Name : Nunung Mardianti

NIM : 170212859010

Chapter I Language learning in Early Childhood

In this chapter, there are several issues that will be discussed related to language acquisition
especially how children acquire their first language. Besides, there are also some theories and reasult
of studies about first language acquisition.

The first three years: Milestones and developmental sequences

In the early vocalization, crying is what babies do when they are hungry or feel
uncomfortable. Although they have little control over the sounds they make in these early weeks of
life, babies are able to hear very subtle differences between sounds of human languages. Peter Eimas
and his colleagues (1971) in their experiment showed that babies can hear the differences between
"pa" and 'ba'.
In their first year, most babies are able to understand a few frequently repeated words.
Waving when someone says 'bye-bye', clapping when someone says 'pat-a cake', immediately going
the kitchen when someone says 'juice and cookies' are the example of whether they understand words.
They also will start to produce a word or two that everyone recognize.
By the age of two, most children can produce around fifty different words or more. They
begin to combine words into simple sentences like 'Mommy juice' which is called 'telegraphic'
because they omit the articles, prepositions and auxiliary verbs.
In the 1960s, one of the best-known studies conducted by Roger Brown and his colleagues
about language development of three children (Adam, Eve and Sarah) found that fourteen
grammatical morphemes were acquired in a similar sequence. The list of morphemes are:

-present progressive -ing (Mommy running)

-plural -s (Two books)
-irregular past forms (Baby went)
-possessive 's (Daddy's hat)
-copula (Annie is happy)
-articles the and a
-regular past -ed (She walked)
-third person singular simple present -s (She runs)
-auxiliary be (He is coming)

From the study, it was found that children who master the grammatical morphemes at the
bottom of the list was sure to have mastered those at the top, but not from the bottom to the top of list.

Negation
The children learn to comment on the disappearance of objects, to refuse a suggestion, or
reject an assertion, even at the single word stage.

Stage 1 Negation is usually expressed by the word 'no' No cookie.

No comb hair.
Stage 2 Utterances grow longer and the sentence subject may Daddy no comb hair.
be included. The negative word appears just before the Don’t touch that!
verb using word 'dont'
Stage 3 The negative element is inserted into a more complex I can't do it.
sentence. Children may add forms of the negative other He don't want it.
than 'no', including words like 'can't' and 'don’t'.
Stage 4 Children begin to attach the negative element to the You didn’t have supper. She
correct form of auxiliary verbs such as 'do' and 'be' doesn’t want it.

Questions
The challenge of learning complex language systems is also illustrated in the developmental
stages through which children learn to ask questions.There is a consistency in the way children learn
to form questions in English.

Stage Example
Stage 1 Children's earliest questions are single words or simple Cookie? Mummy book?
two- or three-word sentences with rising intonation.
At the same time, they may produce some correcr Where's Daddy? What's that?
questions-correct because they have been learned as
chunks
Stage 2 As they begin to ask more new questions, children use You like this? I have some?
the word order of the declarative sentence, with rising
intonation.
They continue to produce the correct chunk-learned What's that?
forms.
Stage 3 Children notice that the structure of questions is Can I go? Are you happy?
different and begin to produce question.
Stage 4 Some questions are formed by subject-auxiliary Are you going to play with me?
inversion. At this stage, children can even add 'do' in Do dogs like ice cream?
questions
Stage 5 Bboth wh- and 'yes/no' questions are formed correctly.
Are these your boots?
Why did you do that?
Negative questions may still be a bit too difficult. Why the teddy bear can’t go
outside?
But when wt- words appear in subordinate clauses or Ask him why cant he go out.
embedded questions, children overgeneralize the
inverted form that would be correct for simple
questions and produce sentences.

Stage 6 At this stage, children are able to correctly form all

question types, including negative and complex
embedded questions.

The pre-school years

Generally, by age four the children have mastered the basic structures of the language or
languages spoken to them in these early years. Three- and four year- olds continue to learn vocabulary
at the rate of several words a day. They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic
structures such as passives and relative clauses. In late four-year, the children develop their ability to
use tha language in a widening social environment. They use language in a greater variety of
situations. They also interact more often with unfimiliar adults. In the pre-school years, they also
develop Metalinguistic Awareness, refers to the ability to treat the language as an object separate from
the meaning it conveys.
The school years
Many words are acquired in early childhood, when the repetition of ordinary events and
experiences provides a great deal of exposure to a limited number of words. Children enter school
with the ability to understand and produce hundreds or even a few thousand words. Many more are
learned at school. Accroding to Nagy, Herman, and Anderson (1985) vocabulary grows at a rate
between several hundred and more than a thousand words a year, depending mainly on how much and
how widely children read. Furthermore, Dee Gardner (2004) suggest that reading a variety of text
types is essentiao part of vocabulary growth.

Another important development in the school years is the acquisition of different language registers.
Children learn how written language differs from spoken language, how the language used to speak to
the principal is different from the language of the playground, how the language of a science report is
different from the language of a narrative.

Explaining first langauge acquisition

Over the past fifty years, three main theoretical positions have been advanced to explain it
(behaviourist, innatist, and interactional/developmental perspectives).
The behaviourist perspective
Behaviourism was an infuential theory of learning in the 1940s and 1950s, especially in US,
by B. F. Skinner. The hypothesis is that when children imitated the language produced by those
around them, their attempts to reproduce what they heard received 'positive reinforcement'. Thus
encouraged by their environment, children would continue to imitate and practise these sounds and
patterns until they formed 'habits' of correct language use. Hence, the quality, quantity and
consistency of the reinforcement would shape the child's language behaviour.
The behaviourists viewed imitation and practice as the primary processes in language
development. Children appear to imitate words selectively based on something new that they have
just begun to understand and use, not simply on what is 'available' in the environment. However,
imitation and practice alone cannot explain some of the forms created by the children. They are not
just repeat sentences that they have heard from adults. However, although behaviourism goes some
way to explaining the sorts of overgeneralization that children make, classical behaviourism cannot
succesfully axplain the acquisition of the more complex grammar that children acquire. Thus,
behaviourists failed to account for the logical problem of language acquisition.

