S. aureus, which was interrogated by immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). (B) Low (15,000 boxed region in A), (C) high (40,000 boxed region in B), and
(D) ultrahigh (boxed region in C enlarged from 150,000 original) magnification of IEM images of BrdU-positive S. aureus. Note the rod-shaped bacterium
with a diameter of 0.36-mm at the leading edge of bacterial infiltration (C), and the immunogold-labeled chromosome (12 nm black dots in D) confirming
BrdU incorporation. IEM on S. aureus–infected femurs from mice that were not fed BrdU were all negative for immunogold labeling (data not shown).
(E) Our in vitro transwell culture system loads via an open chamber on the topside (white arrow), through which GFPþ UAMS-1 in TSB medium is placed
onto a 0.4-mm-thick silicon nitride submicron porous (0.5 mm in diameter) membrane. Note left and right access channels (black arrows) for loading TSB
medium into the underside reservoir, which is a sealed chamber that is physically separated from the topside of the submicron porous membrane.
(F) SEM (15,000) of the static biofilm that forms on the top surface of the membrane at 3 hours. Validation of GFPþ UAMS-1 migration through the
submicron pores is shown by confocal fluorescent microscopy of the bacteria (G top view) and a 3D reconstructed image of five confocal slices (H).
S. aureus migration through the submicron pores via proliferation is evidenced by low (I: 2000) and high (J: 12,000) magnification SEM imaging of the
underside of the membrane demonstrating extrusion of the bacteria at 6.5 hours. (K) The increase in GFPþ S. aureus occupancy of the submicron pores
was quantified via real-time fluorescent confocal microcopy from the topside of the membrane, and the data are presented as the mean of three
independent experiments  SEM in which the plateau (saturation time) is estimated at 35.6 min (95% CI, 25.8 to 45.4 min;  p < 0.05 versus 5 minutes).
(L–P) Representative fluorescent images (60) from the topside obtained at 15-min intervals from 0 to 60 min are shown to illustrate the increase in pore
occupation over the first 30 min, and subsequent saturation thereafter.

the membrane, and collected through to the underside of the Results

membrane, were acquired at 15-min intervals to quantify pore
occupancy and migration of GFPþ bacteria through the pores.
SEM was also performed as described(5) to document the static
biofilm growth on the topside, and visualize bacteria emerging (at
6.5 hours) through the submicron pores from the underside.
Consistent with prior radiology, histology, and SEM studies of
uninfected controls with the tibia implant and femoral
osteotomy models,(4,5) TEM analyses did not identify bacteria
in murine long bones (n ¼ 5 per experiment; n ¼ 15 total) that