Innatist perspective
Innatists believe that all human languages are based on some innate universal principles.
Noam Chomsky, one of the most influential linguists argued that children are biologically
programmed for language that language develops in the child has the same way that other bilogical
functions develop. In first language acquisition, the environment makes only a basic contribution.
By the exposure of false starts, incomplete sentence, and slips of tongue, the children may
learn to distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. He concluded that children's
minds are not a blank slates to be filled by imitating language they hear in the environment, instead,
childreb are born with a specific innate ability to acquire the underlying rules of a language system
that they are exposed to.
Children achieve different levels of vocabulary, creativity, social grace, and so on, but
virtually all achieve the ability to use the patterns of the language or languages spoken to them. This is
seen as support for the hypothesis that language is somehow separate from other aspects of cognitive
developement and may depend on a specific module of the brain.

Critical Period Hypothesis

Critical Period Hypothesis refers to the hypothesis that animals, including humans are
generally programmed to acquire certain kinds of acknowledge and skill at specific times in life.
Beyond those critical periods, it is rather difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities. In relation
to language acquisition, CPH believe that children who are not provided to language in early
childhood will never acquire language if these deprivations go on too long. The most famous cases are
taken from Victor and Genie.
In 1799, Victor, a twelve-year-old boy who was found naked, wild and no contact with
humans in the woods. Whereas two hundred years later, Genie, a thirteen-year-old girl who had been
isolated, neglected and abused was discover in California. These terrible condition contributes on their
inability to produce any languages. However, it is difficult to argue that the hypothesis is confirmed
on the basis of evidence from such unusual cases. It is not possible to determine whether either of
them suffered from brain damage, developmental delays, or a specific language impairment, even
before they were separated from normal human interaction.

Interactionist/developmental perspectives
Developmental and cognitive psycologists have focused on the interplay between the innate
learning ability of children and the environment in which they develop. In their view, language
acquicition is human child’s ability to learn from experience, and there are specific brain structure
devoted to language acquicition. Researcher such as Dan Slobin (1973) have long emphasized the
close relationship between children’s cognitive developemnet and their acquicition.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Jean Piaget (1951), one of the psychologists whose view that children's language is built on
their cognitive development. He argued that the developing cognitive understanding is built on the
interaction between the child and the things that can be observed or manipulated. For Piaget, language
was one of a number of symbol systems that are developed in childhood. Language can be used to
represent knowledge that children have acquired through physical interaction with the environment.
In contrast, another psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) argued that language develops
primarily from social interaction. He stated that in a supportive interactive environment, children are
able to advance of knowledge and performance. He mentions Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
which refers to the metaphorical place in which the children could do more that they would be capable
of independently. Based on his observation that the importance of language the children have with
adults and with other children and saw in these conversations the origins of both language and
thought.

Cross-cultural Research
One result of the crosscultural research is the description of the differences in childrearing
patterns. Catherine Snow (1995) and others have studied the apparent effects on language acquisition
of the ways in which adults talk to and interact with young children.In middle-class North American
homes, researchers observed that adults often modify the way they speak when talking to little
children. This child-directed speech may be characterized by a slower rate of delivery, higher pitch,
more varied intonation, shorter, simpler sentence patterns, stress on key words, frequent repetition,
and paraphrase. Thus, in every society, children are in situations in which they hear language that is
meaningful to them in their environment. And they achieve full competence in the community
language.

The importanceof interaction

The role of interaction between a language-learning child and an interlocutor who responds in
some way to the child is illuminated by cases where such interaction is missing. Altough children are
exposed to the target language, they would not acquire the language optimally if there is no
interaction. One-to-one interaction gives the child access to language that is adjusted to his or her
lever of comprehension. When a child does not understand, the adult may repeat or paraphrase. The
response of the adult may also allow children to find out when their own utterances are understood.
Connectionism
believed that the language acquisition is possible because of children’s general cognitive
capacities and the vast number of opportunities they have to make connections between the language
they hear and what they experience in their environment. They usage-based prespective on language
acquisition differs from the behaviourist view in that the emphasis is more on the child’s ability to
create networks of associations rather than on processes of imitation and habit formation.this also
differs sharply from the innatists’ because language acquisition is not seen as requiring a separate
‘module of the mind’ but rather depends on the child’s general learning abilities and the contribution
of the environment.

Language disorders and delays

In acquiring the first language, we cannot say that all children can develop their language
acquisition without significant difficulty or delay. There are several kinds of language disability;
deafness, articulatory problems, dyslexia, etc. It is importanve that parents and teachers be encouraged
to seek professional advice of they feel that a xhild is not developing the language normally.

Childhood Bilingualism.
Children who learn more than one language from earliest childhood are reffered to as
‘simultanous bilinguals’ whereas those who learn another language later may be called ‘sequential
bilinguals’. If one language is heard much more often than the other or is more highly valued in the
community, that language may eventually be used better than, or in preference to, the other.
When the children learn second language, the parents should maintain the home language.
maintaning the family language allows children to retain family connections with grandparents or
relative who do not speak the new language. the positive effect of bilingualism or multilingual is to
increase opportunities for cross-cultural communication and economic cooperation among people.
Developing a second language takes a year. But teacher, parents and students need to know that the
many benefits of learning other language.