988 DE MESY BENTLEY ET AL. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research

were not challenged with S. aureus (data not shown).
Additionally, consistent with some reports,(15–17) TEM analysis
of five infected tibias and 10 infected femurs rarely demon-
strated colonized bone cells (osteoblasts/bone lining cells,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts) that are reported in some
publications.(6–9) In contrast, we readily observed S. aureus
within canaliculi of live cortical bone, which existed as chains of
individual cocci and submicron rod-shaped bacteria leading to
biofilm bacteria in large canaliculi and osteocyte lacunae (Fig. 1).
Further scrutiny of these TEM images revealed several remark-
able features of S. aureus invasion and colonization of the live
cortical bone tissue, as evidenced by bacteria filled canaliculi
(10-mm away from osteocytes) and lacunae (Fig. 1A–D). The
first is differential colonization based on location, as evidenced
by the severely infected, moderately infected, and uninfected
parallel osteocytic lacunar-canaliculi (Fig. 1E). Another remark-
able finding was the extent of S. aureus deformation in the
narrowest canaliculi, which limited the bacterial diameter to
20% of its native 1.0 to 1.5-mm size (Fig. 1F). Of note is that the
features of UAMS-1–infected bone could also be found in tibias
and femurs colonized with USA300LAC, and no obvious
differences between strains were observed, suggesting similar
colonization mechanisms between MSSA and MRSA strains (Fig.
1G). Last, we observed two unprecedented apparent features of
S. aureus at the entrance of a canaliculus (Fig. 1H, I). The first is
metamorphosis from conventional rounded cocci to rod-shaped
bacteria oriented to enter the canaliculus. The second is
asymmetric binary fission in which the septal plane is aligned
perpendicular to the canaliculus, perhaps to anchor the
bacterium and propel the developing daughter cell into the
submicron bone channel. Collectively, these static data may
suggest that S. aureus is a “motile” organism in vivo, which uses
this hitherto unreported behavior to invade and colonize live
cortical bone in a mammalian host.
To further define the mechanism of S. aureus motility in
bone, we performed IEM following in vivo BrdU labeling of
infected mice (Fig. 2A–D). The results confirmed that deformed
S. aureus at the leading edge of submicron canaliculi undergo
proliferation in vivo, as determined by BrdU incorporation into
the bacterial chromosome. This finding is consistent with an
extrusion motility mechanism in which S. aureus: (1) enters
submicron bone channels via asymmetric binary fission; and
(2) migrates along canaliculi to invade osteocyte lacunae via
proliferation at the leading edge. Because in vivo dynamic
imaging of this process is not possible, we generated an in
vitro transwell model to document S. aureus migration
through submicron pores with real time fluorescent imaging
of GFPþ UAMS-1 (Fig. 2E–P). We also performed SEM of the
underside of the membrane, which confirmed extrusion of
actively divided bacteria transmigrating through the 0.5-mm
pores.
Discussion
Due to its ability to cause an assortment of serious infectious
diseases, S. aureus has been intensely studied for centuries. It
has been over 200 years since Sir Benjamin Brodie described
musculoskeletal infections likely caused by this microbe in his
1813 treatise Pathological Researches Respecting the Diseases of
Joints,(18) and the lesion that is now commonly referred to as a
“Brodie’s abscess” from his first description of subacute
osteomyelitis.(19) As a result, we have a general understanding
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research S. AUREUS IN CANALICULI OF CORTICAL BONE IN MURINE MODELS OF OSTEOMYELITIS
of this bacterial species, which has been historically defined as
non-motile cocci, based on the absence of any discernible
motility structures (ie, flagella, cilia, pseudopods), and its
morphology during both planktonic and biofilm growth.(20)
This definition is also consistent with the most recent
pathogenesis studies, which demonstrated that S. aureus
utilizes an array of virulence genes to establish immune
privileged staphylococcal abscess communities (SAC) during
chronic infection of soft tissues.(21) However, a complete
explanation of chronic osteomyelitis, and why extensive
surgical debridement beyond the margins often fails to
eradicate S. aureus bone infections (ie, reinfection rates
following revision surgery for MRSA-infected total joint
replacements have been reported to be up to 40%(22))
remains elusive. Thus, identifying the nature and location of
the S. aureus reservoir in chronic osteomyelitis is of critical
importance.
Here we utilized TEM to analyze two murine models of bone
infection, which demonstrated bacteria reside within canal-
iculi of the infected bone. Thus, these data provide strong
evidence that S. aureus colonization of the osteocytic lacunar-
canaliculi network within live bone could be an important
reason these infections are incurable. Moreover, we observed
what appears to be a novel motility mechanism that allows
S. aureus to: (1) identify canaliculi in cortical bone; (2) deform
from spherical cocci into submicron rod-shaped bacteria; and
(3) propagate throughout these channels, potentially via
haptotaxis (cell migration defined by the 3D structure of the
extracellular matrix), durotaxis (cell migration defined by the
rigidity of the extracellular matrix), and asymmetric binary
fission.
There are several noteworthy limitations to this study. The first
is that the results from prototypic MSSA and MRSA cannot be
generalized to all S. aureus strains. Similarly, we utilized a
prototypic Th2 host (Balb/c), and thus subsequent studies in a
Th1 host (ie, C57B/6) are warranted.(23,24) Additionally, we used
8-week-old to 10-week-old growing mice with cortical bone
containing primary Haversian systems to represent a condition
that most often occurs in the adult human skeleton in which
many cycles of remodeling have occurred. Thus, additional
experiments to confirm similar S. aureus invasion of aged cortical
bone tissue are needed. Finally, genetic screens utilizing our in
vitro real-time imaging of S. aureus migration through a
submicron membrane filter are warranted to identify the genes
involved and develop potential novel antibiotics to prevent and
treat osteomyelitis.
Disclosures
All authors state that they have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from AOTrauma (Davos,
Switzerland); National Institutes of Health, Grant numbers: P30
AR069655, P50AR054041, S10RR026542, and T32AR53459. We
thank Gayle Schneider of the URMC Electron Microscope
Shared Resource Laboratory for her technical assistance of
serial thin sectioning for TEM; Drs. Linda Callahan and Paivi
Jordan of the Confocal and Conventional Microscopy Shared
Resource; and Dr. Christopher A. Beck for biostatistical
support.
989
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